No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Retention of new words: Quantity of encounters, quality of task, and degree of knowledge
Abstract
We examined how learning new second language (L2) words was affected by three ‘task type’ conditions (reading only, reading with a dictionary, reading and word focused exercises), three ‘number of encounters’ conditions and their combinations. Three groups of L2 learners (n = 185) were exposed to 30 target words (one group in each task condition) and to three ‘number of encounters’ conditions (10 words in each condition) during 11 weeks of regular studies. Delayed unexpected post-tests tested four degrees of knowledge of the target words. Reading with word focused exercises yielded the best results, regardless of type of word knowledge and the number of encounters with the target words. The number of encounters had different effects in different task conditions. We conclude that what learners do with the word may be more important than how many times they encounter it.
... 5 Repetition: There is a very large amount of research showing the positive effects of repetition on learning (Kida 2022;Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat 2015;Pellicer-Sánchez and Schmitt 2010;Uchihara et al. 2019;Waring and Takaki 2003). The general finding is that the more repetitions there are, the more likely and stronger the learning will be. ...
... 6 Time-on-task: The research supporting this principle includes research on time-ontask (Folse 2006;Hill and Laufer 2003), fluency development (Beglar et al. 2012;Chung and Nation 2006), eye-tracking (Montero Perez et al. 2015;Pellicer-Sánchez 2016;Wang and Pellicer-Sánchez 2022), desirable difficulty (Bjork and Kroll 2015), incidental vs. deliberate learning (Lindstromberg 2020;Webb 2020), deliberate attention (Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat 2015), and the spacing of learning (Underwood 1961). Beglar et al. (2012) found that the learners who made the most reading fluency gains were learners who read the most material at the right level for them, rather than the learners who simply read the most material. ...
... There is evidence that spacing the retrievals increases the amount of time spent on each retrieval (Godfroid et al. 2018;Koval 2019). Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) found, as have many other studies reviewed by them, that adding a deliberate learning element greatly increases learning. Adding a deliberate element to a task also increases the time spent on the task, particularly compared to incidental learning. ...
Making vocabulary stick in your memory involves dedicating attention to what needs to be learned. There are three main factors involved (focus, quantity, and quality) which can be expressed as six principles (focus, accuracy, repetition, time-on-task, elaboration, and analysis). When we include motivation in this description, then there are two more principles (motivation and self-efficacy). These principles apply to both incidental and deliberate learning, and apply to a wide range of learning focuses beyond vocabulary. These principles are well supported by research evidence. We can use the principles for re-examining teaching and learning, Technique Feature Analysis, understanding research, developing autonomy in learning, guiding curriculum design, and determining future research needs. The factors and principles provide a simple and clear view of what is needed for learning to occur from the viewpoint of attention.
... Furthermore, researchers have also investigated to what extent post-reading activities, such as translation tasks and comprehension tasks, may further boost vocabulary learning. The findings emerging from those studies show that the combination of reading and post-reading activities is more beneficial for fostering vocabulary growth than reading only (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Peters, 2012aPeters, , 2012b. ...
... In a similar line of research, Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) investigated L2 vocabulary learning by comparing word retention rates in either or a combination of different task-type conditions (viz. reading only, reading with a dictionary, and reading and word-focused exercises), and different number-of-encounters conditions. ...
... As for the significance of this study, while to date, some studies have focused on L2 teaching and learning through reading comic books (see Cimermanová, 2014;Russi, 2017;Sadam, 2018), the number of studies on vocabulary learning from comics are still scarce (see Horst & Meara, 1999). Given the beneficial effects of post-reading activities (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Peters, 2012b), this study also explored how using freshly encountered words in speech and writing may affect lexical gains, as little research has looked into the effect of spontaneous word use in post-reading activities to further lexical gains. ...
Despite empirical evidence from research showing that the use of text-picture combination is beneficial for second language (L2) learning, little is known about the effectiveness of reading comic books for incidental vocabulary acquisition. This study investigated the effects of engaging with comic books on incidental learning of L2 Italian vocabulary. Using a pretest-posttest design, we collected data from 35 Iranian learners of Italian as a foreign language, 25 of whom read and then read while listening to four comic books in a four-week period. Additionally, after reading each book, students completed two follow-up meaning-focused activities focusing on learners’ unprompted use of vocabulary. The results revealed that engaging with comic books was beneficial for incidental vocabulary acquisition. The findings suggest that comics are a valuable and effective source of language learning, and their inclusion in L2 teaching and learning can be particularly advantageous to L2 learners, including novice learners.
... To internalise knowledge of new vocabulary items, learners need to encounter them 6-20 times (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015). Thus, we need to ensure the selected terms reoccur throughout our materials. ...
... However, research suggests that successful vocabulary learning results from activities that require explicit engagement with the new terms (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015). I thus advocate progressing activities through Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive processes: from remembering and understanding, to applying, analysing, then evaluating, and finally, in a more productive stage, creating, i.e. producing things with the new language, which are further evaluated and improved. ...
The purpose of the study was to analyse the relationship among CoI online presences, which are categorised as cognitive, social and teaching presences. The participants were 55 Turkish EFL students attending English language classes at a foundation university in Istanbul, Turkey. An undergraduate-level blended learning course was created for this. In order to support the participants’ online presence, the blended learning course included certain useful traits of a CoI environment. Three hours of synchronous online instruction were provided by the instructor each week. Collaborative synchronous talks were held throughout these three hours and were designed by the lecturer. When the online collaborative tasks are integrated with a learning environment, they strengthen the correlation among social, cognitive and teaching presences of the CoI framework. A teacher’s positive attitude in online synchronous/asynchronous sessions is essential while creating online collaborative environments. The current study findings imply that feedback sessions promote and enhance learner satisfaction, and that organising virtual office hours and feedback sessions with small groups of learners (four to five students) can be an effective implementation of CoI to foster more learner presence – participants reported that they learned a lot by interacting with the teacher and the other learners during feedback. Creating a successful CoI environment is not only a challenging task but also a truly collaborative project in which all the stakeholders work together towards a common goal. Course designers and educators should consider ensuring interactive online teaching techniques and including opportunities for dialogue. Instructors need to be a part of the classroom discussions as the more involved the instructor is the more likely the students are to be involved. Some suggested activities for improving rapport and therefore involvement could include playing some music before the class starts or during the break times or having a short chat with the participants at the beginning/end of the class. Timely checking of assignments and immediate response to students in email, chat, or discussion is important in online collaborative courses to increase the social presence of the learners. Encouraging students to ask questions and share their beliefs is important to foster a more social presence in the class.
... Pour cela, certains chercheurs ont proposé d'intégrer l'approche « instruction centrée sur la forme » (Long, 1998) dans l'apprentissage incident du vocabulaire en 4 L2, afin d'orienter l'attention de l'apprenant vers les mots nouveaux présents dans la lecture et de créer la nécessité pour l'apprenant de connaitre ces mots à l'aide d'interventions pédagogiques. Des études réalisées à ce sujet ont montré que le type de la/des tâche(s) à réaliser a un effet plus important que la simple fréquence d'exposition sur les gains lexicaux d'un mot inconnu (Hong & Wang, 2016;Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015). ...
... Un mot inconnu peut être ignoré ou négligé par l'apprenant pendant la lecture (Dong, 2007;Fraser, 1999;Paribakht & Wesche, 1999;X. J. Qian, 2005 2) Contrairement aux autres études (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Zhu, 2004), la consultation d'un dictionnaire bilingue dans notre étude n'a pas été un outil nécessaire pour la compréhension des textes. Dans notre étude, nous avons demandé aux participants du Groupe II de trouver les sens des mots inférés pour accomplir ensuite la tâche lacunaire. ...
Nous nous intéressons à l’utilisation de l’inférence lexicale en langue seconde/étrangère (L2) qui consiste en la déduction du sens d’un mot inconnu rencontré dans la lecture. Nous cherchions à savoir 1) si l’existence d’un équivalent lexical dans la langue maternelle de l’apprenant pour un mot L2, ou la lexicalisation, influence l’inférence et l’acquisition subséquente de ce mot et 2) si une charge cognitive plus importante dans l’input aboutit à de meilleurs gains lexicaux pour ce mot.Selon les résultats de notre étude menée auprès d’apprenants francophones ayant un niveau intermédiaire en chinois, la lexicalisation n’a pas d’effet sur l’attention que les apprenants portent aux mots inconnus pendant la lecture, mais elle influence le choix de sources de connaissance des apprenants pendant l’inférence lexicale ; la lexicalisation n’est pas l’élément concluant dans le résultat de l’inférence lexicale, cependant, les apprenants ont davantage de difficultés à retenir les mots non lexicalisés à court et à long terme ; enfin, la combinaison de deux tâches post-inférence aboutit à de meilleurs gains pour les mots inconnus sur le plan formel.
... In addition, the more frequently unknown words are introduced to learners, the more opportunities to generate stronger mental associations of the new word and eventually learn it (Nagy et al., 1985;Carver and Leibert, 1995;Hulstijn et al., 1996). According to Nation et al. (2016) (Coxhead and Hirsh, 2007 (Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015). ...
... This goes in line with Laufer and Goldstein (2004), Laufer, and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) who considered the knowledge of form as the first and least demanding type of knowledge one can obtain when learning new vocabulary in any language. In addition, it was advocated, "A person who can retrieve the word form for a given concept is typically able to retrieve its meaning upon encountering the form." ...
First-year medical students Learning and Teaching Resources (LETERs) include a
considerable amount of discipline-specific vocabulary for English for Medical
Purposes (EMP) such as the technical and the sub-technical. The former refers to
the specialised vocabulary used only in a specific field (Chung and Nation, 2004,
Coxhead, 2013), while the latter refers to the shared vocabulary amongst
academic disciplines (Baker, 1988; Hsu, 2013). First year medical students’
familiarization with the technical and sub-technical vocabulary typically occurs
from reading LETERs during their coursework and was cited as a contributing
factor towards their study-related stress and burnout (Sinclair, 1997; Boni et al.,
2018). The density of Learning and Teaching Resources (LETERs) as part of first
year medical students’ coursework in terms of technical and sub-technical
vocabulary as well as the receptive and productive vocabulary of L1 and L2
medical students in their first year is an area that has been unexplored by
scholars in the field of EMP. Thus, the aim of this study is to look into the
technical and sub-technical vocabulary of medicine from multiple perspectives
such as its density in medical texts and examine the recognition and production
of technical and sub-technical vocabulary from a total sample of 115 (L1 and L2)
first year medical students in the UK. In order to collect the language data, two
corpora of medical language were compiled as part of this study: the Medical
Receptive (MEDREC) corpus of 2,097,627 running words based on 6 types of
LETERs and the Medical Productive (MEDPRO) corpus of 209,160 running words of
115 written samples. Findings from lexical density analysis on LETERs suggests a
propensity towards a higher degree of usage of technical vocabulary and results
from the Receptive Recognition (RecRec) Task indicate a significant progress by
the end of the initial semester in both technical and sub-technical vocabulary. In
addition, analysis of productive vocabulary usage suggests that the sub-technical
vocabulary was denser in medical students’ writings, which is inversely
proportional in relation to the vocabulary that medical students were introduced
to from LETERs texts with L1 or L2 English having a minimal effect on findings.
The original contribution of this thesis is to fill a gap in the current literature on
the complexity of disciplinary vocabulary used in LETERs and the development of
the RecRec Task suitable for new medical/EMP students. In addition, it is one of
the first experimental studies in medical English, which involved both L1 and L2
medical students’ receptive and productive vocabulary skills.
... Screencast feedback has already earned pedagogical praise for the following reasons: the increased quantity of explicit feedback; the explanatory density of audiovisual scaffolding through demonstration with examples; the observation, apprenticeship and dialogue around the modeling; the improved saliency and understandability of the vocabulary specific use in context; the improved exploitation of the feedback in follow up integration of the targeted vocabulary; and the personalized nature of the interaction and feedback (Ajjawi & Boud, 2017;Ali, 2016;Orlando, 2016;Séror, 2012;Mahoney, Macfarlane & Ajjawi, 2019;Ghosn-Chelala & Al-Chibani, 2018). If that is not enough, the screencast feedback also generates the repetition and reinforcement long associated with multiple (explicit) exposures to vocabulary deemed necessary for acquisition to occur (Nation, 2015;Schmitt & Schmitt, 2011;Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Tavasoli et al., 2020). Taken together, a case can be made linking screencasting with the digitalized type of high impact feedback that increases the likelihood of lexical uptake by (L2) learners. ...
... Much of our understanding of vocabulary teaching rests on the prevailing split between intentional (direct/explicit instruction) or incidental (indirect attention) approaches to vocabulary learning mediated further by task type, interaction, lexical load and a focus on form, meaning and/or use and more recently, the choice of digital tools supporting one or both approaches (Nation, 2015;Schmitt& Schmitt,2011;Richards, 2015;Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Yang, 2021). Academic vocabulary is subject to the same understanding but refers to items common to a range of academic genres but less common to other kinds of texts. ...
This article makes an instructional proposal for the innovative potential of a relatively new digitalized method of providing feedback using ‘screencasting’. Practical options emerging from its use appear to enhance L2 academic vocabulary learning through explicit, direct, and interactive feedback. The proposal stems from screencast feedback practices undertaken in a Zoom- facilitated tertiary L2 writing context involving undergraduate thesis advising sessions with non-native speaking English for Academic Purposes (EAP) students.
... Nation (2001) found that learners need to see and interact with vocabulary in a variety of contexts and ways to retain it well, and that a deeper understanding of its meaning is what allows learners to use vocabulary correctly in context. A study by Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) showed that the kind of activity used to practice vocabulary is more important for acquisition than frequency. In their study, the best retention results were achieved after a reading task combined with a focused word activity, regardless of number of encounters (other tasks tested were reading only and reading with a dictionary). ...
... Section 2.4 reviewed the value of repetition (both in input and in production) and active engagement for acquisition, which is consistent with Schmitt's (2008) view that a deep understanding of linguistic forms is necessary for their proper use in communication. The most significant strategies are providing sufficient input , Laufer and Nation 2012, allowing learners to actively incorporate new forms into their previous knowledge using strategies appropriate to their level (Ellis 1997, Schmitt 2008 and perhaps most important of all, fostering genuine engagement and interaction with the material (Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat 2015) Building a curriculum for second year language instruction is an enormous task, especially when not relying on a commercially produced textbook. There are, however, ways to find appropriate teaching materials online. ...
... Since receptive knowledge precedes active usage of vocabulary, learners have to understand all this before they can appropriately use the lexis in their own production. In order to internalise these aspects of vocabulary items, learners need to encounter them repeatedly in context -research suggests at least 6-20 times (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015). ...
... This approach of 'sneaking' new vocabulary into various texts that students read, even if vocabulary is not the focus of any lesson activities, means that they repeatedly see it in context. However, although there is some evidence that learners may 'pick up' a few new words simply by reading them (incidental learning), research suggests that more successful vocabulary learning results from doing tasks requiring explicit attention to the new words (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015). To really learn vocabulary from reading, then, students need to deliberately engage with the lexis multiple times. ...
... The study's results underscore the importance of allowing children to form their own interpretations of images independently, without teachers imposing explicit explanations. This approach aligns with constructivist theory, which emphasizes that refraining from direct explanations fosters independent thinking and stimulates creativity in children (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Fraihat et al., 2022;Moshkov et al., 2024;Pribadi et al., 2024;Sun, 2022). Observations from the study suggest that avoiding explicit explanations significantly enhances children's language skills and critical thinking abilities. ...
The increasing emphasis on improving early childhood language education necessitates a deeper exploration of effective pedagogical tools, particularly visual aids. This study aims to examine the perspectives of language education specialists regarding best practices for employing images to enhance language development in early childhood settings. A targeted sample of 33 experts in language teaching, all working in early childhood education institutions in northern Jordan, was selected for the study. Qualitative research methodology was adopted, utilizing semi-structured interviews and 180 http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter grounded theory for data analysis. The findings identified a series of best practices for the use of instructional images to foster language development in young learners. Key practices included avoiding overly explicit interpretations of images by teachers, cultivating teachers' confidence in children's ability to interpret and engage with images independently, providing immediate feedback after children view images, allowing ample opportunities for children to articulate their interpretations of image content, ensuring clear and visible image presentation, selecting images that resonate with children's real-life experiences, and accommodating individual differences among children. Based on these results, the study put forth several recommendations aimed at enhancing language acquisition through the strategic use of visual aids. The research highlights the critical role of creating a learning environment that effectively integrates images as a tool for promoting language skills in early childhood, encouraging a more interactive and engaging approach to language education.
... In addition, research carried out by Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) shows that one or two carefully designed exercises involving a word can benefit students more in the way of retention than 18-21 exposures to a word. In light of such findings, material developers should consider tracking so-called "one-timers" in their texts and evaluating their usefulness. ...
... Eckerth and Tavakoli (2012) have found that an elaborate processing of form-meaning relationships was more important for learners' ultimate retention of new words than frequency of encounters alone. Similarly, Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) have found that for retaining the meanings of new words, what learners do with words when reading and in postreading tasks seems to be more important than the quantity of encounters. According to Teng (2019), the informativeness of contexts makes a difference in how often a word needs to be encountered before learners start to acquire it. ...
... On the other hand, humans have a colossal ability to deal with indefinite number of words and the phrases they are used, which has never been countable to-date (for a review of psychological processes involved in language acquisition, see Banaruee et al., 2023a). One of the important issues in the realm of L2 research is therefore how vocabulary can be taught and learned effectively (Zimmerman, 1997;Hulstijn, 2001;Folse, 2006;Webb, 2007;Keating, 2008;Schmitt, 2008;Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Banaruee et al., 2023b). The growing interest in the role vocabulary plays in language acquisition can be testified by the considerable amount of research on vocabulary, each of which addresses a particular issue of vocabulary learning and teaching. ...
Depth of processing vocabulary has been the subject of heated discussion among vocabulary researchers. Yet, current literature lacks research comparing different tasks to investigate the acquisition of vocabulary knowledge among adult learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). To fill the gap, we designed five task-based groups based on Technique Feature Analysis (TFA) as a framework to predict the effectiveness of different vocabulary learning tasks with similar or different TFA rankings on L2 vocabulary knowledge gain. The participants were 130 EFL learners (mean age = 21.7, female 61.5%) randomly assigned to the vocabulary learning tasks: reading and multiple-choice items (TFA = 6), reading and choosing definitions (TFA = 6), reading and fill-in-the-blanks (TFA = 7), reading and rewording the sentences (TFA = 6) and composition writing (TFA = 8). The results of the study revealed that tasks with the same TFA scores led to similar vocabulary knowledge gains. While predictions of the TFA are partially supported, composition writing and sentence rewording tasks supersede other tasks in terms of their effectiveness in vocabulary acquisition.
... Research has suggested that around 8000-to-9000-word families need to be mastered for text comprehension (Nation, 2022). Moreover, researchers have noted that a word cannot be fully mastered without repeated encounters (Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001;Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015). This time-and energy-consuming process has drawn researchers' attention to students' psychological factors (e.g., self-regulation and motivational beliefs) and their use of vocabulary learning strategies. ...
Successful vocabulary acquisition hinges on the harmonious interplay of various factors. Despite some studies that have been conducted to examine the direct effect of self‐regulation on vocabulary learning, few of them tapped into the relationship among self‐regulation, motivational beliefs, vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary proficiency. This study extended previous research by examining whether motivation, self‐efficacy and learning strategies mediate the relationship between self‐regulation and vocabulary proficiency and investigating whether the relationship varied by gender. Data were extracted from 399 senior secondary school students. Results from structural equation modelling revealed that motivation and self‐efficacy mediated the relationship between self‐regulated learning capacity and vocabulary learning strategies. Vocabulary learning strategies further mediated the relationships between self‐efficacy, motivation and vocabulary proficiency. Meanwhile, the relationship between self‐regulation, motivational beliefs, vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary proficiency held equivalent across genders. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... the class, there is no suitable environment for using newly discovered items. Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) supported the idea that the most effective learning occurs when new words are gradually introduced and practiced, so the amount of exposure to the latest items is a crucial issue for retention. Different activities that enhance retention levels should be used in the teaching process when new items are presented in the class. ...
... A learner also needs multiple encounters with the word within a relatively short period of time in order for the word to be consolidated in their long-term memory. Although there is no consensus on the exact number of encounters needed, as there are several contextual factors involved (e.g., Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015), in most cases it is proposed to be at least 10 times (e.g., Matsuoka, 2012;Zahar Cobb & Spada, 2001). It would also be beneficial to encounter the word in different contexts and modalities to widen one's vocabulary knowledge. ...
Vocabulary acquisition of young foreign language learners is an understudied topic. This study examines how early foreign language textbooks in Finland present and practise vocabulary. Moreover, studying textbooks is essential as they guide teachers’ actions and pupils’ perceptions of what is central in learning and how one should learn. We examined five different textbooks used in Finland for early foreign language learning. The languages covered were English, French, German, Swedish and Spanish. We analysed how the textbooks presented vocabulary using Thornbury’s (2002) classification as a basis. In particular, we looked at how the books took into account pupils’ existing linguistic resources, how they introduced and attempted to consolidate new vocabulary, what aspects of vocabulary knowledge were emphasised, what the role of formulaic sequences was, and if there were differences between the textbooks of different languages. The results showed that even though the textbooks had versatile exercises, there was a lack of progression and consolidating activities. Moreover, it seems that the textbooks do not largely aim at learner agency or translanguaging for vocabulary learning. Therefore, the examined textbooks for early foreign language learning in Finland are not fully in line with current understanding of vocabulary learning and language learning in general.
... The involvement load hypothesis (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001) claims that when learners choose to focus on certain words and actively look for their meanings, two components of involvement-"need" and "search"-will increase the learning effectiveness of these words. Moreover, the effect of involvement with words may outweigh the number of word occurrences (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015). Since out-of-school activities are not assigned by teachers but are self-selected by learners, the self-selected words they will focus on while engaged in these activities satisfy the requirement of need. ...
Extramural exposure, through activities such as watching TV, gaming, networking, and online reading, has become an important source of vocabulary acquisition in English as a foreign language, particularly when learners’ first language (L1) has many cognates with English. Our study examined extramural vocabulary acquisition of 10th-grade L1 speakers of noncognate languages over one school year and explored the effects of digital activities and initial lexical knowledge of the participants on their vocabulary gains. Learners reported the amount of digital activity, took a vocabulary pretest, and kept vocabulary diaries where they recorded, on a weekly basis, the new words they encountered. At the end of the study, each student took a personalized test that included all the words recorded in their personal diary. The results indicate that (a) all learners gained some out-of-school word knowledge, (b) students with better initial vocabulary knowledge gained more words, and (c) the initial knowledge contributed to out-of-school learning more than the amount of digital activity.
... This framework has sparked further investigations into the effectiveness of various instructional techniques and has contributed to the development of evidence-based vocabulary teaching practices. For example, Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) conducted a study on foreign word learning and retention, examining task type effects and frequency effects. By manipulating task types with varying involvement indices and the quantity of encounters, they discovered that tasks inducing higher involvement load resulted in significantly greater retention of words compared to the number of encounters alone. ...
Nguyen, Thi Quyen. (2023). Impact of processing various textual genres on the incidental acquisition and retention of L2 vocabulary. English Teaching, 78(2), 139-164. This study investigated the effects of processing three types of texts, namely expository texts, narrative texts, and a combination of both known as twin texts, on incidental vocabulary acquisition and retention in L2 learners. College freshmen (N = 109), who were lower to upper intermediate learners of English, were assigned into a control group and three experimental groups representing different reading conditions. Over a period of seven weeks, the experimental groups engaged in two reading sessions to read their assigned texts accompanied by output tasks and input enhancement. The participants' receptive and productive vocabulary gains were measured with an immediate posttest and a delayed posttest to assess retention. Results revealed significant impacts of text genres on L2 incidental vocabulary learning and retention. Processing twin texts and expository texts yielded significantly greater vocabulary gains than processing narrative texts alone. These effects might be due to different processing mechanisms required for texts structured in distinct ways. Expository texts are informative and explanatory in nature, providing explicit and contextually rich information for word comprehension and retention.
... form recognition, meaning recall) (van Zeeland & Schimitt, 2013). While one encounter might be enough to be able to recognize a word in reading (e.g., Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015), many more seem to be needed to recognize meaning, ranging from 2 -4 encounters (e.g., Pellicer-Sanchez & Schmitt, 2010) to 10 or more (e.g., Pigada & Schmitt, 2006;Waring & Takaki, 2003). It has also been found that recalling words requires more encounters, especially for meaning recall (e.g., Pellicer-Sanchez & Schmitt, 2010;Webb, 2007). ...
This doctoral dissertation explores the benefits of an extensive exposure to L2 television for content comprehension and vocabulary learning with beginner, adolescent EFL learners, through a longitudinal classroom-based intervention. The study also aims at investigating the role of frequency and imagery in word learning, and evaluating the long-term effects this type of intervention may have on learners’ attitudes towards the use of L2 television for language learning purposes. In order to do so, several aspects were examined, including factors related to the intervention, the learner, and the input itself. Four classes of Grade 8 students viewed 24 consecutive episodes of a TV series – spaced over an academic year – under four experimental conditions, with each class being assigned to a different treatment. Two classes viewed the episodes with English [L2] captions, and two with Spanish [L1] subtitles. One class in each language condition received, additionally, explicit instruction on target lexical items. The first study in this thesis looked at the differential effect of captions and subtitles on viewing comprehension, alongside several mediating factors. Results confirmed the higher efficiency of subtitles over captions for content comprehension at this level of proficiency, and the importance of prior vocabulary knowledge when viewing with captions. It was also found that the episodes’ lexical coverage was a strong predictor of comprehension, although no pattern of improvement could be observed over time – even though learners’ perceived comprehension increased by the end of the intervention. In the second study, word-form and word-meaning gains were examined, following a pre- / post-test design. Results revealed that having explicit instruction on vocabulary (i.e. being pre-taught the words through short pre-viewing activities) yielded significantly higher vocabulary gains, and that proficiency played a key role in how learners made use of this type of input. Language of the on-screen text, however, did not emerge as a predictor of gains, although when captions were displayed this tended to lead to higher learning, especially when combined with instruction. Results also indicated that there was a positive correlation between vocabulary gains and comprehension, and that a high percentage of the vocabulary learnt was retained in the long term. The third study focused on the effects of word repetition, spacing, and imagery support. Analysis showed that words with a higher number of encounters or that appeared in a massed condition (i.e. in the same episode) were better learnt. It was also found that words that were image-supported had also higher learning gains. The last study looked into learners’ perceptions and feeling of learning from viewing audio-visual input in English through questionnaires and interviews. Students reported being highly motivated to learn through L2 videos, finding them useful for a number of language aspects, including vocabulary learning, listening comprehension, and matching aural and written forms of the words. Data also showed a shift in viewing habits in the long term, indicating the appropriateness of this type of classroom intervention to foster autonomous viewing at home. Taken as a whole, the results from this dissertation provide evidence that extensive viewing of captioned and subtitled TV series supports comprehension and L2 vocabulary learning. The characteristics of this type of input (i.e. repeated encounters with words, imagery) have been shown to contribute to facilitate language learning. Additionally, EFL learners, at this age and proficiency level, are motivated to learn through this media – in and outside the formal setting.
... However, the frequency of encounter is not easy to be operated in a theoretical model because first, for tangible learning to take place, the number of times needed to meet the words varied greatly from 10 to over 20 encounters according to different research findings (Brown et al., 2008;Pellicer-Sánchez & Schmitt, 2010), and secondly, learners may read a section back and forth and artificially increase word occurrence. And although it has been proven that word-focus tasks can considerably reduce the number of encounters required in extensive reading to achieve similar acquisition rates (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015), there is still a lack of evidence the marginal times of meeting them to trigger meaningful learning. Although the exact times a word is encountered is tricky to operate, the frequency it is needed in a task can be grossly calculated. ...
... Two main principles apply to recognition of new words, frequency and quality of the encounter (Laufer, Rozovoski-Roitblat, 2015). To be memorized, new words need to be met many times, but encounters need to be rich, i.e. they simultaneously include exposure to the meaning, sound and form of the word, all of which are needed to create a quality entry in the mental lexicon (Perfetti, 2007). ...
This theoretical article presents a case for a new approach to the teaching of word recognition in English as a foreign language to young learners in Polish early years education, arguing that there is a need for greater attention to explicit instruction in alphabetic principles, selected phonics and decoding skills. Research in first language (L1) English and foreign language (L2) development of word recognition skills is outlined. Differences between the orthographies of Polish and English are highlighted. Approaches used in L1 early reading instruction are contrasted with those commonly applied in L2 settings. The need for more explicit instruction is rationalized on the basis of a brief description of impressions from 20 hours of classroom observation. The second part of the paper presents some principles for the design of materials to introduce alphabetic principles of English and elements of phonics to support word recognition, with examples. The ability to recognize words rapidly and with ease is a key skill, which, unless mastered early, could potentially have a negative impact on the whole of a child’s language education.
... With regard to vocabulary learning and teaching, 5 it has been proven that conventional strategies like consulting language dictionaries or memorizing word lists favour short-term retention only and, consequently, they need to be combined with other techniques (Cepeda et al., 2006;Frances, de Bruin & Duñabeitia, 2020;Nation, 2015;Schmitt, 2008). Although a consensus has not been reached as to the number of times or different contexts a new word should be encountered in the TL to learn it (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Waring & Takaki, 2003;Webb, 2007), it is widely accepted that the higher the exposure the greater the probability of remembering it (Jiménez-Catalán & Mancebo Francisco, 2008;Sánchez & Fernández-Sánchez, 2016), and that the higher the variety of contexts used to present vocabulary the better it will be integrated as part of the learners' linguistic repertoire (López-Jiménez, 2014). Çiftçi and Üster (2009) argued that new vocabulary should always be presented in context due to the value of authenticity that contextualised discourse transmits and also to benefits dealing with developing strategies (e.g. ...
The purpose of this study is to examine which teaching methodology – context provision or imagination elicitation – is more efficient to learn emotional vocabulary in the English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom. A pre-test / post-test design was used to test the benefit of the two types of instruction, compared to a traditional teaching method. A total of 60 EFL students at a B2 level (Council of Europe, 2001, 2018) participated in the research. A set of 40 emotional words was selected according to the following criteria: to be emotional and mid-frequency vocabulary in English, and rather unknown words by B2-level students in order to allow room for learning. Statistical analyses showed that the instruction phase was successful, since the groups significantly differed in the post-test. Although the two experimental treatments were effective, the imagination elicitation approach turned out to be better than the context provision method. The conclusion has relevant pedagogical implications for the EFL classroom.
... If developing learners' writing skills is the main teaching goal, sentence paraphrasing or writing could be designed to strengthen the link between new L2 word form and meaning. Since one week after the initial encounters with the new words witnessed the learners' great loss of the word meaning knowledge, as found in this study, L2 teachers are informed that the learners should be offered multiple exposures to new words for successful learning [24,31]. It is also suggested that multiple word encounters should be coupled with output tasks, as subsequent word retention was more contingent on elaborative processing of form-meaning relationships than on mere word frequency [10]. ...
... Es sind diese mehrfachen Begegnungen, insbesondere wenn sie als Komponent der "wiederholten Verteilung" (spaced repetition) angewandt werden(Joe, 2010), was im Wortschatzerwerb eine Schlüsselrolle zu spielen scheint. In dieser Hinsicht warnenLaufer & Rozovski-Roitblat (2015) jedoch davor, dass obwohl die Anzahl von Begegnungen tatsächlich ein Faktor ist, dürfte er wahrscheinlich dadurch beeinflusst werden, auf welche Art sich die Begegnungen abspielen. Abschließend behaupten die Autoren, "[i]f one or two good exercises with new words lead to better learning than 18-21 encounters with the words in texts, then such exercises should be an integral part of course and material design" (S. 708). ...
The aim of the thesis is to describe the collocational relations of 15 abstract nouns in student academic writing. The description is based on the DESTWIKO (v0.2) corpus comprising 280 Master theses written by the native speakers of Czech or German. The design and compilation of the corpus are also part of the study. The final product are the collocational profiles of the analysed nouns, as well as suggestions how they, or indeed the corpus itself, could be applied in the context of teaching German for academic purposes.
... This conclusion, based on the analysis of the online data, is further supported by the lack of frequency effect found in the analysis of the offline post-reading test data. This further supports recent claims in the literature that the number of encounters is not the only, or the major, factor known to affect incidental vocabulary learning from reading, as other factors such as relevance, salience, and distribution, also play a role (e.g., Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Szudarski & Carter, 2016;Webb & Chang, 2015). In their meta-analysis, Uchihara et al. (2019) showed that the significant effect of frequency of exposure on incidental vocabulary learning was moderated by learner (age, vocabulary knowledge), treatment (spaced learning, visual support, engagement, range in number of encounters), and methodological (nonword use, forewarning of upcoming comprehension test, vocabulary test format) variables. ...
This study examined the processing and acquisition of novel words and their collocates (i.e., words that frequently co-occur with other words) from reading and the effect of frequency of exposure on this process. First and second language speakers of English read a story with 1) eight exposures of adjective-pseudoword collocations, 2) four exposures of the same collocations, or 3) eight exposures of control collocations. Results of recall and recognition tests showed that participants acquired knowledge not only of the form and meaning of the pseudowords but also of their collocates. The analysis of eye movements showed a significant effect of exposure on the processing of novel collocations for both first and second language readers, with reading times decreasing as a function of exposure. Eight exposures to novel adjective-pseudoword collocations were enough to develop processing speed comparable to that of known collocations. However, when analyzing the processing of the individual components of the collocations, results showed that eight exposures to the pseudowords were not enough for second language readers to develop processing speed comparable to known words. The frequency manipulation in the present study (four vs. eight exposures) did not lead to differences in the learning or processing of collocations. Finally, reading times were not a significant predictor of vocabulary gains.
... Many studies confirmed that successful language learners who can communicate their ideas in spoken and written, and accomplish well in every aspects of language itself are those with sufficient vocabulary size. Therefore, direct and rich instructions of vocabulary can improve the learners' vocabulary acquisition, one of which is by carrying out explicit and in-depth understanding and learning on vocabulary, in terms of number of meeting held and element of attention on each meeting [7], [9], [10], [27]- [29]. Significantly in writing skills, to assist the learners to be able to transfer their ideas into quality texts, some vocabulary learning should be designed respectively, diversely, and repeatedly incorporating particular areas of vocabulary which are needed in written communication before the acquisition takes place [8], [10], [26], [29]. ...
In the past two years, technology has been evolving rapidly due to the pandemic outbreak in the whole world, and invoking a significant surge in usage of education technology. During these times, both teachers and students have been gradually becoming digital natives in carrying out teaching-learning process. The objective of this study is to investigate the use of Content-Based Instruction (CBI) in improving vocabulary mastery on the writing skills utilizing technology-enhanced language teaching into the learning. It was a qualitative approach study, where the participant' writing documents were evaluated by two raters employing a standard analytic rubric for assessing the vocabulary on the English Language Learner (ELL)' writings. Moreover, unstructured interview was performed as data triangulation. The findings revealed that there had been a substantial improvement on the learner' vocabulary size. The learner' writing competence developed since the words used within the writing documents were varied, and in accordance with the topic discussed. There was also a positive and moderate relationship occurred between teachers and learner that increased the creative learning and innovative teaching for both in using the technology. Future research can look into how CBI can affect learners' vocabulary learning either through synchronous or asynchronous.
... Evidence related to incidental vocabulary learning through viewing captioned videos is growing (Montero Perez et al., 2014;Teng, 2020a). The emerging popularity of using captioned videos may be partly attributed to low to modest gains in receptive and productive knowledge gleaned incidentally from reading (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015;Teng, 2020b) or from watching videos without captions (Montero Perez, 2020;Peters & Webb, 2018). In addition, findings on incidental vocabulary learning using captioned videos have been inconsistent. ...
Studies using captioned videos have shown benefits for incidental vocabulary learning. However, little research has considered learner-related factors in this type of learning by viewing captioned videos. The present study aims to fill this gap by examining the impact of watching a documentary TV program on incidental vocabulary learning and assessing to what extent this learning is influenced by learner-related factors (i.e., L2 proficiency level and language aptitude). Eighty-two Chinese-speaking EFL learners were divided into two groups: one that watched a video with captions and another that watched a video without captions. Measures included four dimensions of vocabulary knowledge (i.e., recognition and recall of word form and meaning); L2 proficiency level and language aptitude were controlled as covariates. MANCOVA results demonstrated that viewing a documentary video affected incidental vocabulary learning to varying degrees in terms of recognizing and recalling word form and meaning. The caption group made considerably more significant vocabulary learning gains than the group not exposed to captions. The examined learner-related variables also significantly influenced incidental vocabulary learning gains when viewing captioned videos. However, L2 proficiency level was not a significant predictor of word meaning recall and recognition. These findings provide pedagogical implications for using captioned videos to enhance incidental vocabulary learning.
... It is important to note that different words might require different numbers of repetitions, but research has recommended eight, ten, or even more times for incidental vocabulary learning to take place [50][51][52]. Quality of attention also has an important role to play [53]. According to Webb and Nation [7], four conditions contributing to the quality of attention include noticing, retrieval, varied encounters and varied use, and elaboration. ...
This review paper aims to provide an overview of vocabulary in English language learning, teaching, and testing in Vietnam. First, we review studies on the vocabulary knowledge of Vietnamese EFL learners. Recent research evaluating different aspects of vocabulary knowledge shows that Vietnamese EFL learners generally have limited knowledge of both single words and formulaic language. Next, we discuss contemporary approaches to teaching vocabulary in Vietnam to reveal current issues and provide relevant recommendations. Empirical studies on Vietnamese EFL learners' vocabulary acquisition are also discussed with an aim to shed light on how vocabulary can be acquired by Vietnamese EFL learners and subsequently draw important pedagogical implications. In addition, we look into the lexical component of high-stakes English tests in Vietnam, calling for more attention to the lexical profiles and lexical coverage of those tests. Finally, we provide concluding remarks and research-informed recommendations for EFL vocabulary learning and teaching in Vietnam to elaborate on how vocabulary can be effectively learned and taught.
... The quality of processing refers to how learners process unfamiliar words (e.g., semantic processing, structural processing), whereas the quantity of processing refers to how many times they process the same words (e.g., exposure frequency). Numerous studies have examined the effects of the two factors (e.g., Eckerth & Tavakoli, 2012;Joe, 2010;Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2011, 2015Paribakht & Wesche, 1999;Schmitt, 2008). Yet, the discussion is ongoing, and there is no universally accepted resolution. ...
This paper argues the nature of adult foreign or second language (L2) vocabulary learning and points out the importance of word-form learning at the initial stage of vocabulary development. The Type of Processing-Resource Allocation (TOPRA) model is introduced as a prominent theoretical framework to capture it. Finally, some future studies are proposed to reinforce TOPRA-based studies with respect to (1) types of vocabulary processing tasks and (2) dimensions of vocabulary development.
... In academia, second language (L2) vocabulary learning continues to attract scholars' attention. Vocabulary acquisition concerns the frequency of word exposure (Teng, 2020a), English proficiency level (Kim, 2008), the quality of tasks involving lexical items (Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015), and learners' efforts in engaging with lexical items (Huang, Eslami, & Willson, 2012). Overall, 'the more a learner engages with a new word, the more likely he/she is to learn it' (Schmitt, 2010, p. 26). ...
This study examined the effects of involvement load-based tasks on vocabulary learning in a foreign language, as well as the extent to which task effects are predicted by learners’ metacognition (i.e. metacognitive knowledge and regulation). A total of 120 Chinese university students of English as a foreign language (EFL) were randomly assigned to four task conditions: (1) reading; (2) reading + gap-fill; (3) reading + writing; and (4) reading + writing with the use of a digital dictionary. The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale was adapted to measure condition effects. The Metacognitive Awareness Inventory was used to examine learners’ metacognitive knowledge and regulation. Results revealed that the group of learners who completed reading + writing tasks with the use of a digital dictionary demonstrated the best performance in acquiring receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge, followed by the reading + writing group, the reading + gap-fill group, and, finally, the reading only group. Multiple regression analysis supported the predictive effects of metacognitive regulation on task-based vocabulary learning. Structural equation modelling presented an overall profile of task-based vocabulary learning and metacognition. Based on the findings, we proposed a framework to understand the relationship between learners’ metacognition, task type, and L2 vocabulary learning.
... She adds that learners should be exposed to words in contexts repeatedly to pick up the words, but for repetitive exposure to occur, there should be enough input, which is hardly possible in contexts where English is a foreign language (EFL contexts). As an alternative to the Default Hypothesis and incidental vocabulary learning, Laufer (2010, p. 17) proposes word-focused instruction that according to Laufer and Rozovski-Roitblat (2015), can compensate for lack of input in EFL learning contexts. Her proposition is based on form-focused instruction (FFI) in the area of grammar that, as Laufer (2010, p. 17) mentions, can be applicable to vocabulary as word-focused instruction. ...
... Por otra parte, para introducir este tema en el aula proponemos una aproximación de corte inductivo en tres etapas que permite favorecer la asimilación del funcionamiento de los tratamientos y la memorización sobre sus usos (Laufer y Rozovski-Roitblat 2015, Skehan 2003): ...
The usage of address forms in Spanish is a complex subject due to the great variability that they present from both a formal and linguistic use viewpoints. Despite the vast linguistic literature about this matter, the criteria that influence la selection of forms of address have not been clearly delimitated. In this context, the present study aims to offer an insight into the treatment of this complex subject in the teaching of Spanish as a Second Language. Therefore, we carried out a systematic revision of a selection of elementary Spanish textbooks, in order to analyze how address forms are presented in those teaching materials, according to factors such as sociolinguistic variables, characteristics of the activities included in the books, types of explanations, etc. Finally, we propose a way to improve the current presentation of those based on the findings of the textbook analysis.
... Learners were not presented with the first letter of the target items as cue usage would have made distractor selection for the multiple-choice test of written form recognition (the second part of the testing battery) problematic. Thus, this instrument is a stricter measure of form recall than those employed in some other studies (e.g., Laufer & Rozovski-Roitblat, 2015), and may not have tapped into some partial productive lexical knowledge. ...
Research has shown that several intralexical factors affect the learning burden of foreign language vocabulary (e.g., Laufer, 1997 ) and that some accrued lexical knowledge is forgotten. It is often assumed that the lexical items most difficult to acquire are those easiest to forget. However, few studies have provided empirical evidence to support this claim. This study examined the effect of two intralexical factors, part of speech and word length, on the learning burden and decay of intentionally learned foreign language lexical knowledge, as well as the role that learning burden played in the decay process. Forty-eight learners of English studied words of various parts of speech and lengths using flashcard software. Knowledge (form recall and recognition) of target items was assessed immediately after learning and four weeks later. Results of mixed-effects models showed that part of speech and word length have differential impacts on learning burden and decay and that increased burden mitigated loss of form recognition knowledge.
L2 words vary in how hard they are to learn and how quickly they are forgotten. This study explored two factors that may contribute to this variance: form presentation mode and language learning aptitude. English learners studied 32 words using electronic flashcard software in two conditions: unimodal (written form) and bimodal (spoken and written form). The frequency of exposure needed to learn each word was measured and used to determine learning burden. Learners, L2 users of English studying at a British university, completed immediate and two-week delayed tests, which were used to track any decay that occurred. Aptitude was measured using the LLAMA battery and incorporated into statistical modelling. The results showed that form presentation mode (bimodal > unimodal) and some aspects of aptitude impacted learning. No effects were found on decay. Pedagogical implications are discussed.
Este estudo quantitativo examina o contributo das Tecnologias da Informação e Comunicação (TICs), nomeadamente das atividades gamificadas e interativas, no ensino e aprendizagem de vocabulário científico e na compreensão de textos acadêmicos da área de Educação em inglês. A investigação teve a participação de 26 estudantes da área de Educação (25 da pós-graduação e uma da graduação) da Universidade Federal do Pará em um curso online de English for Specific Purposes (ESP), desenvolvido com base nas recomendações de pesquisadores das áreas de tecnologias, ensino e aprendizagem de inglês e design instrucional. As atividades foram disponibilizadas no Moodle (ferramentas Lição e Questionário) e no aplicativo Quizlet (flashcards gamificados). Os estudantes realizaram um pré-teste e um pós-teste (após oito lições), cujas análises comparativas entre ambos revelaram um aumento considerável das médias no pós-teste, o que pressupõe um efeito benéfico das tecnologias empregadas. Em suma, o estudo obteve resultados positivos referentes às duas hipóteses investigadas: aquisição de vocabulário científico e compreensão de textos em inglês. Palavras-chave: TICs. ESP. Vocabulário científico. Compreensão de textos acadêmicos em inglês.
The study investigates whether comprehension of derived words in text context requires a complete understanding of word parts. It explores comprehension of derived words as a function of learner proficiency and contextual clues. Ninety EFL learners at three proficiency levels participated in three successive tests representing three clues conditions, absence of clues, availability of syntactic clues, and availability of syntactic and semantic clues. They had to supply the meaning of 22 derived pseudowords constructed with non-word stems and 22 frequent affixes, e.g., stacement, gummful. Meanings of the non-word stems
were provided. Test scores were compared by 3 (proficiency level) x 3 (clue condition) ANOVA with Repeated Measures. Results showed effects of both variables, proficiency and clues. The largest increase in comprehension scores occurred with the addition of syntactic clues. The results imply that derived forms of familiar basewords can be understood even when learners' receptive morphological knowledge is not complete.
Vocabulary is now well recognized as an important focus in language teaching and learning. Now in its third edition, this book provides an engaging, authoritative guide to the teaching and learning of vocabulary in another language. It contains descriptions of numerous vocabulary learning strategies, which are supported by reference to experimental research, case studies, and teaching experience. It also describes what vocabulary learners need to know to be effective language users. This new edition has been updated to incorporate the wealth of research that has come out of the past decade. It also includes a new chapter on out of-classroom learning, which explores the effect of the Internet and electronic resources on learning. This vital resource for all vocabulary researchers shows that by taking a systematic approach to vocabulary learning, teachers can make the best use of class time and help learners get the best return for their learning effort.
This study sought to, first, measure Indonesian EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge across four modalities, i.e. Active Recall, Passive Recall, Active Recognition, and Passive Recognition; second, determine whether or not there were statistically significant differences between male and female participants’ vocabulary knowledge and third, determine whether or not the participants’ vocabulary knowledge across the four modalities were correlated. Data were collected by administering four sets of vocabulary tests to 71 EFL learners at an English Department of a higher education institution in Indonesia. Data were analyzed using Rasch analysis and Spearman's-Rho correlation technique. The results showed that the participants performed better on the recognition tests than on recall tests. No statistically significant difference was found between male female participants’ vocabulary knowledge. Moderate and strong correlations were found among the participants’ Passive Recall and Active Recognition, Passive Recall and Passive Recognition, and Active Recognition and Passive Recognition.
The focus of this chapter is on incidental lexical learning, particularly on the incidental acquisition of words through writing activities. The first section will discuss the construct of incidental learning. It will compare contrasting views in the literature and will offer a rationale for the definition adopted in this book.
My presentation at IATEFL Belfast 2022
The study investigated how well Swedish adolescents recognize the meaning of derived words in English and whether this knowledge is determined by learner proficiency, word frequency, or affix type. Participants were 88 school students in two proficiency groups: 39 advanced 12th graders and 49 intermediate 9th graders. Two tests of receptive vocabulary knowledge were administered. The first test had 80 basewords (e.g., maintain) representing the 8,000 most frequent words. The second test had 60 words that were derived from the first test (e.g., maintainable). Results showed that participants’ knowledge of basewords extended to knowledge of derived words quite well: for example, when the advanced learners knew a baseword, they knew its derived form in 91% of the cases. Other results were that word family frequency but not derived word frequency determined knowledge of derived words, and that little support was found for Bauer and Nation’s (1993) hierarchy of affix difficulty. The main implication of the results is that the word family, which subsumes basewords and their related forms under word knowledge, is an appropriate unit of counting in L2 pedagogy and research for learners with extensive exposure to English and a Germanic first language.
Lexical inferencing is an important strategy in reading comprehension and vocabulary learning, both in L2 and in L1. Focusing both on the effect of L1 lexicalization (i.e., the existence of lexical equivalents in learner’s L1 for a L2 word) and on that of learner’s cognitive investment, we are interested in the process of inferring an unknown L2 word encountered in reading and the subsequent learning of the inferred word. We observed 33 French-speaking learners of Chinese while they inferred 20 unknown Chinese words contained in two passages and examined the evolution of their lexical knowledge of these words. The results show that the L1 lexicalization is not a critical factor for French-speaking learners to understand an unknown Chinese word. However, it is more difficult for them to retain the meaning of a non-lexicalized Chinese word than a lexicalized one, in the short and long term. Moreover, a more important cognitive involvement may help a learner obtain a better grasp of an unknown word, but only of its form, not its meaning.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to determine if a direct, explicit method of teaching vocabulary with the Vocabulary Scenario Technique – General Education 16 Encounter (VSTGE16) protocol would yield gains in the vocabulary knowledge of fourth grade students in a general education classroom. Two research questions examined whether fourth grade students receiving VST-GE16 instruction with 16 instructor-led encounters per word, eight words taught per week for 90 min a week over 4 weeks demonstrated greater gains on a multiple-choice synonym test and a fill-in-the-blank words-in-context test than fourth grade students taught the same number of words, in the same time frame, using a vocabulary teaching method typically employed by a fourth grade teacher.
Method
The study was a quasi-experimental design, with a pretest and posttest multiple-choice synonym and fill-in-the-blank words-in-context measures administered. Students with complete data sets were included in the analyses (synonym, N = 38; words-in-context, N = 37). Participants in both groups were taught eight curriculum vocabulary words per week for 90 min a week across four consecutive weeks (32 words).
Results
An analysis of covariance on posttreatment outcomes yielded the following: The treatment group scored significantly higher on the synonym measure, F (1, 35) = 14.76, p < .001; g = 1.04, and the words-in-context measure, F (1, 34) = 43.66, p < .001; g = 1.59, than did the comparison group.
Conclusions
The results indicated that the VST-GE16 protocol has potential as an effective, efficient method to use when directly teaching curriculum vocabulary words to fourth grade students in general education classrooms .
This study combines explicit (pen-and-paper) and sensitive (time-pressured) measures to gauge the impact of three instructional interventions (contextualized input with meaning-focused activities, contextualized input with word-focused activities, and decontextualized input with word-focused exercises) on the learning of 20 L2 French target verbs. Participants ( N = 313, L1 = Dutch) completed a combination of explicit (form recognition, meaning recall, grammatical preference) and time-pressured sensitive tests (lexical decision, semantic relatedness, grammaticality judgment) as immediate and delayed posttests. Explicit posttests show the beneficial effects of word-focused instruction, and underline the efficiency of context for meaning-related knowledge. Sensitive posttests generally confirm the explicit results, but reveal differences between both word-focused conditions related to lexical processing and strength of knowledge. This study suggests that combining explicit and sensitive measures can provide a more complete picture about the effects of L2 vocabulary instruction and shows that contextualized and decontextualized word-focused instruction benefit vocabulary learning in a complementary way.
This paper can be downloaded from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-second-language-acquisition/article/abs/combining-explicit-and-sensitive-indices-for-measuring-l2-vocabulary-learning-through-contextualized-input-and-wordfocused-instruction/6A39C54FA3C9BDF77D5CF2647C30EB0A
Providing a much-needed critical synthesis of research on teaching vocabulary and grammar to students of a second or foreign language, this book puts the research into perspective in order to distil recommendations for language teaching. Boers evaluates a comprehensive range of both well-established and lesser-known research strands and classroom practices to draw out the most effective instructional approaches to teaching words, multiword expressions and grammar patterns. Chapters discuss learning as a by-product of communicative activities, language-focused instruction, diverse types of exercises, mnemonic techniques and more, with a view to building bridges between the available research on such instructional approaches and how they are commonly implemented in actual language courses and textbooks. This book helps teachers make research-informed decisions regarding their instructional approaches to words, phrases and patterns, and directs researchers to specific areas in need of further inquiry. Boers not only demonstrates how research findings can inform effective teaching, but also calls for a deeper appreciation on the part of researchers of the realities of the teaching profession, making this a worthwhile text for preservice teachers, teacher educators, graduate students and scholars.
El quichua santiagueño es lengua de la familia quechua hablada principalmente en la Provincia de Santiago del Estero, Argentina, y en otras grandes ciudades del país, como Buenos Aires. En la Argentina, ha sido la lengua quechua con mayor número de hablantes (si no se consideran los hablantes de quechua migrantes de otros países, como Bolivia y Perú). Como todas las lenguas índigenas de nuestro país, ha sufrido una larga tradición de prohibición, ocultamiento y estigmatización que han llevado a que cuente en la actualidad con poca presencia institucional y casi nula presencia escolar. Existen iniciativas aisladas que incorporan el quichua en el nivel primario y secundario. A nivel universitario, recientemente han cobrado relevancia distintos espacios, tanto en Santiago del Estero como en Buenos Aires. Este trabajo parte de la premisa de que la enseñanza de una lengua indígena como lengua segunda tiene un fin que supera la mera enseñanza de un código y sus pautas comunicativas. Un curso de lengua indígena tiene el rol de sensibilizar acerca de la diversidad lingüística, favorecer la revalorización de la lengua, su visibilización y revitalización, a la vez que tiene la misión de formar a futuros investigadores de la lengua para su estudio y documentación. El objetivo central de este artículo es acercar la experiencia de enseñanza de una lengua indígena en el contexto de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Se espera que esta experiencia habilite una reflexión acerca de la enseñanza de lenguas tipológicamente alejadas de las lenguas indoeuropeas, como el español o el inglés. Se propone aquí pensar las actividades partiendo de la enseñanza de una función comunicativa que llegará ulteriormente a la enseñanza de una forma gramatical (llamaremos a este acercamiento ‘onomasiológico’). El quichua santiagueño cuenta con una rica tradición narrativa, con géneros y personajes que han tenido un rol central en la identidad, perpetuación y documentación de la lengua. Particularmente en las narraciones de ciertos géneros, como son el relato de experiencias personales (como las anécdotas, las autobiografías) o el relato de hechos sucedidos a terceros (como los famosos ‘casos’ de la literatura del NOA o el recuerdo de prácticas culturales antiguas), se despliega el sistema de tiempos pretéritos de la lengua que se distribuye en el discurso según la evidencialidad, es decir, según la relación que el hablante establece con la información narrada. La confección de un material de clase debe anticiparse a los géneros, catego … View full abstract
How do foreign/second language learners retain new lexical items? In this study, we examined the effect of vocabulary exercises on advanced French students’ learning of new second language collocations. A group of students received explicit instruction in the concepts of paraphrase and restricted lexical co-occurrence and made regular use of lexical resources during written production tasks. A later test on metaknowledge and written production shows that the teaching strategy chosen is instrumental in the reuse of collocations in L2 French. Advanced learners should, therefore, receive explicit university-level training in lexical semantics to enrich their vocabulary.
Many studies have found that computer video games can offer a facilitative vocabulary learning environment. Among different types of computer games, adventure games have received much attention because of their rich input and immersive learning environment. However, some researchers have indicated that because of the characters’ fast-talking speed and many new vocabulary, more lexical supports should be provided in the games. This study thus developed an adventure game with two versions. One version was an adventure game and the other was the same game supported with vocabulary exercises. Two classes were randomly assigned to play two versions of the game and to take a pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test. A survey was also conducted to investigate the participants’ perceptions. The results showed that both groups acquired new words, but the experimental group performed significantly better in both the immediate and delayed post-tests. These findings indicated that the adventure game alone can help participants acquire new words. However, the inclusion of word-focused exercises further helped learners retain more new words. Thus, it is suggested that game developers can incorporate word-focused exercises into video games. The additional exercise can allow learners to benefit from both implicit and explicit vocabulary learning.
This study compares the relative effectiveness of reading and writing sentences for the incidental acquisition of new vocabulary
in a second language. It also examines if recall varies according to the concreteness of target words. Participants were 203
French-speaking intermediate and advanced English as second language (ESL) learners, tested for incidental acquisition of
16 rare concrete, or abstract L2 words. Immediate and delayed cued recall was used to assess acquisition. Results from immediate
recall show superior recall for writing tasks over reading tasks, and for concrete words over abstract words. However, delayed
recall scores suggest that this superiority disappears over time.
Université du Québec à Montreal Linguistic computing can make two important contributions to second language (L2) reading instruction. One is to resolve longstanding research issues that are based on an insufficiency of data for the researcher, and the other is to resolve related pedagogical problems based on insufficiency of input for the learner. The research section of the paper addresses the question of whether reading alone can give learners enough vocabulary to read. When the computer's ability to process large amounts of both learner and linguistic data is applied to this question, it becomes clear that, for the vast majority of L2 learners, free or wide reading alone is not a sufficient source of vocabulary knowledge for reading. But computer processing also points to solutions to this problem. Through its ability to reorganize and link documents, the networked computer can increase the supply of vocabulary input that is available to the learner. The development section of the paper elaborates a principled role for computing in L2 reading pedagogy, with examples, in two broad areas, computer-based text design and computational enrichment of undesigned texts.
The present study used a within-subjects design to examine the effect of the type of written exercise on L2 vocabulary retention. Using input for the meaning and usage of the new words from a specially prepared minidictionary, university intensive English program students (n = 154) practiced target vocabulary in three types of written exercises conditions: one fill-in-the-blank exercise, three fill-in-the-blank exercises, and one original-sentence-writing exercise. An unannounced posttest using a modified version of the vocabulary knowledge scale tested the meaning of the word (L1 translation or L2 synonym) and usage of the word in a student-written sentence. A repeated measures ANOVA revealed that mean scores for the three exercise types were significantly different from each other, with words practiced under the three fill-in-the-blank exercises condition retained much better than those practiced under either of the other two exercise conditions. The findings suggest the important feature of a given L2 vocabulary exercise is not depth of word processing but number of word retrievals required. This result has implications for language teachers, curriculum designers, and, in particular, materials writers of traditional workbooks and CALL materials.
This study examined the rate at which English vocabulary was acquired from the 3 input modes of reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. It selected 3 sets of 28 words within 4 frequency bands and administered 2 test types immediately after the reading and listening treatments, 1 week later and 3 months later. The results showed that new words could be learned incidentally in all 3 modes, but that most words were not learned. Items occurring more frequently in the text were more likely to be learned and were more resistant to decay. The data demonstrated that, on average, when subjects were tested by unprompted recall, the meaning of only 1 of the 28 items met in either of the reading modes and the meaning of none of the items met in the listening-only mode, would be retained after 3 months.
This study examined the rate at which vocabulary was learned from reading the 400 headword graded reader A Little Princess. To ascertain whether words of different frequency of occurrence rates were more likely to be learned and retained or forgotten, 25 words within five bands of differing frequency of occurrence (15 to 18 times to those appearing only once) were selected. The spelling of each word was changed to ensure that each test item was unknown to the 15 intermediate level (or above) female Japanese subjects. Three tests (word-form recognition, prompted meaning recognition and unprompted meaning recognition) were administered immediately after reading, after one week and after a three month delay. The results show that words can be learned incidentally but that most of the words were not learned. More frequent words were more likely to be learned and were more resistant to decay. The data suggest that, on average, the meaning of only one of the 25 items will be remembered after three months, and the meaning of none of the items that were met fewer than eight times will be remembered three months later. The data thus suggest that very little new vocabulary is retained from reading one graded reader, and that a massive amount of graded reading is needed to build new vocabulary. It is suggested that the benefits of reading a graded reader should not only be assessed by researching vocabulary gains and retention, but by looking at how graded readers help develop and enrich already known vocabulary.
The study compares the effectiveness of Focus on Form (FonF) and Focus on FormS (FonFs) approaches in learning new L2 words by 158 high-school learners of English as L2. In phase 1 of the study, the FonF group read a text containing the target words, discussed it in small groups, and answered comprehension questions. The FonFs group studied the target words as discrete items with their meanings and examples of usage. In phase 2 of the study, all learners received the target words with their meanings and studied them for 15 minutes for a quiz. They were tested immediately after each phase, and two weeks later.
Results revealed significantly higher scores for FonFs group after phase 1, but the difference disappeared after phase 2. As learners cannot be expected to study all vocabulary for tests, form-focused instruction – and particularly FonFs – is claimed to be indispensable for L2 vocabulary learning.
L'efficacité des approches centrées sur la forme (CF) a été comparée à celle des approches centrées sur les formeS (CFS) pour l'apprentissage de nouveaux mots dans une langue seconde, au cours d'une étude comptant 158 étudiants de niveau secondaire apprenant l'anglais comme langue seconde. Pour la phase 1, le groupe CF a lu un texte contenant les mots ciblés, en a discuté en petits groupes et a répondu à des questions de compréhension. Le groupe CFS a étudié les mots ciblés en tant qu'éléments distincts avec leurs significations et des exemples d'usage. Pour la phase 2, tous les apprenants ont reçu les mots ciblés et leurs significations, et ils les ont étudiés pendant 15 minutes pour un examen. Ils ont été évalués immédiatement après chaque phase, puis deux semaines plus tard. Les résultats ont révélé des scores notablement plus élevés dans le groupe CFS après la phase 1, mais cette différence avait disparu après la phase 2. Comme on ne peut s'attendre à ce que les apprenants étudient tout le vocabulaire pour les examens, une approche centrée sur la forme, en particulier CFS, serait indispensable aux personnes qui apprennent le vocabulaire d'une langue seconde.
This paper presents three consecutive studies on the effect of extensive reading on the development of reading and vocabulary for Taiwanese university non-English majors. Each study used a different approach, with subsequent studies adjusting the methodology in response to the results of the previous year. These results confirm other findings, using different subjects in other countries, that (1) extensive reading can be integrated into an EFL curriculum, termed in-class sustained silent reading, at the university level; (2) extensive reading is at least as effective and efficient as traditional instruction in acquiring English as a foreign language and is more effective than traditional instruction when the treatment duration is longer; (3) book access and self-selection of reading are two keys to the success of a sustained silent reading program.
We investigated how long-term retention of new words was affected by task type, number of word occurrences in the teaching materials and the combination of the two factors. The tasks were: reading a text with occasional Focus on Form when learners used dictionaries (T+F), or reading a text with Focus on Forms, i.e. word focused exercises (T+Fs). The words occurred 2—3, 4—5, and 6—7 times. Consequently, there were six conditions that reflected the 2 × 3 ‘task × occurrence’ combinations. Learners were exposed to 60 target words, 10 words in each condition during a 13-week course of study, and were subsequently tested on them by two unannounced tests: passive recall and passive recognition. An increase in word occurrence was found to have an effect on retention in T+Fs only. Starting with 4 occurrences, T+Fs fared better than T+F. Task type effect was superior to the effect of word occurrence in recall only (2 word exercises fared better than 6—7 occurrences in text). The value of word-focused practice was also confirmed by learners’ responses to an introspective questionnaire.
A number of studies have shown that second language learners acquire vocabulary through reading, but only relatively small amounts. However, most of these studies used only short texts, measured only the acquisition of meaning, and did not credit partial learning of words. This case study of a learner of French explores whether an extensive reading program can enhance lexical knowledge. The study assessed a relatively large number of words (133), and examined whether one month of extensive reading enhanced knowledge of these target words' spelling, meaning, and grammatical characteristics. The measurement procedure was a one-on-one interview that allowed a very good indication of whether learning occurred. The study also explores how vocabulary acquisition varies according to how often words are encountered in the texts. The results showed that knowledge of 65% of the target words was enhanced in some way, for a pickup rate of about 1 of every 1.5 words tested. Spelling was strongly enhanced, even from a small number of exposures. Meaning and grammatical knowledge were also enhanced, but not to the same extent. Overall, the study indicates that more vocabulary acquisition is possible from extensive reading than previous studies have suggested.
The study compares the effectiveness of Focus on Form (FonF) and Focus on FormS (FonFs) approaches in learning new L2 words by 158 high-school learners of English as L2. In phase 1 of the study, the FonF group read a text containing the target words, discussed it in small groups, and answered comprehension questions. The FonFs group studied the target words as discrete items with their meanings and examples of usage. In phase 2 of the study, all learners received the target words with their meanings and studied them for 15 minutes for a quiz. They were tested immediately after each phase, and two weeks later.
Results revealed significantly higher scores for FonFs group after phase 1, but the difference disappeared after phase 2. As learners cannot be expected to study all vocabulary for tests, form-focused instruction - and particularly FonFs - is claimed to be indispensable for L2 vocabulary learning.
Third semester college students of French viewed part of a film, read part, and then were given a surprise vocabulary test with colloquial words from the text. Their performance, compared to a control group, suggests that incidental vocabulary acquisition is possible in a foreign language situation. The test is appended. (Contains eight references.) (Author/LB)
The realization by applied linguists that second language learners cannot achieve high levels of grammatical competence from entirely meaning centered instruction has led them to propose that learners need to focus on form, i.e. to attend to linguistic elements during a communicative activity (Long 1991, De Keyser 1998, Norris and Ortega 2000, Ellis 2001). However, most advocates of Focus on Form (FonF), have also proscribed Focus on Forms (FonFs), the systematic teaching of isolated grammatical items and rules. So far, FonF research has been concerned with grammatical, not lexical, instruction. In this paper, which was originally presented as a plenary session at the 2004 EUROSLA conference, I examine the need for Focus on Form and the proscription of Focus on Forms from the vocabulary learning perspective.
First, I argue that, similarly to grammar, comprehensible input is insufficient for acquiring vocabulary, and consequently Focus on Form is an essential component of instruction. I base my argument on the fallacy of the assumptions which underlie the vocabulary-through-input hypothesis: the noticing assumption, the guessing ability assumption, the guessing-retention link assumption and the cumulative gain assumption. Second, I defend Focus on Forms and argue against the claim that attention to form must be motivated by and carried out within a communicative task environment. The defense is based on the nature of lexical competence, which is perceived as a combination of different aspects of vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary use, speed of lexical access and strategic competence. The two arguments above will be supported by empirical evidence from three types of vocabulary learning studies: (a) the `classic' task embedded FonF, (b) task related FonFs, and (c) `pure' FonFs studies, unrelated to any task.
Research has been investigating the role of reading, as one source of input, in language
learners' vocabulary development. The present study was designed to examine whether
intermediate learners incidentally (a) acquire and (b) retain unknown vocabulary as a result of
reading. The study further assessed (c) the effect of the text variable of exposure frequency.
Learners were exposed to unfamiliar words either two, four, or six times during reading.
Vocabulary acquisition and retention measured productive and receptive knowledge gain.
Results indicated that only two encounters with unfamiliar words during reading significantly
affected learners' vocabulary growth. Moreover, two or four exposure frequencies resulted
in fairly similar word gain, but six exposures produced significantly more vocabulary knowledge.
Retention measures showed mixed results: On productive vocabulary knowledge only half of the
subjects displayed a significant rate of retention. On receptive knowledge all but one
experimental group retained vocabulary over 4 weeks.
Nation (2006) has calculated that second language (L2) learners require much more vocabulary than previously thought to be functional with language (e.g., 8,000–9,000 word families to read independently). This level is far beyond the highest graded reader, and would be difficult to explicitly teach. One way for learners to be exposed to mid-frequency vocabulary is to read authentic materials. The original A Clockwork Orange study (Saragi, Nation, & Meister, 1978) showed impressive amounts of incidental vocabulary learning with first language (L1) readers, but subsequent studies with L2 learners (using graded readers or simplified materials) showed only modest gains. This study explores the degree to which relatively advanced L2 readers can acquire spelling, word class, and recognition and recall of meaning from reading the unmodified authentic novel Things Fall Apart. After more than 10 exposures, the meaning and spelling could be recognized for 84% and 76% of the words respectively, while the meaning and word class could be recalled for 55% and 63%.
The influence of cognitive processing on second language acquisition (SLA), and on the development of second language (SL) instruction, has always been a subject of major interest to both SLA researchers and those involved in SL pedagogy. Recent theoretical research into SLA and SL pedagogy has shown renewed interest in the role of cognitive variables such as attention, short, working, and long term memory, and automaticity of language processing. This volume first examines the theoretical foundations of research into the cognitive processes underlying SLA, and then describes various implications for pedagogically oriented research and for SL classroom practice. The blend of research from the cognitive sciences and applied linguistics make it an excellent introduction to applied linguists and language teachers interested in the psycholinguistic processes underlying SLA.
The influence of cognitive processing on second language acquisition (SLA), and on the development of second language (SL) instruction, has always been a subject of major interest to both SLA researchers and those involved in SL pedagogy. Recent theoretical research into SLA and SL pedagogy has shown renewed interest in the role of cognitive variables such as attention, short, working, and long term memory, and automaticity of language processing. This volume first examines the theoretical foundations of research into the cognitive processes underlying SLA, and then describes various implications for pedagogically oriented research and for SL classroom practice. The blend of research from the cognitive sciences and applied linguistics make it an excellent introduction to applied linguists and language teachers interested in the psycholinguistic processes underlying SLA.
The term incidental learning is used, in applied linguistics, to refer to the acquisition of a word or expression without the conscious intention to commit the element to memory, such as "picking up" an unknown word from listening to someone or from reading a text.
This study of incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading, involving 72 freshmen at two Asian universities, investigated
(i) the effect of repeated encounters with target words on the development of seven aspects of word knowledge, and (ii) the
effect of L1 lexicalization on the acquisition of meaning—does the absence of an L1 translation equivalent make acquisition
of a word’s meaning especially difficult? Seven measures were used, immediately after the treatment and again after a two-week
delay. The design was based on that of Webb (2007) but emphasized ecological validity over control, presenting genuine words
in meaningful reading passages and thus complementing Webb’s more tightly controlled experiment. Results for repetition largely
supported his findings while suggesting that the nature of his study led to an overestimate of learning. Knowledge of orthography,
part of speech, and meaning showed different patterns of development with increasing encounters. On the immediate posttest,
repetition affected productive knowledge somewhat more than receptive, consistent with Webb’s findings, but this relation
reversed on the delayed posttest. For L1 lexicalization, non-lexicalized words caused great difficulty.
Many teachers give little or no classroom attention to vocabulary, assuming students will learn words incidentally. Although research demonstrates that vocabulary can be acquired indirectly through reading, the question remains: Does vocabulary instruction make a difference? This article reports on a pilot study of the combined effects of reading and interactive vocabulary instruction for U.S. postsecondary L2 students preparing for university entrance. A 10-week classroom-based study tested the hypothesis that L2 students exposed to a combination of regular periods of reading and interactive vocabulary instruction will show significant increases in their knowledge of the nontechnical terms that are used widely across academic fields. L2 students attending university-preparatory intensive English programs were divided into two groups: one received 3 hours a week of interactive vocabulary instruction plus an assignment to read self-selected materials; the other received the self-selected reading assignment only. The results of this study suggest that interactive vocabulary instruction accompanied by moderate amounts of self-selected and course-related reading led to gains in vocabulary knowledge; students' perceptions of how best to learn words corroborated these results. It is argued that teachers should give consideration to the effects of combining reading and interactive vocabulary instruction.
This article investigates whether (a) lexical elaboration (LE), typographical enhancement (TE), or a combination, and (b) explicit or implicit LE affect 297 Korean learners' acquisition of English vocabulary. The learners were asked to read one of six versions of an experimental text that contained 26 target words. The study adopted a 2 × 3 MANOVA design with TE and LE as two independent variables and form- and meaning-recognition vocabulary posttests as two dependent variables. The TE had two levels, enhanced and unenhanced, and the LE had three levels, explicit, implicit, and unelaborated. The results were (a) LE alone did not aid form recognition of vocabulary, (b) explicit LE alone aided meaning recognition of vocabulary, (c) TE alone did not aid form and meaning recognition of vocabulary, (d) LE and TE combined did not aid form recognition of vocabulary, (e) both explicit and implicit LE aided meaning recognition of vocabulary, (f) explicit and implicit LE did not differ in their effect on form and meaning recognition of vocabulary, and (g) whether a text was further enhanced in addition to either explicit or implicit LE did not seem to affect the acquisition of the previously unknown words' forms or meanings.
While L2 vocabulary acquisition research is no longer 'a neglected area' (Meara, 1980), a lack of progress remains on some basic questions. One concerns the number of times a word must be encountered in order to be learned. Even using similar learning criteria, estimates range from six (Saragi, Nation, & Meister, 1978) to 20 (Herman, Anderson, Pearson, & Nagy, 1987). Another question concerns the types of contexts that are conducive to learning. Some studies have reported that rich, informative contexts are the most conducive to acquisition (Schouten-van Parreren, 1989), others that rich contexts divert attention from the lexical level and produce little acquisition (Mondria & Wit-De Boer, 1991). These phenomena were investigated in a vocabulary acquisition study with Quebec school-aged ESL learners at five levels of proficiency. First, learners read a text and were tested on its new vocabulary. Then, learned and unlearned words were compared for frequency of occurrence and level of contextual support. Frequency needs were found to be related to learner level, and contextual richness was unrelated to learning.
This experimental study evaluated the effectiveness of direct teaching of new vocabulary items in reading passages. The study
compared vocabulary learning under a reading only condition (incidental learning) to learning that is aided by direct communication
of word meanings (explicit learning). Three levels of vocabulary knowledge (form recall, meaning recall, and meaning recognition)
were assessed using three tests (completion, L1 translation, and multiple choice, respectively). Incidental learning plus
explicit instruction was found to be more effective than incidental learning alone for all three levels. The results also
showed that direct instruction is especially effective in facilitating the deepest level of knowledge, i.e. form recall. These
findings demonstrate the value of the time and effort spent on direct teaching of lexical items in EFL reading classes.
Many language courses now offer access to simplified materials graded at various levels of proficiency so that learners can read at length in their new language. An assumed benefit is the development of large and rapidly accessed second language (L2) lexicons. Studies of such extensive reading (ER) programs indicate general language gains, but few examine vocabulary growth; none identify the words available for learning in an entire ER program or measure the extent to which participants learn them. This article describes a way of tackling this measurement challenge using electronic scanning, lexical frequency profiling, and individualized checklist testing. The method was pilot tested in an ER program where 21 ESL learners freely chose books that interested them. The innovative methodology proved to be feasible to implement and effective in assessing word knowledge gains. Growth rates were higher than those found in earlier studies. Research applications of the flexible corpus-based approach are discussed. © 2005 The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes.
This study tests the claim that word learning and retention in a second language are contingent upon a task's involvement load (i.e. the amount of need, search, and evaluation it imposes), as proposed by Laufer and Hulstijn (2001). Seventy-nine beginning learners of Spanish completed one of three vocabulary learning tasks that varied in the amount of involvement (i.e. mental effort) they induced: reading comprehension (no effort), reading comprehension plus target word suppliance (moderate effort), and sentence writing (strong effort). Passive and active knowledge of the target words was assessed immediately after treatment and two weeks later. In line with the predictions of the Involvement Load Hypothesis, retention was highest in the sentence writing task, lower in the reading plus fill-in task, and lowest in the reading comprehension task. However, when time on task was considered, the benefit associated with more involving tasks faded. The results are discussed in light of form-focused vocabulary instruction.
The study investigates the effect of explicit contrastive analysis and translation activities on the incidental acquisition of single words and collocations. We compared three high school groups of learners of the same L1 and comparable L2 (English) proficiency. Each group represented one instructional condition: meaning focused instruction (MFI), non-contrastive form-focused instruction (FFI), and contrastive analysis and translation (CAT). The target items consisted of ten unfamiliar words and ten collocations in L2English. The MFI group performed content-oriented tasks which did not require attention to the target items. The FFI group performed text-based vocabulary tasks which focused on the target items. The CAT group was assigned text-based translation tasks: from L2 into L1, and from L1 into L2. During the correction stage, the teacher provided a contrastive analysis of the target items and their L1 translation options. Time-on-task was kept constant in the three groups. After completing the tasks, the three groups were tested on the retention of the target items by two tests: active recall and passive recall. A week later, the participants received the same tests. The CAT (contrastive analysis and translation) group significantly outperformed the other two groups on all the tests. These superior results are discussed in light of the 'noticing' hypothesis, 'pushed output', 'task-induced involvement load', and the influence that L1 exerts on the acquisition of L2 vocabulary.
Examines the potential for vocabulary learning using a corpus of 42 grade readers from one series of graded readers (seven at each of six levels in the series). It was found that in order to have 95% coverage of the running words at a level in the series, it was necessary to already know the vocabulary of the current level in the scheme. (Author/VWL)
Incidental vocabulary learning from context and 2 factors that might influence it, access to a dictionary and verbal ability, were examined among 112 second-year university students. Results indicate that subjects learned more words while reading for meaning, but high verbal ability students and those using a dictionary learn more. (71 references) (LB)
This paper presents a classification scheme for readingrelated vocabulary exercise types currently advocated in ESL/EFL textbooks. The scheme was developed within the context of an ongoing research project on L2 vocabulary acquisition through reading.
The classification scheme proposes a hierarchy of the degree and type of mental processing required by various kinds of vocabulary exercises, in accordance with an information processing framework for the acquisition of L2 knowledge from input (Gass, 1988). It reflects a view of initial vocabulary acquisition as a rnultistage, iterative process involving repeated exposures to new words in meaningful contexts.
The categories of the classification scheme are: selective attention, recognition, manipulation, interpretation, and production. The theoretical rationale for the classification scheme will be presented together with illustrative examples. Evidence for the validity of sample exercises will then be discussed. Finally.. implications for vocabulary research and teaching will be considered.
This study investigates the effects of receptive and productive
vocabulary learning on word knowledge. Japanese students studying
English as a foreign language learned target words in three glossed
sentences and in a sentence production task in two experiments. Five
aspects of vocabulary knowledge—orthography, syntax, association,
grammatical functions, and meaning and form—were each measured by
receptive and productive tests. The study uses an innovative
methodology in that each target word was tested in 10 different ways.
The first experiment showed that, when the same amount of time was
spent on both tasks, the reading task was superior. The second
experiment showed that, when the allotted time on tasks depends on the
amount of time needed for completion, with the writing task requiring
more time, the writing task was more effective. If the second
experiment represents authentic learning, then a stronger argument can
be made to use productive vocabulary learning tasks over receptive
tasks. a
This study investigated the relationship between receptive and productive vocabulary size. The experimental design expanded upon earlier methodologies by using equivalent receptive and productive test formats with different receptive and productive target words to provide more accurate results. Translation tests were scored at two levels of sensitivity to measure receptive and productive knowledge of meaning and form. The results showed that total receptive vocabulary size was larger than productive vocabulary. When responses were scored for fuller knowledge, receptive vocabulary size was also found to be greater than productive vocabulary size in each of three word frequency bands, with the difference between receptive and productive knowledge increasing as the frequency of the words decreased. However, when responses were scored for partial knowledge, there was little difference among vocabulary sizes at each frequency band. The findings also indicated that receptive vocabulary size might give some indication of productive vocabulary size. Learners who have a larger receptive vocabulary are likely to know more of those words productively than learners who have a smaller receptive vocabulary.
This study investigated three techniques designed to increase the chances that second language (L2) readers look up and learn unfamiliar words during and after reading an L2 text. Participants in the study, 137 college students in Belgium (L1 = Dutch, L2 = German), were randomly assigned to one of four conditions, forming combinations of two between-subject factors: ± prereading test announcement and ± postreading vocabulary task. Comprehension questions were used to direct participants' attention to half of the 16 target words in this study, creating the within-subject factor (word relevance). Participants accomplished the experimental tasks at computers. They could look up the meaning of unfamiliar words in an online dictionary. The dependent variables are the following: use of online dictionary during reading, performance on a word-form recognition test, and performance on two word-meaning recall tests (immediate and delayed). Test announcement and word relevance substantially prompted participants to use the online dictionary more. Only test announcement and vocabulary task (not word relevance) affected performance in the word recognition test positively. Both word relevance and postreading vocabulary task substantially affected word retention in the recall posttests. These findings, together with those of the studies reviewed, provide robust evidence that the low incidence of vocabulary acquisition through reading (“input only”) can be substantially boosted by techniques that make students look up the meaning of unknown words, process their form-meaning relationship elaborately, and process them again after reading (“input plus”).
Hulstijn and Laufer (2001) proposed a motivational-cognitive construct of task-induced involvement to account for variation in effectiveness among different vocabulary learning tasks. Building upon their original research, this study consisted of two experiments investigating the involvement load hypothesis in vocabulary learning. Experiment 1 compared the performance of 64 adult English as a second language (ESL) learners from a range of countries at two different proficiency levels (i.e., matriculated undergraduate students vs. students in an Intensive English Program) to ascertain the effectiveness of three vocabulary tasks with different levels of task-induced involvement. Experiment 2 investigated whether two tasks hypothesized to represent the same level of task-induced involvement would result in equivalent initial learning and retention of target words by 20 adult ESL learners at two different levels of proficiency. The results of Experiment 1 showed that a higher level of learner involvement during the task promoted more effective initial vocabulary learning and better retention of the new words. The findings of Experiment 2 indicated that when different tasks had the same involvement load, they resulted in similar amounts of initial vocabulary learning and retention of new words. The results of the two experiments are discussed in light of the involvement load hypothesis.
This article focuses on the contribution to vocabulary learning of the use of bilingual dictionaries during reading by 293 Japanese university students studying English as a foreign language. The results of the study show that students who used a dictionary scored significantly better on a vocabulary test than students who did not use a dictionary. However, evidence appeared for differential item functioning: Some items were harder for the group that used dictionaries. A possible explanation for this tendency is that students who were unable to locate the appropriate gloss in the dictionary were misled as to the meaning of the word. Moreover, students who used a dictionary read nearly half as quickly as the group that did not use dictionaries.
IntroductionIncidental and Intentional Learning in the Psychological LiteratureEmpirical Studies on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary LearningMethodological Issues in Incidental and Intentional Vocabulary-Learning StudiesConclusions
This study investigates the vocabulary learning opportunities in an ELT course book designed for upper-intermediate learners. All the words appearing in the 12 chapters of the text were analyzed. The results suggest that the text would provide opportunities to deepen knowledge of the second 1,000 most frequent words in English, and would provide a context for pre-teaching of academic words met in the text for learners on an academic pathway. The results also suggest that the text would provide minimal opportunities for learners to develop vocabulary knowledge beyond high frequency and academic words. The findings demonstrate a need to supplement use of such texts with an extensive reading program and other forms of language rich input to promote vocabulary development.
EFL learners in two countries participated in two parallel experiments testing whether retention of vocabulary acquired incidentally is contingent on amount of task-induced involvement. Short- and long-term retention of ten unfamiliar words was investigated in three learning tasks (reading comprehension, comprehension plus filling in target words, and composition-writing with target words) with varying “involvement loads”—various combinations of need, search, and evaluation. Time-on-task, regarded as inherent to a task, differed among all three tasks. As predicted, amount of retention was related to amount of task-induced involvement load: Retention was highest in the composition task, lower in reading plus fill-in, and lowest in the reading. These results are discussed in light of the construct of task-induced involvement.
The Introduction has three main aims. First, it provides a historical sketch of form-focused instruction research, documenting the origins of this branch of second language acquisition, the research questions that have been addressed, and current trends. Second, it seeks to define and conceptualize what is meant by “form-focused instruction” by distinguishing it from “meaning-focused instruction” and by describing three types of form-focused instruction in terms of whether the primary focus is on form or meaning and whether the instructional attention to target forms is intensive or extensive. Various instructional options relating to each type are also described. Third, the Introduction offers a discussion of the main research methods that have been used to investigate form-focused instruction in terms of a broad distinction between confirmatory and interpretative research. Methods of measuring “acquisition” in form-focused instruction research are also considered.