The Early Identification of Language-Based Reading Disabilities

Abstract

Research and clinical practice clearly demonstrate that many reading disabilities are language-based. Because the language deficits associated with reading disabilities are often present during the preschool years, these deficits can serve as early indicators of risk for reading disabilities. This exchange briefly reviews the language basis of reading disabilities and provides a checklist of language deficits frequently associated with reading disabilities. It is intended that this checklist be used by professionals for the early identification of reading disabilities.

Full text

CLINICAL
EXCHANGE
The
Early
Identification
of
Language-Based
Reading
Disabilities
Hugh W.
Catts
University
of
Kansas, Lawrence
raditionally,
reading/learning
disabilities
have
been
identified
primarily
on
the
basis
of
reading
problems
(Critchley,
1970;
Thomson,
1984). As
a
result,
most children
with
these disabilities
have
not
been
identified
until
they
have
entered
school
and
experienced
significant
difficulties learning
to
read.
Unfortunately,
such
reading
failure
is
frequently
accompa-
nied
by
a
host
of
negative
consequences (Spear-Swerling
&
Sternberg,
1994;
Stanovich,
1986).
Children
who
encounter
early reading
problems
often
become less
motivated
to
read,
develop
lower
expectations
of
their abilities,
and gain
less
practice
reading
than
do
good
readers. Consequently,
they
may fall
farther
and
farther behind their
peers
in
reading
and
academic
achievement.
Current research
suggests,
however,
that
children at
risk
for
reading
disabilities
can be
identified
before
experienc-
ing
failure
in
learning
to read (Badian,
McAnulty,
Duffy,
&
Als,
1990;
Catts,
1991).
This
work
indicates
that
in
many
cases, reading
disabilities
are
language-based
disorders
(Catts,
1989a;
Kamhi
&
Catts,
1989;
Wagner
&
Torgesen,
ABSTRACT:
Research
and
clinical
practice
clearly
demonstrate
that
many
reading
disabilities
are
language-
based.
Because the
language deficits
associated
with
reading
disabilities
are
often
present
during
the
preschool
years,
these
deficits
can serve
as
early
indicators
of
risk
for
reading
disabilities.
This
exchange
briefly
reviews
the
language
basis
of reading
disabilities
and
provides
a
checklist
of
language
deficits frequently
associated
with
reading
disabilities.
It is
intended
that
this
checklist
be
used
by
professionals
for
the
early
identification
of
reading
disabilities.
KEY
WORDS:
reading
disabilities,
language impairments,
phonological
processing,
early
identification
1987).
These
disorders
generally
manifest
themselves
in
terms
of
difficulties
in
oral
language development.
Children
at
risk
for
reading
disabilities
may
demonstrate
early
problems
in
expressive
morphology
or
syntax
(Bishop
&
Adams,
1990;
Scarborough,
1990).
Others
may
have
difficulties
in
understanding
words
and
sentences
(Catts,
1993;
Menyuk,
Chesnick, Liebergott,
Korngold,
D'Agostino,
&
Belanger,
1991;
Tallal,
Curtiss,
&
Kaplan,
1989).
The
latter
problems
in the
comprehension of
language
can
significantly influence
children's
ability
to
understand
what
they
read.
Written
language
is
highly
decontextualized
and
its comprehension
relies heavily
on
a
well-developed
vocabulary
and
a
clear
understanding of
the
structural
components
(e.g.,
function
words)
and
rules
of
language
(e.g.,
syntax,
pragmatics).
Some
children
at
risk
for
reading
disabilities
will
not
show
early
difficulties
in
expressive
language
or compre-
hension. However,
many
of
these children
will
have
problems
in
what
has
been
termed phonological processing
(Catts,
1989b;
Wagner
&
Torgesen,
1987).
These
problems
include
a
lack
of
sensitivity
or
awareness
of
the
speech
sounds
in
words (e.g.,
phonological awareness)
(Bradley
&
Bryant,
1983;
Fletcher
et
al., 1994).
Phonological
process-
ing
deficits further
include problems
in word
retrieval
(Badian,
McAnulty,
Duffy,
&
Als,
1990;
Wolf,
1984),
verbal
short-term
memory
(Torgesen,
1985),
and
speech
production
(Catts,
1989c;
Snowling,
1981).
These various
deficits
have
been
shown
to
be
closely related
to
children's
ability
to
learn
to
recognize printed
words.
A
lack
of
awareness
of
the sounds
in
words
and/or
difficulties
storing
and
retrieving phonological information
may
impact
children's
ability
to
learn
sound-letter correspondence
and
its
use
in
decoding
printed
words
(Stanovich,
1988).
Most
of
the
language
deficits
described
above
can
be
observed
in
at-risk children
before
the
beginning
of
formal
reading
instruction.
As
a
result,
these deficits
may serve
as
86
LANGUAGE,
SPEECH,
AND
HEARING
SERVICES
IN
SCHOOLS
*
Vol.
28
0161-1461/97/2801-0086
American
Speech-Language-Hearing
Association

early
indicators
of
a
potential
reading
disability
and allow
us
to
identify children
who
are at
risk
before reading
instruction.
Once
identified,
early
intervention
may help
reduce reading
failure
and
the
negative consequences
of
this
failure
(Fey,
Catts,
&
Larrivee,
1995).
The
checklist
(Appendix)
is
designed
to
assist
teachers,
special educators,
psychologists,
speech-language patholo-
gists,
and
parents
in
the
identification
of
the
speech/
language problems
that
may
be indicative
of
risk
for
reading disabilities.
The
checklist
is
designed
to
be
used
with
children
at
the
end
of
kindergarten
or
beginning
of
first
grade.
Some
of
the
descriptors,
however,
may
also
characterize
older
children
with
language-based reading
problems.
No
single
descriptor
will
conclusively
identify
a
child
as
being
at
risk. However,
the
more
descriptors
that
are
checked, the more
likely
it
is
that
the
child
may
experience difficulties
in
learning to
read.
In
the case
of
a
child
receiving
a
large
number
of
checks,
a
full
evaluation
should
be
carried out.
See
Catts
(1996)
for
suggestions
for
diagnostic
procedures and
materials
for this
evaluation.
REFERENCES
Badian,
N.,
McAnulty,
G.,
Duffy,
F.,
&
Als,
H. (1990).
Prediction of
dyslexia
in
kindergarten boys.
Annals
of
Dyslexia,
41,
221-243.
Bishop,
D.,
&
Adams,
C.
(1990).
A
prospective
study
of
the
relationship
between specific language impairments, phonologi-
cal disorders,
and
reading
retardation.
Journal
of
Child
Psychology
and
Psychiatry,
21,
1027-1050.
Bradley,
L.,
&
Bryant,
P.
(1983).
Categorizing sounds
and
learning
to
read:
A
causal
connection.
Nature,
30,
788-790.
Catts,
H.
(1989a).
Defining dyslexia
as
a
developmental language
disorder.
Annals
of
Dyslexia,
39,
50-64.
Catts,
H.
(1989b).
Phonological
processing
deficits
and
reading
disabilities.
In A.
Kamhi
&
H.
Catts
(Eds.),
Reading
disabilities:
A
developmental
language
perspective.
Boston,
MA:
Allyn
&
Bacon.
Catts,
H.
(1989c). Speech
production deficits
in
developmental
dyslexia.
Journal
of
Speech
and
Hearing
Disorders,
54,
422-428.
Catts,
H.
(1991).
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identification
of
reading
disabilities.
Topics
in
Language
Disorders,
12,
1-16.
Catts,
H.
(1993).
The
relationship
between speech-language
impairments
and
reading
disabilities.
Journal
of
Speech
and
Hearing
Research,
36,
948-958.
Catts,
H.
(1996).
Defining dyslexia
as
a
developmental language
disorder:
An
expanded
view.
Topics
in
Language
Disorders,
16,
14-29.
Critchley, M.
(1970).
The
dyslexic
child.
London:
Heineman
Medical Books.
Fey,
M., Catts,
H.,
&
Larrivee,
L.
(1995).
Preparing
preschoolers
for
the
academic
and
social challenges
of
school.
In
M.
Fey,
J.
Windsor,
&
S.
Warren
(Eds.),
Language intervention:
Preschool
through
the
elementary
years
(pp.
3-37).
Baltimore,
MD:
Paul
Brooks.
Fletcher,
J.,
Shaywitz,
S.,
Shankweiler,
D.,
Katz,
L.
Liberman,
I., Stuebing,
K.,
Francis,
D.,
Fowler,
A.,
&
Shaywitz,
B.
(1994).
Cognitive
profiles
of
reading
disability: Comparisons
of
discrepancy
and
low
achievement
definitions.
Journal
of
Educational
Psychology,
86,
6-23.
Kamhi,
A.,
&
Catts, H.
(1989).
Reading
disabilities:
A
develop-
mental
language perspective.
Boston,
MA:
Allyn
&
Bacon.
Menyuk,
P.,
Chesnick,
M.,
Liebergott,
J.,
Korngold,
B.,
D'Agostino,
R.,
&
Belanger,
A.
(1991).
Predicting reading
problems
in
at-risk
children.
Journal
of
Speech
and
Hearing
Research,
34,
893-903.
Scarborough,
H.
(1990).
Very
early
language
deficits
in
dyslexic
children.
Child
Development,
61,
1728-1743.
Snowling,
M.
(1981).
Phonemic
deficits
in
developmental
dyslexia.
Psychological
Research,
43,
219-234.
Spear-Swerling,
L.,
&
Sternberg,
R.
(1994). The
road not taken:
An
integrative
theoretical
model
of
reading
disabilities.
Journal
of
Learning
Disabilities,
27,
91-103.
Stanovich,
K.
(1986).
"Matthew effects"
in reading:
Some
consequences
of
individual
differences
in
the
acquisition
of
literacy.
Reading Research
Quarterly,
21,
360-407.
Stanovich,
K.
(1988).
The
right
and wrong
places
to
look
for
the
locus
of
reading disabilities.
Annals
of
Dyslexia,
38.
154-177.
Tallal,
P.,
Curtiss,
S.,
&
Kaplan,
R.
(1989).
The
San
Diego
longitudinal
study:
Evaluating
the
outcomes
of
preschool
impairments
in
language
development. Final report
NINCDS.
Washington,
DC.
Thomson,
M.
(1984).
Developmental dyslexia:
Its
nature,
assessment,
and
remediation.
London:
Edward
Arnold.
Torgesen,
J.
(1985).
Memory
processes in reading disordered
children.
Journal
of
Learning
Disabilities,
18,
35-357.
Wagner,
R.,
&
Torgesen,
J.
(1987). The
nature
of
phonological
processing
and
its
causal
role
in
the
acquisition
of
reading
skills.
Psychological
Bulletin,
101,
199-212.
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M.
(1984). Naming,
reading,
and
the dyslexias:
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Received
July
12,
1995
Accepted
November
27,
1995
Contact
author:
Hugh
W.
Catts, Speech-Language-Hearing:
Sciences
and
Disorders,
The
University
of
Kansas,
3031
Dole,
Lawrence,
KS
66045-2181.
Catts
87

APPENDIX
A.
EARLY
IDENTIFICATION
OF
LANGUAGE-BASED
READING
DISABILITIES:
A
CHECKLIST
'
Child's
Name:_
___
Birthday:
Date
Completed:
Age:
This
checklist
is
designed
to
identify children
who
are at
risk
for
language-based
reading
disabilities.
It is
intended
for
use
with
children
at the
end
of
kindergarten or
beginning
of
first
grade. Each
of
the
descriptors
listed
below
should
be
carefully
considered
and
those
that
characterize
the
child's
behavior/history
should
be
checked.
A
child
receiving
a
large number
of
checks
should
be
referred for
a
more
in-depth evaluation.
Speech Sound
Awareness
L
doesn't
understand
and
enjoy
rhymes
J
doesn't
easily recognize
that
words
may
begin
with
the
same
sound
JL
has
difficulty counting
the
syllables
in
spoken words
U
has
problem
clapping
hands
or
tapping
feet
in
rhythm
with
songs
and/or rhymes
IJ
demonstrates
problems
learning
sound-letter
correspondences
Word
Retrieval
I
has
difficulty
retrieving
a
specific
word
(e.g.,
calls
a
sheep
a
"goat"
or
says
"you
know,
a
woolly animal")
LO
shows
poor
memory
for classmates'
names
I
speech
is
hesitant,
filled
with
pauses
or
vocalizations
(e.g.,
"um,"
"you
know")
Li
frequently
uses
words
lacking
specificity
(e.g.,
"stuff," "thing,"
"what
you
call
it")
L
has
a
problem
remembering/retrieving
verbal sequences
(e.g.,
days
of
the
week,
alphabet)
Verbal
Memory
LI
has
difficulty
remembering
instructions or
directions
LO
shows
problems learning
names
of
people
or
places
i
has
difficulty
remembering
the
words
to
songs or poems
LO
has
problems learning
a
second
language
Speech
Production/Perception
LO
has
problems
saying common
words
with
difficult
sound
patterns
(e.g.,
animal,
cinnamon, specific)
Li
mishears
and
subsequently mispronounces
words
or
names
I
confuses
a
similar
sounding
word
with
another
word
(e.g.,
saying
"The
Entire
State
Building
is
in
New
York")
L
combines sound
patterns
of similar
words (e.g.,
saying
"escavator" for
escalator)
L
shows
frequent
slips
of
the
tongue
(e.g.,
saying
"brue
blush"
for
blue
brush.)
Li
has
difficulty
with
tongue
twisters
(e.g., she
sells
seashells)
Comprehension
L
only
responds
to
part of
a
multiple element request
or
instruction
L
requests multiple repetitions
of
instructions/directions
with
little
improvement
in
comprehension
L
relies too
much
on
context
to
understand
what
is
said
II
has
difficulty
understanding questions
L
fails
to
understand age-appropriate
stories
L
has
difficulty
making inferences,
predicting
outcomes, drawing
conclusions
L
lacks
understanding
of
spatial
terms
such
as
left-right,
front-back
Expressive
Language
L
talks
in
short
sentences
O
makes
errors
in
grammar
(e.g.,
"he
goed
to
the
store"
or
"me
want
that")
O
lacks
variety
in
vocabulary
(e.g.,
uses
"good"
to mean
happy,
kind,
polite)
II
has
difficulty
giving directions
or
explanations
(e.g., may
show
multiple revisions
or
dead
ends)
L
relates
stories or events
in
a
disorganized
or
incomplete
manner
L
may have
much
to say,
but provides little
specific
detail
L
has
difficulty
with
the
rules
of
conversation,
such
as
turn taking,
staying
on
topic,
indicating
when
he/she
does
not
understand
January
1997
88
LANGUAGE,
SPEECH,
AND
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SERVICES
IN
SCHOOLS
Vol.
28

Other
Important
Factors
OI has
a
prior
history
of
problems
in
language comprehension and/or production
L
has
a
family
history
of
spoken or
written
language
problems
[O
has
limited
exposure
to
literacy
in
the home
O]
lacks
interest
in
books
and
shared
reading
activities
O
does
not
engage
readily
in
pretend
play
Comments
This
checklist
was
prepared
by
Hugh
W.
Catts,
University
of
Kansas. Some
descriptors
have
been
taken
from
Language
for
Learning:
A
Checklist
for
Language
Difficulties,
Melbourne, Australia:
OZ
Child.
The
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association
grants
permission
to photocopy this
checklist for
professional
use.
Catts
89