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Studies of Immunization With Living Rubella Virus
Abstract
A SEVERE epidemic of rubella appeared throughout a large part of the United States early in 1964, resulting in infection of many pregnant women.1,2 During the last months of 1964 and early in 1965 numerous infants were born with congenital abnormalities, including cataracts, congenital heart disease, thrombocytopenia, hepatosplenomegaly, bone lesions, and central nervous system damage.3,4 A causal relationship between maternal rubella and congenital abnormalities had been established over the past 20 years by clinical and epidemiologic observation.5-9 More recently, the relationship has been substantiated by serological studies of newborn infants with abnormalities10-12 as well as by the frequent recovery of rubella virus from these same infants.3,4,13,14 The incidence of congenital abnormalities due to the 1964 rubella epidemic is as yet incompletely assessed, but early estimates have ranged between 0.3% to 4.0% of infants in utero during the epidemic.4,15,16
This current experience, in addition to
... What is needed is not the ID so but the minimal ID, which would apply to the most susceptible laboratory worker. It seems obvious that any material containing 1000 human infective doses per ml can cause problems in some experiments., 1967) Coxsackie A21 (Couch, 1965; Gerone, 1966) Inhalation <18 28 Poliovirus I (Koprowski, 1956; Dulbecco, Ingestion 2b!,~ 75 1954) Adenovirus 7 (Couch, 1963) Conjunctival swab 320 4 Adenovirus 7 (Plotkin, 1967; Couch, 1963Kasel, 1963; Knight, 1963) Conjunctival swab 30 13 Influenza A2 (Alford, 1965) Nasopharyngeal <790 32 Influenza A2 (Knight, 1967) Inhalation 3 II Parainfluenza I (Plotkin, 1967) Nasal drops <1.5 21 Rubella (Green, 1965) Pharyngeal spray Ib! 8 Rubella (Plotkin, 1965) Subcutaneous 3011/,[, 1966a; Cate, 1965) Inhalation <I 43,8 ...
... Sera and nasal washings were obtained from five patients with naturally acquired rubella, these being collected in the acute phase of disease and at 3 weeks, 6 weeks, 12 weeks, 6 months and 1 year after onset. Similar samples were obtained from four groups of five vaccinees, volunteers from each group having been inoculated subcutaneously with one of the following vaccines: Cendehill (Huygelen & Peetermans, 1967), HPV77.DE-5 (Buynak et al., 1968), RA27/3 (Plotkin, Cornfeld & Ingalls, 1965) and To-336 (Best et al., 1974). RA27/3 was administered intranasally (Plotkin et al., 1968) to a further five volunteers. ...
A radioactive, single radial immunodiffusion technique (RSRID) employing 125I-labelled antiglobulins, was developed to determine rubella-specific serum IgG and IgA and nasopharyngeal IgA antibody responses following both naturally acquired rubella and vaccination with four attenuated vaccines. Rubella-specific IgG antibodies developed in parallel with haemagglutination inhibiting (HAI) antibodies and both persisted for at least a year in all cases of naturally acquired and vaccine induced infection. However, the RSRID test detected rises in titre in all of five volunteers challenged intranasally with RA27/3, whereas only one volunteer showed a rise by HAI. Serum IgA antibodies generally persisted for at least a year following naturally acquired infection but rubella vaccines induced variable responses. Thus, following administration of RA27/3 and To-336 vaccines, rubella-specific IgA usually persisted for a year, whereas Cendehill vaccine failed to induce a detectable response. Rubella-specific nasopharyngeal IgA was detected in all five patients following naturally acquired infection and was still present in the only two patients tested a year after infection. These antibodies were detected in fourteen of twenty-three vaccinees at 3 weeks, but persisted for a year in only two vaccinees, both of whom were given RA27/3 intranasally.
... The fetus was surgically aborted seventeen days after maternal illness and dissected immediately… It was then grown on WI-38." 21 The new vaccine was tested on children at a Roman Catholic orphanage in Philadelphia. It is documented that there were other effective virus strains already made at that time which had been obtained from other non-abortion-related methods. ...
So far, this text has examined the foundations of ethical practice in history and professionalism. We then considered several specific topics: reproductive ethics, end of life, and conscience rights. This chapter will focus on certain specific additional topics not previously discussed. We’ll begin with the fascinating subject of vaccines and their ethical controversies. We’ll then discuss ethical controversies arising during a pandemic crisis, followed by the ethics of unproven treatments.
This opinion addresses the licitness, quasi-benefits, and consequences of using aborted fetal tissue in vaccines and in medical research. The Catholic Church permits temporary use of vaccines generated using aborted fetal tissue to protect children from preventable diseases until alternative vaccines that do not use aborted fetal tissue are available. In medical research, cell lines that were generated from elective abortions should be avoided and alternative cell lines of licit origin utilized. The association between in utero Zika virus infections and microcephaly has increased the demand for fetal tissue to establish causality and to understand disease progression. These studies require extensive oversight as they could directly encourage elective abortions. The consequence of the use of fetal tissue from elective abortions is desensitization of beneficiaries to the original illicit act of abortion thereby obscuring the value of all human life and potentially leading to scandal.
Summary: The use of fetal tissue from elective abortions is commonplace in the pharmaceutical industry and in medical research. This opinion addresses the licitness, quasi-benefits, and consequences of using fetal tissue from elective abortions in vaccines and in medical research. All people of good conscience have the responsibility to voice opposition to the use of fetal tissue from elective abortions in order to promote development of alternatives, affirm the value of all human life and limit scandal.
This opinion addresses the licitness, quasi-benefits, and consequences of using aborted fetal tissue in vaccines and in medical research. The Catholic Church permits temporary use of vaccines generated using aborted fetal tissue to protect children from preventable diseases until alternative vaccines that do not use aborted fetal tissue are available. In medical research, cell lines that were generated from elective abortions should be avoided and alternative cell lines of licit origin utilized. The association between in utero Zika virus infections and microcephaly has increased the demand for fetal tissue to establish causality and to understand disease progression. These studies require extensive oversight as they could directly encourage elective abortions. The consequence of the use of fetal tissue from elective abortions is desensitization of beneficiaries to the original illicit act of abortion thereby obscuring the value of all human life and potentially leading to scandal.
Summary: The use of fetal tissue from elective abortions is commonplace in the pharmaceutical industry and in medical research. This opinion addresses the licitness, quasi-benefits, and consequences of using fetal tissue from elective abortions in vaccines and in medical research. All people of good conscience have the responsibility to voice opposition to the use of fetal tissue from elective abortions in order to promote development of alternatives, affirm the value of all human life and limit scandal.
Sugarcane bagasse is a fibrous material and an excellent bioresource for biogenic silica. Moreover, sugarcane bagasse has low production costs and is a sustainable precursor for the synthesis of biogenic silica nanoparticles (BSNPs). In this study, we synthesized BSNPs using sugarcane bagasse. The acid pretreatment of sugarcane was carried out in an autoclave, which eliminates metal ions and promotes the hydrolysis of organic substances. Residues of the acid pretreatment were incinerated at different temperatures to determine the role of temperature on the formation of BSNPs. The crystalline nature and morphology of the prepared BSNPs were analyzed using X-ray diffraction analysis and transmission electron microscopy. The X-ray diffraction analysis result indicates that the prepared BSNPs have an amorphous nature. Transmission electron microscopy images confirmed that the BSNPs have an irregular shape with a porous morphology. The biocompatibility of BSNPs was studied by assessing their effect on human lung fibroblast cell viability, morphology, mitochondrial function, reactive oxygen species, and gene expression. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assays and microscopy studies suggested that BSNPs do not affect cell viability or morphology. BSNPs slightly affect the mitochondrial membrane potential at high doses. In addition, BSNPs decreased the percentage of human lung fibroblast cell in G1 and G2/M phases and increased the S population. These studies revealed that the BSNPs were biocompatible, indicating that they may be applicable for biomedical applications. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 2015.
A book published in 1999 hypothesized that the scientists who worked with the CHAT type 1 attenuated poliomyelitis strain,
tested in the former Belgian Congo in the late 1950s, had covertly prepared the vaccine in chimpanzee kidney cells contaminated
with a simian immunodeficiency virus, which evolved into human immunodeficiency virus type 1 group M. This article summarizes
the results of the investigation conducted by the author to determine the legitimacy of the accusation. Testimony by eyewitnesses,
historical documents of the time, epidemiological analysis, and analysis of ancillary phylogenetic, virological, and polymerase
chain reaction data all indicate that this hypothesis is false.
Determinou-se os níveis de anticorpos neutralizantes contra rubéola em 778 soros de igual número de pacientes que freqüentam o ambulatório da Casa Maternal Leonor Mendes de Barros. Destas 778 mulheres, 600 (77,12%) apresentavam níveis de anticorpos iguais ou superiores a 4 (diluição 1:4). Em relação à idade, o grupo examinado, com uma idade média de 25,6 anos, permite verificar que no grupo etário de 15 a 19 anos a freqüência de pacientes com anticorpos na diluição 1:4 ou maior é de 79,43%; no grupo de 20 a 24 anos, 75,69%; no de 25 a 29, 77,38%; de 30 a 34, 82,50%; de 35 a 39, 75,68% e de 40 a 44, 50.00%. A comparação dos resultados obtidos em cada grupo etário da amostra examinada, mostra que os percentuais de positividade das idades compreendidas entre 15 e 39 anos são muito próximas, sendo que o grupo de 40 a 44 anos apresenta um percentual notadamente menor de pacientes com anticorpos. Esta discordância demonstrou-se estatisticamente significativa ao nível de 0,01. No que se refere à cor, das 350 gestantes de cor branca, 79,14% apresentaram anticorpos nos níveis mencionados anteriormente; das 90 pacientes de cor preta, 75,56%; das 317 mulheres grávidas de cor parda, 75,71% e das 21 gestantes de cor amarela, 71,43% possuiam níveis de anticorpos. Para inquéritos sôro-epidemiológicos de larga escala, a prova de neutralização apresenta inconvenientes de ordem prática pelo que se faz necessário estudar mais amplamente a correlação dos resultados desta técnica com aqueles fornecidos por outros, entre as quais se destaca, sem dúvida, a reação de inibição da hemaglutinação.
Observations upon the growth of four strains of rubella virus in human diploid cell strains (HDCS) are reported. Sixtythree cell strains, derived from 29 fetuses by means of an organ culture technique, were studied. All HDCS tested were susceptible to rubella virus, and a chronic infection could be established readily in them. The virus multiplied and was continuously produced at a low level for a maximum of 27 weeks while cell subcultivation proceeded normally. Stationary cell populations produced virus for at least 30 weeks. Experiments to define the growth curves of rubella virus were performed in skin and lung cell strains. Strains of lung cell origin yielded greater amounts of virus than skin cell strains. Both growth curve and chronic infection experiments showed that a maximum of approximately 30% of the cells were infected at any given time. Pharyngeal mucosa cells were stored for three months in the frozen state while chronically infected with rubella. Their life history and virus yield after resuscitation did not differ from unfrozen cells.
Following the landmark discovery of the Enders lab that led directly to the successful development and deployment of polio
vaccines, investigators turned their attention to addressing the other, common viral diseases of childhood. Over the next
two decades, these efforts would yield vaccine dividends against three of the most important causes of viral disease and would
dramatically and favorably alter the global landscape of infectious diseases.
A rubella virus strain (Cendehill strain) was carried through serial passages in primary rabbit kidney tissue cultures at 34° C and at 28° C. A cytopathic effect was consistently observed in these cells, when low serum concentrations were used in the medium.
Experimental batches of freezedried rubella virus vaccine were produced at several passage levels.
Rubella is not one of those diseases whose origins are lost in antiquity. Unknown until the end of the eighteenth century,
it remained an unimportant rash disease for almost 200 years, when it was discovered to be a fetal teratogen. Twenty years
later, the viral agent of rubella was isolated, and vaccines were developed and commercialized within 10 years. By 5 years
postlicensure, an impact on rubella incidence was evident, but another 5 years were required, together with changes in public
health policy towards more universal vaccination, before congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) became rare.
The Japanese live attenuated KRT rubella vaccine strain has a temperature sensitivity (ts) phenotype. The objective of this study is to identify the region responsible for this phenotype. Genomic sequences of the KRT strain and the wild-type strain (RVi/Matsue.JPN/68) with the non-ts phenotype were investigated and reverse genetic systems (RG) for these strains were developed. The ts phenotype of KRT varied drastically on replacement of the p150 gene (encoding a methyltransferase and a nonstructural protease). Analysis of four chimeric viruses showed the region responsible for the ts phenotype to be located between Bsm I and Nhe I sites (genome position 2803-3243). There were two amino acid differences at positions 1007 and 1042. Mutations were introduced into the KRT cDNA clone, designated G1007D, H1042Y and G1007D-H1042Y. H1042Y and G1007D-H1042Y grew well at a restrictive temperature with a 100-fold higher titer than G1007D and the KRT strain, but a 10-fold lower titer than RVi/Matsue.JPN/68. Since the growth of H1042Y was not completely the same as that of the wild-type strain at the restrictive temperature, we also assessed whether other genomic regions have an additive effect with H1042Y on the ts phenotype. H1042Y-RViM SP having structural proteins of RVi/Matsue.JPN/68 grew better than H1042Y, similar to RVi/Matsue.JPN/68. Thus, we concluded that one mutation, of the histidine at position 1042 of p150, was essential for the ts phenotype of the KRT strain, and structural proteins of KRT had an additive effect with H1042Y on the ts phenotype.
Rubella-specific immunoglobulin responses in sera and nasopharyngeal secretions were compared in groups of adult females who had experienced naturally acquired rubella or infection induced by Cendehill, HPV77.DE-5, RA27/3 (subcutaneously and intranasally), and To-336 vaccines. Serum IgG and IgA and nasopharyngeal IgA responses after vaccination by RA27/3 intranasally most closely resembled those induced by naturally acquired infection. However, the other vaccines failed to induce a persistent local IgA response. Levels of local antibody induced by HPV77.DE-5 were especially poor. Virus-specific IgM was detected for prolonged periods. The highest levels and the most persistent response followed vaccination by HPV77.DE-5, four of five volunteers still having rubella-specific IgM at 1 year. Virus-specific IgM persisted for 6 months in seventeen of twenty-five (68%) and for a year in nine of twenty-four (38%) vaccinees. It was still present in four of nine (44%) naturally infected patients at a year.
With the diminishing supply of the human fetal lung WI-38 cell strain, a replacement for viral isolation is needed. Two candidates are the human fetal lung strains MRC-5 and IMR-90. A comparison of WI-38, MRC-5, and IMR-90 was performed to evaluate efficiency and speed of viral isolation, clarity of cytophatic effect, and ease of growing the cells. The inocula were clinical specimens rather than tissue culture-adapted isolates. Frozen samples of 46 specimens that had previously yielded an isolate on WI-38 were thawed and inoculated onto WI-38, MRC-5, and IMR-90 cells. In addition, 95 freshly taken clinical specimens uf undetermined infectivity were inoculated onto the cell strains. Viral recovery rates were similar on all three strains, as were the appearance and speed of onset of the cytophatic effect. MRC-5 and WI-38 cells remained healthy until generation 36, whereas IMR-90 cells went into crisis by generation 20. The longer life span of the MRC-5 cells makes them more suitable than IMR-90 cells to replace the WI-38 strain for routine use in viral diagnosis.
A total of 1525 schoolgirls aged 13 years from 21 schools in the County Borough of Dudley, were bled for titration of rubella haemagglutinating inhibiting antibody and then were immediately vaccinated with either Wistar RA 27/3 or Cendehill strain live attenuated. Both vaccines were administered subcutaneously by syringe and needle but the Wistar RA 27/3 vaccine was also given by multiple injection apparatus. Significnatly higher conversion rates and geometric mean haemagglutinating inhibiting antibody titres were obtained in girls initially seronegative given the Wister RA 27/3 than in those given the Cendehill vaccine, regardless of the method of vaccination. The RA 27/3 strain was associated with a small but significantly greater incidence of local pain immediately on injection. With this exception, differences in the occurrence of reactions were not found between vaccines, between those initially susceptible and immune or with the level of antibody response.
The RA27/3 strain of rubella virus, which is an effective attenuated strain when given subcutaneously, is also immunogenic when given intranasally. Given in a dose of 1000 plaque-forming units (P.F.U.) in the form of nose drops, the virus produced antibodies in 93% of subjects (mainly children); a dose of 100 P.F.U. immunised 50% of subjects. Clinical reaction was absent except for occasional lymphadenopathy. Nasopharyngeal virus excretion was sporadic, and there was no spread to contacts. Antibody responses to intranasal vaccination were equivalent to those obtained after subcutaneous inoculation.
When tested on RK(13) cell cultures, strains of rubella virus could be differentiated by their ability to form small or large plaques. Large plaques were produced by the HPV-77 and Cendehill strains, and also by a laboratory stock strain (West Point), after only 14 passages in RK(13) culture. Five wild-type rubella viruses, isolated and passaged only a few times in African green monkey kidney tissue culture, grew well in RK(13) cell culture, but they were sensitive to agar inhibitors and, therefore, formed small plaques. On the other hand, RA27/3, an attenuated strain grown in WI-38 human fibroblast cells, developed low titers in RK(13) cells and also produced small plaques. We concluded that the morphological differences between small-plaque and large-plaque viruses depended on their sensitivity to agar inhibitors and on the pH of the medium during plaque formation.
Wistar RA 27/3 strain live attenuated rubella vaccine was administered subcutaneously or intranasally at varying titres of virus from 3·0 to 6000 TCID50 to a total of 335 students attending two teacher training colleges in Edinburgh. Doses of 3 TCID50 were fully immunogenic when given subcutaneously but equivalent results were obtained only with intranasal doses of 2000 TCID50. An intranasal immunizing dose 50% (ID50) value of 190 TCID50 was obtained. The incidence of reactions between vaccination groups was compared.
This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below.
HIGH priority is being given in the United States and Europe to the development of an effective live, attenuated rubella (German-measles) virus vaccine. To be acceptable, a rubella vaccine should cause little if any clinical reaction, should induce lasting immunity in essentially all recipients, should be noncontagious to susceptible contacts, especially pregnant women, and should be prepared with the use of a safe and acceptable cell culture. First studies by our group¹ of a highly purified and concentrated killed rubella-virus vaccine showed development in children of heat-labile (56°C) neutralizing antibodies that were not protective on challenge with live virus. Reports . . .
Source Information
* From the Division of Virus and Cell Biology Research, Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research, West Point, and the Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia (address reprint requests to Dr. Hilleman at the Division of Virus and Cell Biology Research, Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research, West Point, Pa. 19486).
Thirty-three adults were vaccinated subcutaneously with Wistar RA. 27/3 (live attenuated) rubella vaccine at the Wellcome Research Laboratories, Beckenham. All subjects with pre-vaccination haemagglutinating-inhibiting antibody titres of 1/20 or less and three of seven subjects with pre-vaccination titres of 1/40 showed at least fourfold rises of titre. Reactions encountered were mild and of short duration.
This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below.
THE intensive research effort of the past few years has greatly increased the knowledge of rubella virus and of the infections that it causes. Despite these advances the search for a live-virus vaccine has been disappointing, and there has been no published evidence that the virus could be attenuated. Several investigators have tested tissue-culture-propagated rubella viruses in man.¹²³ In these studies typical rubella with rash developed in inoculated subjects, and the disease spread to uninoculated persons. In our laboratory protracted serial passage of rubella viruses in primary African green-monkey-kidney (GMK) cell cultures provided 2 virus strains that exhibited modified biologic . . .
*From the Laboratory of Viral Immunology, Division of Biologics Standards, National Institutes of Health, United States Public Health Service, and the Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas School of Medicine.
¶Persons without detectable neutralizing antibody for rubella were considered susceptible.
We are indebted to Mr. Charles Acuff, Superintendent of the Arkansas Children's Colony, and to Mr. John Duke, Dr. Neil C. Stone, Dr. Ann Poindexter, Mrs. Anna Holloway and Mrs. Martha Gray, of the Children's Colony Staff, for co-operation and assistance.
Source Information
BETHESDA, MARYLAND, AND LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS
†Chief, Laboratory of Viral Immunology, Division of Biologics Standards.
‡Head, Section on General Virology, Laboratory of Viral Immunology, Division of Biologics Standards.
§Professor of pediatrics and chairman, Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas School of Medicine.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) has been isolated from partially purified rubella virus preparations and fractionated by rate zonal centrifugation in sucrose density gradients. The bulk of the RNA sedimented as a sharp band with a sedimentation coefficient of 38S. Rubella virus RNA appears to be single-stranded on the basis of its sensitivity to the degrading action of ribonuclease. Fractionation by precipitation with 1 m NaCl, followed by chromatography on cellulose columns, and by rate zonal centrifugation in sucrose density gradients of labeled RNA isolated from actinomycin D-treated and infected baby hamster kidney cells revealed the presence of the following virus-specific types of RNA: (i) single-stranded RNA with a heterogeneous sedimentation pattern, the 38S viral RNA becoming the predominant species only after long periods of labeling late after infection; (ii) double-stranded RNA with a sedimentation coefficient of 20S; (iii) RNA apparently composed of 20S double-stranded RNA and single-stranded branches. On the basis of their properties, the last two species were tentatively identified as the replicative form and the replicative intermediate of rubella virus RNA. Rubella virus RNA was infectious.
The congenital rubella syndrome is now recognized as a generalized systemic disease. This report reviews the pathological changes in 18 fatal cases and compares the results with previous reports. Chronic inflammation was prominent in the leptomeninges, lung, and uveal tract of the eye in most of the cases. In fewer cases, the kidney, liver, peritoneum, and testes were chronically inflamed. Noninflammatory lesions included cardiovascular anomalies, especially patent ductus arteriosus and nodular sclerosis of the cardiac valves, growth aberrations in the long bones and ribs, precocious development of lymphoid germinal centers, and adrenal cortical cytomegaly. Infection of clones of cells in the embryo causes faulty cell multiplication, and this results in the lesions and in generalized retardation of growth.
A combination vaccine is defined as a mixture of individual vaccines before administration in vivo so that the multiple vaccines are administered in an individual injection. Some vaccines for an individual disease are multivalent in that the particular pathogen has multiple types (usually serotypes). For such products, referred to as “multitype combinations,” the several types, which are of the same design, are mixed together at the time of manufacturing into a combination vaccine. Other combinations are mixtures of vaccines already licensed for different diseases. For such products, referred to as “multitarget combinations,” mixing is performed typically at three points: preferably at the time of manufacturing and filling into a single vial or syringe; alternatively by combining at the moment of injection vaccines filled into separate chambers of a dual-chambered syringe; or by mixing vaccines immediately before administration in a vial and then injecting them. This chapter describes current and potential future combinations and their rationales based on the compatibility of components and dosing schedules and discuss the numerous challenges in development, which include technical, formulation, analytical, clinical, regulatory, manufacturing, quality control, and marketing. This includes the results of clinical trials of combinations currently in development or recently licensed; key parameters include interactions among vaccines in combination affecting safety and immunological compatibility. There is detailed study on currently available combination vaccines, multitarget (combinations based on DTP, vaccines for measles-mumps-rubella-varicella, and hepatitis A-hepatitis B), multitype, and new combinations. The issues in making new combination vaccines are discussed—technical development, clinical and regulatory development, and marketing. Multitarget combinations usually have antigens of different properties, sometimes associated with different types of aluminum salts or other adjuvants or preservatives. Multitarget combinations of live-attenuated viral vaccines have viruses of different types, whereby all viruses are equally stable, making development issues most challenging.
The massive rubella epidemic of 1962–1965 stimulated the development of rubella vaccine. Once vaccines were developed, the
U.S. vaccination program, initially focused on infants and children, reduced both rubella and congenital rubella. However,
later extension of vaccination to certain older age groups achieved significantly better control. While rubella clearly is
not the perfect model for pertussis, a review of its history is illuminating. Current rubella vaccination policies resulted
from an evolution in scientific understanding. Controversies, including those related to communicability, reactivity, and
teratogenicity of the rubella vaccine virus, duration of immunity following vaccination, and protection following reinfection,
led countries to use different approaches for national immunization programs. These differences were eventually resolved by
clinical and epidemiological research coupled with rigorous scientific debate. Increased scientific understanding of pertussis,
its epidemiology, and the effects of the new pertussis vaccines will similarly enable informed decision making on whether
to extend pertussis immunization to adolescents and adults.
A book published in 1999 hypothesized that the scientists who worked with the CHAT type 1 attenuated polio strain tested in the former Belgian Congo in the late 1950s had covertly prepared the vaccine in chimpanzee kidney cells contaminated with a simian immunodeficiency virus, which evolved into HIV-1 group M. This paper summarizes the results of the investigation conducted by the author to determine the legitimacy of the accusation. Testimony by eyewitnesses, documents of the time, epidemiological analysis, and ancillary phylogenetic, virologic and PCR data all concur to reject the hypothesis as false and without factual foundation.
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