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The Social Scientific Study of Leadership: Quo Vadis?
Abstract
In this article, we review the history of the social scientific study of leadership and the prevailing theories of leadership that enjoy empirical support. We demonstrate that the development of knowledge concerning leadership phenomena has been truly cumulative and that much is currently known about leadership. We identify the contributions of the trait, behavioral, contingency and neocharismatic paradigms and the results of empirical research on prevailing theories. Issues that warrant research in each of the paradigms and theories are described. Ten additional topics for further investigation are discussed and specific recommendations are made with regard to future research on each of these topics.
... 27 Additionally, they handle stress constructively by adapting and seeking support when necessary, fulfilling their internal needs and maintaining job satisfaction. 46 In contrast, individuals with low proactive personalities tend to maintain the status quo and passively respond to their circumstances, making them more vulnerable to severe stress and depression in challenging environments. 46 Consequently, students with low proactive personalities may require more guidance from task-oriented and relationship-oriented supervisors than those with high proactive personalities. ...
... 46 In contrast, individuals with low proactive personalities tend to maintain the status quo and passively respond to their circumstances, making them more vulnerable to severe stress and depression in challenging environments. 46 Consequently, students with low proactive personalities may require more guidance from task-oriented and relationship-oriented supervisors than those with high proactive personalities. Thus, we propose that: ...
Background
The mental health of graduate students is increasingly turning into one of the main issues in global health. Understanding the antecedents of graduate students’ mental health and finding ways to improve the situation are crucial for the students and the entire educational system.
Purpose
This study explores the relationship between supervisor narcissism and graduate students’ mental health. Additionally, the study examines the mediating effects of mentorship styles (relationship-oriented and task-oriented) and the moderating role of student’s proactive personality.
Methods
This study conducted a three-wave survey, with each wave administered at four-month intervals, involving 547 graduate students. They completed questionnaires on supervisor narcissism, mentorship styles, proactive personality, and mental health. SPSS 26.0 was used to test our hypotheses.
Results
This study indicated that: (1) Supervisor narcissism was negatively associated with graduate students’ mental health, fully mediated by relationship-oriented and task-oriented mentorships; (2) Graduate students’ proactive personalities moderated the relationship between these mentorship styles and their mental health; (3) Graduate students’ proactive personalities moderated the indirect effect of supervisor narcissism on students’ mental health through these mentorship styles.
Conclusion
This study reveals the detrimental mechanisms through which supervisor narcissism affects graduate students’ mental health. It also demonstrates that enhancing students’ proactive personalities can mitigate these adverse effects. These findings provide empirical evidence within the context of higher education. Practical implications are provided for supervisors, students, and university administrators, emphasizing the importance of effectively matching supervisors with students and promoting students’ proactive personalities. These measures are essential for improving the mental health of graduate students.
... Stage-1: Transformational Leadership Model: Motives and Traits Having motives and traits are preconditions for individuals to be effective leaders. Motives are leadership drive and motivation, and traits are integrity, honesty and confidence (House & Aditya, 1997). There is some evidence that other traits such as originality, flexibility, and charisma are associated with effective leadership, but there is insufficient evidence of this (House & Aditya, 1997). ...
... Motives are leadership drive and motivation, and traits are integrity, honesty and confidence (House & Aditya, 1997). There is some evidence that other traits such as originality, flexibility, and charisma are associated with effective leadership, but there is insufficient evidence of this (House & Aditya, 1997). There are some motives that are general, and they move people to act across different situations. ...
This study uses the weighting approach to evaluate decision-making strategies in order to rank the importance of the traits that a leader must have in order for the Cadet Regiment Commander to create a transformational leadership model. A decision support system's weighted sum or simple weighting method can be applied to issue solving through the use of Simple Additive Weighting (SAW). This kind of research is called mixed method since it uses a survey methodology along with qualitative and descriptive quantitative research methods. The author, who is actively engaged in the research, is the research instrument in and of himself. The purpose of this study is to determine the respondents by means of a purposive technique, in which information for research objectives will only come from specific individuals or parties. The study's findings should determine which leader qualities are most important for creating a transformational leadership model. This will be done by applying the SAW method, which is based on five weighting criteria for transformational leadership: motivation and traits, knowledge, skills, and abilities, organizational culture, vision, and vision implementation. Of the five characteristics of the leader, motivation and traits are the criteria that are the top priority to be developed based on the respondents' assessment with a value of 22.3%. Where a leader must have the ability to achieve, ambition, persistence, passion, initiative, have leadership motivation, and the values of honesty/integrity, confidence, originality, creativity, and flexibility/adaptability needed to set an example, encourage and motivate other cadets towards achieving the vision of the organization. Followed by weighting on other criteria such as knowledge, skills, and abilities at 20.5%, organizational culture at 18.8%, vision at 19.5%, and vision implementation at 18.9%.
... A. Bah, T. Li DOI: 10.4236/oalib. 1112976 3 Open Access Library Journal ues and expectations and their desired level of autonomy also play a role in whether they view leadership behavior as respectful or not [3]. ...
... There is a wealth of academic and practical writing on the theories and development of leadership. House and Adity (1997) [11] described the development of the key ideas that impacted the science-based notion of leadership during the 20 th century. Nonetheless, the start of the twenty-first century saw a surge in interest in this issue [1]. ...
Introduction: Educational leadership in vocational education is a complex and important topic. Nevertheless, there is still a deficiency in academic discourse regarding the bibliometric analysis of this body of knowledge. Objectives: This study aims to give a summary of the development of this topic by locating publications indexed in the Scopus database between 2014 and 2024. Methods: Educational leadership in vocational education-related research has garnered significant scholarly attention for more than fifty years, yielding a large corpus of literature on the domain. Using keywords like "vocational education" and "educational leadership," the search produced a total of 15315 articles at first. After applying exclusion and inclusion criteria, 2089 studies were kept for final analysis. The research includes the most prolific researchers, top 10 journals, yearly article frequency, composition of articles, top 10 contributing countries, the most influential articles, and the most frequently used keywords. Results: The study's main contribution is to highlight the bibliometric insights gained through in-depth analysis regarding educational leadership in vocational education. Additionally, universities, trends, and nations are displayed and analyzed. Conclusions: The conclusions provide useful insights for academics into the precise growth of educational leadership in vocational education through organizing the field's body of existing literature.
... Perhaps additional features linked to narcissism or psychopathy hold such allure that we overlook certain elements of dark traits in leaders. These could include traits such as charm, charisma, fostering a positive first impression, intelligence, confidence, and boldness, which research has identified as associated with dark triad/tetrad traits and characteristics important for effective leadership (House & Aditya, 1997;House & Howell, 1992;Paulhus, 1998). The literature also suggests that a specific type of psychopathy, in the form of fearless dominance observed in former US presidents, may be associated with attributes beneficial for successful leadership, including significant correlations with persuasiveness, crisis management, initiation of new projects, willingness to take risks, interpersonal dominance, boldness, and being perceived as a world figure (Lilienfeld et al., 2012). ...
... Leaders have to make a conscious effort in the management of knowledge, which deals with three aspects: creating, sharing and exploiting knowledge (Bryant, 2003). Transformational leadership theory and transactional leadership theory provide a foundation for understanding how leaders impact the cultivation of knowledge (Bass, 1985;Conger & Kanungo, 1998;House, 1977;House & Aditya, 1997). ...
... The pursuit of high performance is critical to an organization's success. According to [29,30], the pursuit of high performance Sustainability 2024, 16, 8035 4 of 21 plays a crucial role in an organization's success. People who want to change organizations think about strategic leadership in terms of the thinking and visionary skills of those leaders [31]. ...
Strategic entrepreneurship behaviors enhance business performance and sustainability in Turkish SMEs by fostering innovation and leveraging competitive intensity for sustained growth. Employing strategic leadership theory, this study examines the effect of strategic entrepreneurial behaviors on business performance through the mediation role of business model innovation (BMI) and the moderation effect of competitive intensity. A quantitative approach was used, and data from 313 managers and business owners in Turkish small and medium enterprises (SMEs) were collected using a structured questionnaire. The results have shown that strategic entrepreneurial behavior significantly and positively impacts business performance and business model innovation. Business model innovation, in turn, positively affects business performance. Competitive intensity moderates the relationship between strategic entrepreneurial behavior and business model innovation, strengthening it under higher competitive pressure levels. However, competitive intensity does not moderate the direct link between strategic entrepreneurial behavior and business performance. At higher levels of competitive intensity, the conditional indirect effect of strategic entrepreneurial behavior on business performance through business model innovation becomes more prominent. The findings of this study offer actionable insights for enhancing SME performance through strategic entrepreneurship, innovative business models, and competitive strategy adaptation.
... Studies in leadership show that traits, style, and contingency theories dominate the leadership literature (House & Aditya, 1997;Puni et al., 2014). Leadership style theory appear to be most dominant of the three and this movement finds its roots in the 1945 studies at the Ohio State University which provided us with the basic dimensions of leadership behavior in formal organizations. ...
Strategy implementation is only successful when backed by an effective leadership defined by how well leadership functions are carried out and how managers typically behave towards members of an organization. The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of leadership styles on the implementation of strategic plans by devolved governments in Kenya. The study is anchored on Higgins's model of strategy implementation, and transformational and transactional theories of leadership. The study employed a cross-sectional descriptive survey research design. The target population was the 47 devolved governments in Kenya represented by the five devolved units in the Nairobi Metropolitan area comprising of Nairobi Kiambu, Murang’a, Machakos and Kajiado. A stratified random sampling technique was applied to Yamane’ formula to select 217 respondents from 474 senior county officers the five counties. Data was collected using a semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire. A pilot test was carried out to assess the reliability and validity of the data collection instrument. Descriptive data analysis and inferential statistics were produced using SPSS and presented in figures and tables. Qualitative data collected using the open-ended questions was transformed into quantitative data by use of content analysis. The study findings revealed that the transformational leadership style had a positive and significant influence on strategy implementation while the transactional leadership style had a negative and insignificant influence on strategy implementation by the devolved governments in Kenya. The study found other factors such as lack of prioritization of projects, lack of public participation and feedback and political interference were important. The study therefore provides empirical evidence in evaluating transformational and transactional leadership styles, adds valuable insights on how to improve strategic management practice, and presents recommendation for leadership policy development by devolved government and options for future research studies.
... Az etikust az etikátlántól megkülönböztető viselkedést több tényező álápján vizsgálták á kutátók. Báss [14], Howell és Avolio [13] tánulmányá álápján, há á vezetőt az altruizmussal szemben az önzőség hátározzá meg, mint fő motívum, akkor etikátlánnák tekinthető, de House és Aditya [15] szerint akkor is etikátlán á vezető, há visszáél á vezetői hátálmávál. Ennek tükrében különböztetik meg á közösségi (etikus) és á személyes/ego (etikátlán) vezérelvű karizmatikus vezetési stílust, bizonyítván, hogy az önmágábán karizmatikus stílus még nem jelent egyértelmű etikus vezetést is. ...
In a globalised and accelerated economy, managers are under increasing pressure to reconcile organisational goals that are independent from human being with the reality of human relationships. The human being, as a being with intellect and senses striving towards happiness, is the focus of positive leadership styles and is their major concern in the field of management theory. In this article, three such positive styles, authentic, servant and ethical leadership principles and their operating conditions are compared using international literature. The literature time span of about two decades shows that the evolution of the ethical leadership literature has slowed down, while the authentic and servant leadership literature has continued to evolve and is still evolving today. The comparative table that appears in this study highlights both commonalities and distinctions, in that, in addition to high moral and ethical standards, the authentic style focuses primarily on the person of the leader, the ethical leader on the ethical standards of the organisation, while the servant leader focuses on the development of the well-being of the subordinate, the other person, even through self-sacrifice. We intend to use the results of this research to investigate measures of positive styles, preparing the scientific ground for future primary empirical field studies.
... The concept that leadership is essentially a process of guiding and facilitating followers toward individual and collective need fulfillment raises the question of which specific needs are involved. We argue that leadership is ultimately rooted in the fulfillment of a set of specific follower needs, in setting collective goals, providing a sense of safety, autonomy, fairness, ethics, success, recognition, authenticity, growth, absorption, caring, belonging, and purpose, and guiding followers to develop and achieve (McClelland, 1975;House and Aditya, 1997;House et al., 2004;Gagné and Deci, 2005;Deci and Ryan, 2008;Hogg et al., 2012). Accordingly, our analysis centers on coding leadership concepts and assessment items to the specific psychological needs that can be met to varying degrees through the decisions and actions of leadership. ...
Of all the most prominent business concepts (e.g., DE&I, employee well-being, employee engagement, organizational culture, etc.) none rivals leadership in terms of public interest and annual monetary investment. Despite the obvious importance of leadership as a determinant of many important outcomes, the concept of leadership has been surprisingly hard to pin down, lacking consensus as to its precise meaning. As numerous authors introduce ever more constructs (e.g., servant leadership, toxic leadership, sustainable leadership, transformational leadership, etc.), the leadership concept has become emblematic of the problem of construct proliferation. Like the related fields of employee engagement, subjective well-being, and organizational culture, the leadership field is in desperate need of a clearly articulated meta-theory to house its many constructs, allowing theory and measurement to build up instead of continuing to pile up. This paper argues for grounding the concept of leadership within the psychological literature on human needs. In reviewing the leading definitions of leadership in the literature we find that they are reducible to a core set of follower needs that can be facilitated or inhibited by leaders. We propose that there is substantial value in adopting a comprehensive needs-based taxonomy over current approaches. We consider the impact of setting the concepts of leadership within existing need constructs for each of the following: (a) theory, especially the development of leadership frameworks and particularly how the concept of leadership relates to the concepts of organizational culture, employee well-being, and employee engagement; (b) methods, including the value of applying a comprehensive, structured model; and (c) practice, where we emphasize the practical advantages of clear operational definitions.
... House's [28] chapter presciently anticipates some of the later works' notions of transformational leaders who have incorporated charisma into their indices, which have remained a conceptual issue with the concept [30,31]. In fact, Bryman [32] conceptualized transformational leadership as involving charisma, vision, inspiration, vision, and change-centered leadership, which House and Aditiya [33] termed neocharismatic. ...
Countless articles and books have been written about transformational leadership theory since the late 1970s when it first appeared in the literature. The purpose of this conceptual paper is to illustrate that transformational leadership contains both logical and psychological problems when explaining the nature of leadership and as an empirically supportable and verifiable construct. It aims to show that its failure to garner evidence from a scientific methodological analysis may not invalidate its efficacy if it is viewed from an alternative lens, such as aesthetics. An aesthetic frame is one that recognizes sensuous ways of knowing since feelings and emotions are just as important as reason and logic. An aesthetic approach to leadership would see leadership as more of an art than a science. This paper is not arguing for the abandonment of transformational leadership theory; rather it is saying that an aesthetic lens is likely to yield a richer, more artistic, and more nuanced account of what is understood and enacted as transformational leadership. This way, the manifestations of transformational leadership may live on in the arts and continue to inspire and motivate us.
... Ezen a téren máris van olyan, aki a motivációelméletek kapcsán és a Maslow-féle tézis kritikájaként a perszonalizmus és individualizmus, pontosabban az egyén, mint személyiség (personality) és az egyén, mint individuum (individuality) -főleg a metafizikai alapvetések és tényezők figyelmen kívül hagyása mellett -közötti kapcsolatra és az ezzel összefüggő redukcionista megközelítés kétségeire világít rá (Acevedo, 2018). Az egyénre fókuszálva pedig kiváltképpen kétségeket vet fel, és annak tudatában, hogy az empirikus alapokon nyugvó bizonyítások, melyek Maslow tézisét alátámasztani hivatottak, majdnem egészében az Egyesült Államokban láttak napvilágot (House & Aditya, 1997;Mawere et al., 2016), jogosan merülhet fel a kérdés, hogy vajon univerzális, minden társadalomra, kultúrára, közösségre vonatkoztatható elméletről van szó, vagy pusztán az 1900-as évek derekára jellemző, amerikai középosztályt vizsgáló, nyugati típusú, indi vidualista társadalmak tekintetében relevanciával bíró tézisről beszélhetünk (Hofstede, 1984). Ezzel kapcsolatban például van, aki Afrika esetében hangsúlyozza a szükséglethierarchiának alternatív megvalósulási formáját tekintettel arra, hogy az elsődleges motivációk az afrikai kontinens számos régiójában a szociális interakciókkal és a közösséggel kapcsolatosak (Mawere et al., 2016). ...
A szükséglettel és motivációval kapcsolatos elméletek, a Maslow-féle szükséglethierarchia, valamint a bűnözői magatartás, pontosabban a bűncselekmények elkövetésekor megfigyelhető, az elkövetőt a cselekmény végrehajtására ösztönző motiváció és szükséglet párhuzamos vizsgálata mind kriminálpszichológiai, mind szociológiai perspektívából érdekes következtetések levonására adhat okot, s az elkövetők és az általuk végrehajtott kriminális cselekmények, továbbá az egyének bűncselekménnyel kapcsolatos életszakaszaira jellemző szükségletkielégítettsége, az ebből fakadó stressz, frusztráció és a szükségletek által motivált viselkedésmintázatok és magatartásformák átfogó és mélyebb megismerése preventív stratégiák és prediktív módszerek kidolgozására, társadalomközpontú, mégis az egyéni preferenciákat és frusztrációval kapcsolatos tényezőket, és lehetséges megoldásaikat magában foglaló magyarázatok felismerésére adhat lehetőséget. Ezen kutatás során a motivációelmélettel kapcsolatos szakirodalmi kitekintést követően kísérletet teszek a tárgyalt szükségletkategóriák és a kutatás során felismert és megjelent bűnözői magatartásformák, illetve az elkövetők szociális hátterére vonatkozó adatok összehangolására, ennek fényében pedig a Magyarországon 2012 és 2014 között jogerősen lezárt emberölések és emberölési kísérletek elemzésére kerül sor. A tanulmány arra keresi a választ, hogy az ilyen típusú ügyek vizsgálata relevanciával bírhat-e az egyes szükségletelméletek, elsődlegesen pedig a Maslow-féle szükséglethierarchia tükrében, s lehetséges-e az elkövetők motivációi és az egyes szükségletkategóriák között párhuzamot vonni, és amennyiben igen, az egyes szükségletek milyen arányban jelennek meg az elkövetői oldalon.
... The underpinning theory for this paper is the Fiedler's Contingency Leadership Style Theory which was developed by Fred Fiedler in 1967. The assumption of the contingency leadership style theory determines whether a person's leadership style is task or relationship orientated and if the situation matches the leader's style to maximize performance in the organisation (House & Aditya, 1997). More so, the theory assumes that there's no one best style of leadership; instead, a leader's effectiveness is determined by if the leader's style and the environment in which the leader performs matches each other. ...
The paper investigated whether prior entrepreneurial exposure moderated the effect of entrepreneurial leadership and learning orientation on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) growth. A cross-sectional survey research design was utilized to retrieve data from 471 owners/managers of SMEs in South-West Nigeria. The simple random sampling technique was applied. The results from the pilot study were used to determine the test of reliability and validity of the adapted questionnaire. The partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis findings showed that entrepreneurial leadership and learning orientation effect on SME growth is not significantly moderated by prior entrepreneurial exposure in South-West, Nigeria [(βiz= 0.002, t = 22.771, p>0.05)], although it has a positive effect. SME owners and managers should leverage their entrepreneurial insights and experiences to inform strategic initiatives, foster innovation, and drive growth. Additionally, creating opportunities for knowledge exchange and collaboration among individuals with diverse entrepreneurial backgrounds could enrich the organizational learning process and fuel innovation. Nevertheless, there are no guarantees that prior entrepreneurial exposure would affect firm growth.
This chapter explores the diverse contexts in which leaders operate, emphasizing the importance of understanding one’s specific leadership environment to lead effectively. Variations exist across several areas: the tasks employees undertake differ in certainty, dynamics, and time pressure; employees themselves vary in motivation, competence, and individuality. Teams, too, present unique characteristics, such as physical collaboration distance, size, cohesion, trust, and task types. Additionally, teams are embedded differently within the organization, with factors like strategic relevance, risk, and autonomy. Managers can reflect on their leadership context through individual or workshop-based approaches, using tools that focus more on fostering thoughtful reflection than on achieving a definitive assessment. Often, leaders navigate multiple leadership contexts simultaneously, adapting to each as needed.
Empirical research in financial economics has been focused on studying the impact of CEO characteristics on corporate decision-making and performance. This practice overlooks the leadership and organizational research which postulates that for a senior leader to make a strategic change, managers at subordinate levels must support and reinforce such change. We investigate the effect of the top management team (TMT) political heterogeneity on the CEO’s ability to implant her/his ideology onto the firm’s CSR policies. We present evidence that a CEO’s ideology can shape CSR policies only in the existence of a politically homogeneous TMT. This result is robust to the use of the propensity score matching approach to address selection bias, the instrumental variable approach to address endogeneity, and Oster’s test to address omitted variables bias. Further analysis shows that the association between CSR and firm value is contingent on the degree of TMT political heterogeneity. Specifically, shareholders seem to benefit from CSR initiatives only when they receive the full support of both CEOs and members of the TMTs.
This study aims to find the relationship between various elements of emotional intelligence, namely self-emotion appraisal, others' emotion appraisal, use of emotions, and regulation of emotions with leadership effectiveness among the student leaders in India. Data was collected from 151 university/college students across the country (N = 151). Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS) was used to measure the emotional intelligence levels of student leaders, and five items from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) developed by Bass and Avolio were used to measure the leadership effectiveness of the student leaders. Correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to predict the effect of emotional intelligence constructs on leadership effectiveness. The results revealed that self-emotion appraisal, use of emotions, and regulation of emotions has significant effect on leadership effectiveness whereas others' emotion appraisal didn't show significant influence in the regression analysis.
La investigación responde a explicar los factores de liderazgo resilientes que inciden en la supervivencia de las empresas en un ambiente volátil, incierto, complejo y ambiguo. Un estudio de tipo descriptivo, correlacional y factorial mediante encuesta a una muestra de 344 empresas. Se diseñó y validó un instrumento para medir el liderazgo resiliente. Los resultados fueron que el impulso a seguidores, la comunicación y la confianza son los factores con mayor ponderación. Se concluye que las características personales de los empresarios, como la competencia y organización, influyen significativamente en la resiliencia del liderazgo, mientras que las relaciones interpersonales y familiares también impactan en la supervivencia de las pequeñas y medianas empresas, además de que los líderes resilientes desarrollan un liderazgo transformacional basado en la autoconfianza y la comunicación efectiva.
Bu çalışma, özellikle kriz durumlarında İstanbul'daki restoran mutfaklarında çalışanlara odaklanarak, Türkiye'deki şeflerin liderlik özelliklerini değerlendirmeyi ve tanımlamayı amaçlamaktadır. Araştırma, 10 şefle yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler yaparak; mutfak profesyonellerin krizleri nasıl ele aldıklarını, hazırlıklı olma durumlarını, anlık tepkilerini ve kriz sonrası değerlendirmelerini incelemektedir. Bulgular, mutfak ortamlarında etkili kriz yönetiminin açık iletişim, sakin tavır ve ekibe güven verme becerisi gerektirdiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışmanın sonuçları, kriz dönemlerinde hasarı azaltmak ve operasyonel istikrarı sürdürmek için şeflerin esnek ve pratik bir liderlik tarzına ihtiyaç duyduğunu göstermektedir.
Introducción: Esta investigación hace parte de un proyecto en desarrollo, y tuvo el propósito de identificar las competencias multiculturales en el liderazgo en una organización del sector sevicios en Bogotá D.C., estudios recientes destacan que la postpandemia se ha caracterizado por la hiperconectividad tecnológica y las nuevas formas de hacer negocios, así como por crear nuevos productos y servicios. No obstante, se ha comprobado que contar con equipos multiculutrales no garantiza comportamientos de innovación, por ello el liderazgo debe ser culturalmente competente para comprender los grupos exóticos y relacionarse de forma efectiva según sus diferentes estilos de vida, representaciones, tradiciones y valores. Metodología: Se utilizó un enfoque cuantitativo con alcance descriptivo, de tipo no experimental con corte transversal. Con relación al instrumento, se aplicó la Escala de compencias multiculturales de líderes del Valle del Cauca (Ospina, 2017). Resultados: Se identificaron las competencias multiculturales del liderazgo en la empresa estudiada, según la ciudad/región de procedencia de estos. Discusión: Las competencias multiculturales en el liderazgo en ámbitos diversos constituyen una de las bases primordiales de la efectividad y la productividad en los equipos diversos. Conclusiones: El liderazgo multicultural cuenta con capacidadades que les distinguen para enfrentar un entorno incierto y complejo, sin embargo estas se deben saber administrar.
This study delves into the intricate relationship between leadership and followership within the context of online social movements, aligning with the Critical Leadership Studies (CLS) framework. In an era dominated by digital communication, social media platforms offer a unique vantage point to re-examine the pivotal, yet often overlooked, role of power in shaping leader-follower interactions. Through meticulous textual analysis, the research uncovers key themes such as the co-construction of leadership and the emergence of partnership relationships, both of which are facilitated by emotional engagement and projection. The findings illuminate a dialectical perspective on how leadership is collectively enacted in virtual spaces, challenging traditional notions of hierarchical authority. This work not only enriches the discourse on the meaning-making processes inherent in leadership but also highlights the broader implications for followership empowerment in the social media landscape.
The synergy between leadership and followership, shaped by power dynamics, politics, and influence, is important for navigating the complexities of organizational life. These interconnected roles, relying on ethical leadership to foster loyalty, trust, and shared vision within teams, form the foundation for effective teamwork and organizational success. Understanding how power is exercised through formal authority, expertise, and influence, along with the strategic use of politics, is essential for both leaders and followers. The workplace involves navigating complex interpersonal relationships, authority gradients, corporate maneuvering, and power distribution. Inclusive leadership is increasingly recognized as essential in addressing these challenges, particularly as organizations adapt to the demands of a globalized workforce. Understanding the impact of gender dynamics, generational shifts such as the expectations of Generation Z, and the importance of diversity and inclusion are critical for modern leaders. Mastering these skills requires strategic acumen, emotional intelligence, deep understanding of human behavior, cultural competence, and an inclusive mindset, all contributing to personal and professional growth. By embedding inclusivity into ethical leadership frameworks and organizational policies, leaders can empower diverse teams, drive innovation, and achieve sustainable success in today’s interconnected world.
Contemporary research considers leadership as a dynamic relationship between three components: leaders, followers, and the context, where the context encompasses complex interactions between organizational stakeholders and the outside environment (cultural, social, and political). Proficiency in social influence, power, and politics to navigate the context is essential, as it allows leaders and followers to effectively manage this symbiotic relationship, particularly during the organizational healing process. This chapter reflects on the new leadership of empowering employees and showing empathy, seemingly causing a reversal of who is leading whom. The remainder of the chapter offers a comprehensive overview of the book and its major themes that emphasize the importance of relational dynamics of leadership and followership: engaging stakeholders, fostering consensus, and driving change. It is time for business schools and leadership professionals to recognize interhuman respect, empowerment (coaching and mentoring), trust, fairness, openness, and empathy as fundamental qualities of leadership. This paradigm shift is vital, moving beyond the confines of the traditional “Type A” personality to a more evolved understanding of effective leadership and followership. It marks a departure from the antiquated “carrot-and-stick,” or Type X, approaches to managing subordinates through rewards or punishments. For instance, Donald Trump’s election victory in US Presidential 2024 hinges on a sophisticated understanding of the complex interplay between power, political strategies, and influential forces, (economic concerns, strategic political maneuvers, media influence, and cultural dynamics), all of which will shape the unfolding narrative leading up to the election.
This paper explored the long-term leadership of Zelensky given that when the original article The Zelensky Files: Strategies and approaches for university leaders was published, it was still early days in the war. Zelensky, it seemed went from an obscure, challenged peacetime leader to a global ‘Ambassador for Freedom’ in a very short time. Indeed, as noted in the original article, leadership in all its diverse guises is messy, complex, unpredictable, and often enigmatic. Talented leaders fail every day; other average leaders emerge as the right leader for the right reasons and purposes; and perhaps with a little luck become leadership icons. Zelensky exemplifies the latter but, in reality he also is talented and has an instinctive and refined blend of pragmatism and common sense making him the right choice for Ukraine and freedom. Zelensky’s long-term leadership strategies include 1) the leader’s core values and approaches comprise his/her leadership foundation; 2) recognition that leadership decision making is difficult and often heart wrenching; 3) Partnerships are essential strategies for leaders and organizations; 4) the right people in the right positions is more important than talent; and 5) the leader’s singular and only role is to lead. The world of the university seems at times a universe away from the battlefield and yet when we delve down for a closer look, we find the most remarkable alignments where leadership strategies turn out to be fluid, agile, and adaptive to the needs of many diverse leaders and organizations, wartime and peacetime, and beyond. Ukraine’s universities have faced the destruction of war. One in five institutions in Ukraine have been damaged or destroyed. Student enrolments have declined and many foreign students left the country whilst research output overall has been estimated to have declined between 10-18%. Indeed, even with all these challenges, this is where an inspirational, transformative leader who exudes confidence, belief in the cause and love of country during one of the most serious crises in Ukraine’s history since the Holodomor (Ukrainian Famine, 1932-33), can inspire a nation. And, despite the ravages of war, the university doors are open and the classroom lights have remained on in most institutions. The images of students taking online courses in shelters and bunkers whilst others risk their lives sitting by a fountain or in a park for better Internet access all in the name of freedom. The indelible point here is education is freedom. Education is innovation. Education is the future. Education is peaceful revolution. And, education is the heart and soul of the human condition. The Zelensky Files are not a leadership panacea for all the complex issues facing the modern university. A word that may best describe the leadership continuum is kaleidoscope. The kaleidoscope of leadership often seen as a changing array of shapes, sizes and colors. The kaleidoscope of leadership with its changing approaches, strategies and blends over time with the Zeitgeist norms of the era becoming the catalyst for exploring new situational contexts, evolving trends and developments and yet accepting there is no one single silver bullet style of leadership for resolving all issues. The Zelensky Files do, however, contribute to our journey to better understand that elusive, enigmatic endeavor – leadership.
This chapter builds on the previous chapter, broadening the understanding of leadership to include cultural contexts. The chapter looks at how leadership is viewed in a range of cultures and via different theories, including the Southern African philosophy of Ubuntu, the eastern philosophy of Taoism, and other philosophical and cultural perspectives. The chapter also implicates culture in the question of vision in leadership. The chapter applies some of its learning through case studies. More specifically, the chapter looks an example of ground-up leadership in the form of the #endSARS movement in Nigeria, and top-down leadership in the One Laptop Per Child project. The aim of the chapter is to gain a more informed perspective on Global Leadership as an area of enquiry and practice for the higher education curriculum. The chapter presents additional theories and examples of their instantiation. Questions of culture in leadership also support a discussion of vision; where it comes from and its orientation.
This chapter examines the interplay between the attributes of Self-Protective Leadership (SPL) and start-up businesses survival. SPL attributes include self-centeredness, status-consciousness, conflict induction, face-saving, and procedural adherence. The survival of start-up businesses is the dependent variable, with strategic entrepreneurial behavior acting as a moderating variable.
This chapter focuses on the theory and practice of leadership. Leadership is not merely about what is prescribed in the literature, but also in practice. There are various theories of leadership. I seek to test the theories of leadership with what I have personally experienced in the organisations that I have worked for. To achieve this, the chapter reflects on my interactions with senior colleagues
in leadership roles. The leadership and styles theories are used as the framework for the discussion and arguments being made in this chapter. The intention is not to provide a detailed discussion of each of these leadership theories, but to understand the evolution of theoretical debates and research on leadership.
This study aims to examine the impact of transactional leadership style on intellectual capital, and knowledge sharing as a mediator between transactional leadership and each of the intellectual capital components (human capital, structural capital, and relational capital) in the public sector, in Sulaymaniyah governorate in north of Iraq. The research model was settled based on the previous investigations on transactional leadership, knowledge sharing, and intellectual capital. To collect the data, convenience sampling was utilized, questionnaires were sent to employees in five customs directorates, and 355 responses were received. The research model analytical estimation was conducted through the employment of (SEM) Structural Equation Modeling by using Partial Least Square (PLS). The findings of the research show that transactional leadership has a significant relationship with knowledge sharing as well as with all three components of intellectual capital. Knowledge sharing also has a significant correlation with the components of intellectual capital. Moreover, the study's results show that knowledge sharing mediates the relationship between transactional leadership with human capital, structural capital, and relational capital.
The right leadership style can facilitateemployees motivation, inspiration, and persuade them to accomplish their individual and organizational goals with the support of management. Many SMEs in Nigeria do not include their staff in the decision-making process due to a lack of strong leadership abilities, which hinders their capacity to flourish. This study investigated how the leadership styles of SME in Asaba, Delta State impacts the organizational efficiency of those businesses. The study gathered information from SME managers and owners using a cross-sectional survey research methodology. The study found a weak but positive nexus between authoritarian leadership style and performance of SME. The study also discovered that the performance of SMEs in Delta State is significantly impacted by democratic leadership style. As a result, it may be concluded that a democratic leadership style impacted positively on SME performance in Delta State at the rate of 17%. Finally, the study concludes that laissez-faire leadership has the highest positive impact on the performance of SMEs in Delta State. This indicated that laissez-faire leadership had the most significant impact amongst the three leadership styles or philosophies examined. It showed that Delta State's small and medium-sized firms would perform 48% percent better for every 1 percent increase in Laissez-Faire leadership. Therefore, this study recommends that in SME management, a laissez-faire leadership style should be applied in appropriate situations to foster creativity.
Introduction: Attempts to explain the leader emergence process have resulted in several seemingly contradictory assertions about who attains power and influence in groups. As such, this study pioneers a novel integration of the two dominant explanations of leader emergence: superiority (trait-based perspective) and similarity (social identity perspective). We posit that the two primary aspects of non-normality—uniqueness and strangeness—have opposing relationships with leader emergence in groups.
Methodology: Through multiple regression analyses, we utilized peer and self-evaluations in a sample of 308 participants in seven social organizations to assess whether and how non-normality evaluations predict formal and informal leadership emergence.
Results: This study provides general support for a relationship between the non-normality dimensions and leader emergence, particularly when evaluations are made by peers. Additionally, we demonstrate that non-normality evaluations predict leader emergence above and beyond evaluations of the Big Five.
Discussion: This research lays the groundwork for a new era in leadership
research that embraces the duality of individual traits and social perceptions, paving the way for a more nuanced and effective approach to leader emergence within dynamic group settings.
Purpose
This study aims to examine the interplay between person–environment fit (PE fit), empowerment and leader–member exchange (LMX) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
Design/methodology/approach
The final sample consisted of 733 respondents collected randomly from various business sectors in the UAE. Data was analysed and tested for moderation using Smart-PLS.
Findings
This study’s results show LMX to be a negative moderator. They reveal that LMX plays a crucial role in the relationship between PE Fit and job satisfaction, particularly when the fit is poor. Moreover, LMX was found to be a significant negative moderator between empowerment and satisfaction, highlighting its importance when empowerment is lacking.
Research limitations/implications
It is important to note that the current study is cross-sectional, which means it cannot establish causation. Only a pure experimental design can provide such conclusive evidence. This limitation should be considered when interpreting the findings.
Practical implications
This research highlights a significant finding in turbulent times when PE fit and empowering practices are often lacking: LMX can play a compensatory role. This insight can be invaluable for human resources managers, offering a practical solution to maintaining employee satisfaction in challenging times.
Social implications
The positive impact of enhanced job satisfaction and improved work relationships extends beyond the organization to stakeholders and society at large.
Originality/value
This research fills a gap in the existing literature by investigating the interaction between the PE fit variable and other variables, such as LMX. This novel approach offers a new perspective for HR managers, potentially enabling them to enhance their strategies for improving employee satisfaction.
This qualitative study investigates the influence of organizational culture on procurement practices across multiple industries, aiming to enrich understanding of how cultural dynamics shape decision-making, supplier relationships, and strategic outcomes within procurement departments. Through semi-structured interviews with procurement professionals, organizational leaders, and industry experts, data were gathered to explore the impact of leadership styles, ethical frameworks, industry dynamics, and external influences on procurement strategies. Findings reveal that transformational leadership fosters innovation, strategic alignment, and long-term partnerships in procurement, whereas transactional and autocratic styles may prioritize cost efficiency over broader strategic goals. Ethical cultures within organizations significantly influence supplier selection criteria and procurement decisions, highlighting the importance of integrating ethical standards consistently to mitigate risks and enhance organizational reputation. Industry-specific dynamics necessitate adaptive procurement strategies tailored to technological advancements, regulatory requirements, and market conditions. Effective supplier relationship management practices, emphasizing trust, transparency, and mutual value creation, enhance procurement effectiveness and resilience. Organizational structures, including centralized, decentralized, and hybrid models, play crucial roles in optimizing procurement operations. Learning cultures promoting continuous improvement and knowledge sharing foster innovation and resilience in procurement practices. External factors such as market volatility, regulatory changes, and geopolitical risks underscore the need for adaptive procurement strategies and robust risk management practices. This study contributes to theoretical insights and practical implications for aligning organizational culture with strategic procurement objectives to optimize effectiveness, mitigate risks, and drive sustainable value creation across supply chains.
Leadership research has often been critiqued for its tendency towards oversimplified and excessive positivity. However, leadership is widely acknowledged to have a political dimension across various entities, from small businesses to multinational corporations and governmental bodies. Utilizing the cultural biopsychological model facilitates a more sophisticated grasp of these dynamics. The chapter delineates eight critical leadership qualities that mirror contextual influence, hereby deepening the comprehension of leadership at the confluence of leaders, followers, organizations, and the broader society. Contributions from leading scholars and practitioners offer a comprehensive and interdisciplinary perspective, concentrating on cutting-edge such as 'Machiavellian leader effectiveness', 'changes in the world of work', 'presidential leadership' and 'leadership, AI and machine learning'. They address questions and challenge established answers. The chapter concludes by addressing unresolved issues and suggesting avenues for future research.
Research on educational leadership has received significant scholarly attention for over half a century, resulting in a vast body of literature on the subject. Numerous studies and inquiries have highlighted that educational leadership is an exceedingly complex and vital phenomenon. However, a gap persists in scholarly discourse concerning the presentation of this knowledge base through bibliometric analysis. This study seeks to provide an overview of the evolution of this concept by identifying articles published in journals indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS) database between 1993 and 2024. The search employed terms such as "educational leadership", „educational management” "leadership in education," "school leadership”, „teacher leadership”, „style leadership in education” and „school improvement”yielding an initial total of 3089 articles. Subsequently, following the application of inclusion and exclusion criteria, 1583 studies were retained for analysis. The research encompasses the general profile of articles, the annual distribution of article frequency, the most prolific researchers, journals, and countries by article count, the most influential articles based on citation count, the most frequently recurring author keywords, and the year of publication of these articles. The contribution of this study lies primarily in highlighting the systematic methodologies employed in research analyses in educational leadership and management. Additionally, collaborative patterns among authors, universities, and countries are presented and analyzed. The conclusions provide valuable insights for researchers into the detailed evolution of educational leadership through the structuring of existing literature in the field. Furthermore, based on these findings, some suggestions have been made for identifying new research themes in this field, both conceptually and empirically.
This academic assignment explores the intersection of personal financial planning and leadership traits, aiming to elucidate the role of leadership in effective financial management. The introduction provides an overview of personal financial planning and underscores the significance of leadership qualities in this context. The subsequent chapters delve into understanding personal financial planning, leadership traits, and their integration into financial decision-making processes. Ethical considerations in financial planning and contemporary issues in the field are also examined. The assignment concludes with future directions, recommendations, and reflections on the relationship between leadership traits and financial planning. By synthesizing theoretical frameworks, empirical evidence, and practical insights, this work contributes to a deeper understanding of how leadership attributes can enhance individual financial mastery.
Management scholars have long examined gender disparities in leaders’ communication and followers’ reactions. There is, however, a paucity of research that takes an intersectional perspective. This article takes that step, using an intersectional lens to examine women leaders’ use of dominant language and how others receive it. Leveraging advances in natural-language processing, I analyzed the stereotype content of more than 250,000 Congressional remarks (Study 1) and almost one million tweets (Study 2) by leaders. Women leaders referenced dominance more than men did (using more words like “powerful”), violating stereotypes that depict women as submissive. However, as theory on racialized gender stereotypes suggests, this effect was unique to White leaders. Two additional studies revealed backlash to women leaders’ use of dominant language. Analyzing almost 18,000 editorials revealed the more that women leaders referenced dominance, the more they were portrayed as dominant but also cold. Effects were strongest for Black and Latina women (Study 3). Finally, an experiment using simulated social media profiles found the more that Black women (but not men) leaders referenced dominance, the more voters rated them as less likeable, a result that was unique to Black leaders (Study 4). The article demonstrates the critical importance of intersectionality for understanding gender inequality in leaders’ communication and its reception by the media and the public.
This chapter explains the place of leadership and management in twenty-first century businesses and organizations, the role of leaders and managers, leadership styles as well as their levels of efficacy. Every organization needs effective leaders and managers as well as competent and reliable followers. It also posits that the place of leadership and management in today’s organizations is changing because leaders and managers require a practical approach to leadership and management to substantially influence and motivate their followers to enhance their performance to achieve set organizational objectives.
The study of leadership is a rapidly evolving, multi-faceted field. Leadership is conceptualized as a social and cultural phenomenon, which cannot be fully understood from a single perspective. The leader, the follower, the context, and the interactions amongst these elements must all be considered. The Oxford Handbook of Leadership explores the complex relationship between leader, led, and the environment that constitutes leadership. Divided into five parts, it provides comprehensive coverage of the field, exploring the roles individual attributes, training, and development play in generating a leader who is capable of performing effectively. The book also examines the relationship between leadership and contextual factors in terms of an organizational role, one's culture, and a specific setting (e.g. military, higher education, and presidential). It furthermore takes a critical look at the extent to which leader and follower behavior in a social and/or organizational context are tied. The book also gives a consideration of what leader effectiveness means (i.e., what differentiates effective from ineffective leadership, including insights and scholarship that have emerged regarding this issue). A concluding chapter provides some overall comments concerning the current state of leadership research and some thoughts about potentially fruitful directions. Leadership research has come a long way, but the inherent dimensionality of the field leaves room for new insights and new directions.
The contingency model of leadership was applied in a field study of job stress. Fifty-one university administrators completed a series of questionnaires that assessed their leadership style, degree of situational control within their work setting, perceived job stress, physical health, and psychological well-being. Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAS) showed that administrators whose leadership style and level of situational control were “in match” reported significantly less job stress, fewer health problems, and fewer days missed from work than administrators who were “out of match.” The results are discussed as supporting the person-environment fit model of job stress.
This paper is an in-depth analysis of transforming leadership - its definition and its basic features. In a study of a suburban school district, six elements were found to be important in the transformative process: a crisis, the school district's mission and vision, an ad hoc structure, a participative process, and a skillful change agent in the role of superintendent.
Charismatic leadership has been largely overlooked by organizational theorists. In part, the problem can be attributed to the lack of a systematic conceptual framework Drawing from political science, sociology, and social psychology, this paper addresses the problem by proposing a model linking organizational contexts to charismatic leadership. A series of research hypotheses is offered.
The empirical literature on charismatic or transformational leadership demonstrates that such leadership has profound effects on followers. However, while several versions of charismatic leadership theory predict such effects, none of them explains the process by which these effects are achieved. In this paper we seek to advance leadership theory by addressing this fundamental problem. We offer a self-concept based motivational theory to explain the process by which charismatic leader behaviors cause profound transformational effects on followers. The theory presents the argument that charismatic leadership has its effects by strongly engaging followers' self-concepts in the interest of the mission articulated by the leader. We derive from this theory testable propositions about (a) the behavior of charismatic leaders and their effects on followers, (b) the role of followers' values and orientations in the charismatic relationship, and (c) some of the organizational conditions that favor the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leaders.
This study involved analysis of incidents describing influence attempts from the perspective of an agent or a target. Influence behavior in the incidents was coded into nine influence tactics. A conceptual framework was presented to explain the selection and sequencing of tactics, and the model was used to derive specific hypotheses for individual tactics. Analysis of tactic combinations revealed that some tactics were used together much more often than others. Consistent with the model, some tactics were used more in initial influence attempts, and other tactics were used more in follow-up influence attempts. Differences in the use of tactics with subordinates, peers, and superiors were also consistent with the model, and the results verified directional differences found in earlier research with questionnaires.
This is an exploratory study examining the structure of leader influence among Australian, English, Japanese, and Taiwanese managers. The findings from these cultures are compared to a previous study of managers in the United States. This study demonstrates the utility of examining the factor structure of survey instruments rather than relying only on scale reliability scores in cross-cultural research. The leader influence strategies of Reason, Bargaining, Higher Authority, Sanctions, Friendliness, Assertiveness, and Coalition were found in each country and collectively accounted for at least half of the variance in leader influence with subordinates. However, the specific tactics defining these leader influence strategies were not uniform across cultures.
Results from afield study with 152 members of a large urban hospital indicate that the relationship between the quality of leader-member exchange (LMX) and subordinate performance is moderated by perceptions of task analyzability and variety. LMX and performance are found to be significantly related when task challenge is either very high or very low. Under these task conditions, data indicate that there is a positive link between LMX and performance such that a higher quality leader-member exchange correlates with higher levels of performance. On the other hand, analyses also reveal that when tasks are perceived to be moderately challenging, no significant relationship between LMX and performance is present. In other words, these data suggest that characteristics of the task act as moderating agents of the LMX/performance relationship. Results are discussed in terms of theory development, managerial implications, andfuture LMX research.
This paper explores the case for a general threat-rigidity effect in individual, group, and organizational behavior. Evidence from multiple levels of analysis is summarized, showing a restriction in information processing and constriction of control under threat conditions. Possible mechanisms underlying such a multiple-level effect are explored, as are its possible functional and dysfunctional consequences.
In a constructive replication of past vertical dyad linkage (VDL) research, the leader-member exchange scores of 192 hospital employees in the United States were used to predict reports of felt equity and satisfaction, as well as employment status over a one-year period. Although the results failed to establish leader-member exchange as predictive of employee turnover, leader-member exchange was closely associated with satisfaction and felt equity. These results suggest that previous findings reported by Graen, Liden, and Hoel (1982) and Ferris (1985) should not be overgeneralized and that additional conceptual refinement of the VDL approach may be necessary.
Management development systems in the leading Japanese corporations have produced executives and managers who are commonly acknowledged to be among the best in the world. How these systems operate is not well understood. In this investigation of the 13-year career progress and current middle-management situations of 71 college graduates who entered a leading Japanese corporation at the same time, university quality, nature of first job assignment, quality of early dyadic exchange treatment from immediate superiors, and early job performance evaluations by immediate superiors were used to predict management progress at 13 years. Two different models of career mobility were investigated: an early competition (first 3 years) and a later competition (7 years) model. Results generally supported the early competition model suggested by an earlier 7-year study, but notable differences from ths earlier investigation were found. In addition, assessments of the current middle-management leadership situation, not included in the 7-year study also were found to be predictable by the early (first 3 years) model. Implications of these results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studies included cover the period from 1900 to October 1957 and do not include those studies wherein children constitute the sample. The review is concerned with 7 personality characteristics (introversion-extraversion, dominance, interpersonal sensitivity, masculinity-feminity, conservatism, intelligence, and adjustment) and their relationship to such group behavior variables as leadership, popularity, conformity, task activity, total activity, and social-emotional activity. Most of the studies yielded low positive relationships, intelligence being the best predictor of individual behavior in the group. Considering the studies as a whole, the author is encouraged by the many clear trends which emerge. 151 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
TAT protocols for 237 managers obtained at the managers' entry into the American Telephone and Telegraph Company were retrieved, scored for the personality variables in question, and correlated with the levels of promotion attained after 8 and 16 yrs. As predicted, the leadership motive pattern (moderate–high need (n) for Power, low n-Affiliation, and high Activity Inhibition) was significantly associated with managerial success after 8 and 16 yrs for the nontechnical managers. Among these Ss, n-Achievement was also associated with success, but only at lower levels when individual contributions were more important than the ability to influence people. Measures of maturity were associated with success, but only within subgroups of managers. None of these measures was associated with success for technical managers with engineering responsibilities. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies with 76 undergraduates revealed that traits can be used to predict behavior in only some situations. Consequently, the relative efficacy of multiple-act criteria (MAC) may be due in part to the fact that they have a higher probability of including at least one predictable situation. Thus, a reasonable alternative strategy to employing MAC is to attempt to specify those conditions in which single-act criteria are highly correlated with trait measures. Data also indicate that one of the most promising means of specifying when traits can and cannot predict behavior is through assessment of situational pressures. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Contends that M. J. Strube and J. E. Garcia's (see record
1981-30341-001) recent meta-analytic review of studies that tested F. E. Fiedler's (1967, 1978) contingency model contained several conceptual shortcomings. A reexamination of their techniques and review procedures reveals that the favorable conclusions drawn by Strube and Garcia, with respect to various features of the model, require qualification. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Applied meta-analytic techniques to research testing the statistical validity of F. E. Fiedler's (see record
1966-13161-001) contingency model of leadership effectiveness. Past validations of the model, as well as criticisms of those validations, are reviewed and discussed. A meta-analytic solution is presented as a more satisfactory way to assess the validation evidence quantitatively. This approach was used to examine 145 hypothesis tests validating Fiedler's model, as well as the 33 results on which the model is based. The model was extremely robust in predicting group performance, and through the use of meta-analytic techniques it was found that the inclusion of studies not directly examined in earlier reviews served to increase the model's predictive power. (70 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The rejection by psychologists of the trait explanation of leadership emergence can be attributed to the results of 2 major types of studies: attempts to identify leadership traits and the use of rotation designs. Numerous reviews of the literature consistently note the failure to isolate a specific leadership trait. Using a rotation design, D. C. Barnlund (see record
1963-01124-001), after varying both the task and member composition of groups and computing the correlation of leadership rank in one group with the average leadership ranks received in all other groups, reported that leadership emergence varied across group situations. Thus, his data suggested that leadership is not a stable characteristic. The present study, however, used D. A. Kenny's (1981) social relations model to reexamine Barnlund's conclusion. This reanalysis suggests that between 49% and 82% (representing lower- and upper-bound estimates) leadership variance can be attributed to some stable characteristic. It is speculated that this characteristic, rather than being a traditional personality trait, may actually involve the ability to perceive the needs and goals of a constituency and to adjust one's personal approach to group action accordingly. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Response flexibility as a basis for leadership was examined. Ss were 108 students who completed the self-monitoring scale and 4 group tasks, interacting with different people on each task. Tasks required as leader styles either initiating structure, consideration, persuasion, or production emphasis. After each task, group members rated each other on perceived leadership and on 4 scales corresponding to the aforementioned leader styles. Results indicated that 59% of the variance in leadership emergence was trait based; for 2 of the 4 tasks, leader rankings were significantly correlated with task-relevant behaviors; self-monitoring was significantly correlated both with average leader rankings and with task-relevant behaviors on 2 of the tasks. These findings suggest that trait-based variance in leadership may be due to social perceptiveness and response flexibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted a test of V. H. Vroom and P. W. Yetton's (1973) model of leadership behavior through a procedure that manipulated decision-process and situation attributes and did not rely on leader self-reports. 276 university business students were randomly formed into 4-person decision-making groups composed of a leader, 2 subordinates, and an observer. Each group attempted to solve 5 decision-making problems and was told to use different decision processes of the model for each problem. Evidence was found for the validity of the model: Decisions made with processes in the feasible set were significantly more effective than decisions made with processes outside the feasible set. Of the 105 decisions in which the leader's behavior agreed with the feasible set, 51 were effective, whereas only 31 of 87 decisions outside the feasible set were effective. Of the 7 rules underlying the model, 1 of 3 quality rules and 3 of 4 acceptance rules had effects as predicted. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper evaluates research on the impact of chief executive officers on corporate performance, taking Lieberson and O'Connor's pathbreaking study as its starting point. Although that study is commonly regarded as the principal source of empirical support for the view that leaders have little impact on organizational performance because they are constrained by situational factors, it is argued here that the study and its derivatives have provided consistent and compelling evidence that individual leaders do make a difference. The results of a study of large retail firms in the United Kingdom, designed to overcome the methodological problems of earlier studies of leadership and performance, are presented in support of this argument.
The existing division within organization theory between management and behavioral views is first demonstrated through an analysis of bibliographic listings. An attempt is then made to argue the case for amalgamation, using the frequently parallel literatures on span of control and correlates of group size as an example. These two literatures are reviewed at length and a synthesis, which appears to provide understanding beyond that available from either one separately, is presented. Accordingly, it is suggested that a similar merging of behavioral science and management knowledge in other areas may prove fruitful in advancing our understanding of organizational functioning.
This study examined the interactive influence of performance, the quality of a supervisor-subordinate relationship, and the duration of that relationship on performance ratings. The results suggest that, in both the short run and long run, the performance of employees in high-quality ''leader-member exchange'' relationships is rated high, regardless of their objectively measured performance. The ratings of employees in low-quality exchange relationships are consistent with their objective performance in the short run but high in the long run, regardless of objective performance.
The role of social and situational influences in the performance-rating process has received relatively little research attention yet merits increased attention. Although there has been acknowledgment of the role of social and situational factors in shaping rater cognition and evaluation, research has typically proceeded in a piecemeal fashion, isolating a single variable at a time. Such an approach fails to recognize that performance rating is a process with multiple social and situational facets that need to be considered simultaneously. In the present study, we tested a model of the performance-rating process, employing several social and situational variables that have been infrequently investigated and typically not in conjunction with one another. Results indicated support for the overall model and specific links within it. Implications of the results for performance-rating research are discussed. There is perhaps not a more important human resources system in organizations than performance evaluation. Supervisors' ratings of subordinates' performance represent critical decisions that are key influences on a variety of subsequent human resources actions and outcomes. Indeed, this pivotal role of performance evaluation has promoted systematic efforts to develop a more informed understanding of the performance-rating process. Landy and Farr (1980) issued a call for research investigating the cognitive processes underlying performance appraisal decisions. Although the process focus has generated considerable research concerning various components of performance-rating decisions, more comprehensive investigations incorporating several of those components has been lacking. Furthermore, process-oriented research has been limited by its reliance on laboratory studies (DeNisi & Williams, 1988). Whereas the cognitive processes involved in performance-rating decisions can be well illuminated in laboratory studies, the "quiet" nature of laboratory studies often does not match the "noisy" context in which performance-rating decisions are actually embedded (Lord & Maher, 1989).
Recent research in the area of leadership seems to point to the existence of four basic dimensions of leadership: support, interaction facilitation, goal emphasis, and work facilitation. Data from a recent study of 40 agencies of one of the leading life insurance companies are used to evaluate the impact of both supervisory and peer leadership upon outcomes of satisfaction and factorial performance measures. Results from the study suggest that this conceptual model is useful and that leadership's relation to organizational outcomes may best be studied when both leadership and effectiveness are multidimensional. Both peer and supervisory leadership measures relate to outcomes. In most instances, the ability to predict is enhanced by taking simultaneous account of certain nonleadership variables.
We argue in this paper that in an age of complexity, change, large enterprises, and nation states, leaders are more important than ever. However, their effectiveness depends on their personality and charisma and not solely on their control over bureaucratic structures. We used a study of U.S. presidents to test a general model of leader effectiveness that includes leader personality characteristics, charisma, crises, age of the institution headed by the leader, and leader effectiveness. Age of the presidency accounted for approximately 20 percent of the variance in presidential needs for power, achievement, and affiliation. Presidential needs and a measure of leader self-restraint in using power, the age of the presidency, and crises accounted for 24 percent of the variance in presidential charisma. Age of the presidency, crises, needs, and charisma together predicted from 25 percent to 66 percent of the variance in five measures of presidential performance. Our study demonstrates that personality and charisma do make a difference.
Social psychologists generally have rejected the notion that leadership can be explained by divine inspiration, inherited characteristics, or by a fortuitous combination of personal traits. Some modern theorists have proposed instead a situational theory of leadership, arguing that persons who emerge as leaders do so because their special talents are essential to the group at the moment. The same person, therefore, is unlikely to persist in a position of leadership from one group setting to another unless the conditions are similar.
This article examines employee dissatisfaction and the resultant decreased organizational effectiveness caused by role conflict in multiple authority organizations where an employee is subject to conflicting loyalties and directives. Possible remedies to the problem are examined.
The past 40 years have seen considerable strides in our understanding of leadership, which until recently focused on inherited traits and abilities. Although we now see leadership as a complex interaction between the leader and the social and organizational environment, this lesson is frequently ignored in personnel selection and leadership training. At this time, most leader selection and leadership training approaches have not been adequately validated. Further progress in these areas requires that we focus research on methods that integrate situational components into personnel selection and leadership training.
There has been renewed interest in dispositional explanations of individual behavior in organizations. We argue that this new stream of dispositional research is flawed both conceptually and methodologically, and we suggest several theoretical and empirical improvements. We conclude by discussing the costs of a dispositional perspective for both organizations and organizational participants.
In a field experiment involving 106 form-processing employees of a large, public service organization four treatment conditions are compared—leader—member exchange (LMX), job design, a combination of LMX and job design, and a placebo control—on satisfaction and productivity. The job design manipulation fails to take, and only the LMX condition results in significant before—after gains. Employee growth need strength moderates the LMX effect. Both dyadic exchange and work itself outcomes show significant gains in the LMX condition. The implications of these results are discussed.
The Vroom-Yetton contingency model of leadership behavior is described and critiqued. While there is some evidence for the validity of the model, the use of concurrent validation with self-report data seriously questions this validity. The model is of limited utility because it deals with only one aspect of leader behavior and is not as parsimonious as alternative models.
Forty-eight four-man groups were employed in an examination of the validity of group performance predictions generated by Fiedler's Contingency Model. The results of univariate and multivariate analyses of variance for a 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 (LPC × Leader—Member Relations × Task Structure × Position Power) factorial design failed to support the model. Limitations on the model's generalizability or the model's possible lack of predictive validity are offered as explanations for these data.
A field study was conducted to examine the relationship between leader-member exchange (LMX) and two types of employee behavior: citizenship behavior and impression management. One form of citizenship behavior, altruism, and one form of impression management, other-focused were significantly related to LMX. Implications of the results are discussed.
Numerous explanations for understanding the nature of superior-subordinate relationships are available in the leadership literature. Although these arguments differ, a common feature is that each view is based implicitly on particular levels of analysis. The purpose of the current study was to conceptualize and test alternative perspectives of superior-subordinate relationships by explicitly incorporating multiple levels of analysis in hypothesis generation and testing. Data from matched reports of superiors and subordinates were analyzed using Within and Between Analysis (WABA). Results from a sample of retail sales associates and their supervisors indicated that on the dimensions of attention, job latitude, satisfaction with performance, and job congruence, superior-subordinate relationships differed from one interpersonal relationship to another. In a sample of insurance agents and their managers, however, findings indicated that there were individual differences on these dimensions for superiors and subordinates. Implications of these different views of superior-subordinate relationships for future leadership research are discussed.
Over 20 years have passed since Robert J. House published his classic article, “A Path-Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness” in Administrative Science Quarterly (1971). Based on the work of Georgopolous, Mahoney, and Jones (1957) and the doctoral dissertation and earlier work of Evans (1968, 1970), House's path-goal conceptualization of leadership used Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory of motivation to identify the effects of leader behavior on subordinate outcome variables. An obvious question that comes to mind almost 2-12 decades later is: Where has such a road taken those of us in the leadership field? The present paper explores this issue by very briefly describing the theory (for more detail, see House, 1971; House & Dessler, 1974; House & Mitchell, 1974), summarizing the empirical evidence and discussing concerns about the future direction of path-goal leadership research.
Charisma is a Greek word that means “divinely inspired gift,” such as the ability to perform miracles or predict future events. The sociologist Max Weber (1947) used the term to describe a form of influence based not on tradition or formal authority but rather on follower perceptions that a leader is endowed with exceptional qualities. For many years, charisma was mostly the province of researchers studying political leadership and the leadership of social movements or religious cults. Charisma was rarely considered within the literature on organizational leadership until Bob House proposed a theory of charismatic leadership for leaders in large private and public sector organizations.
An explanation of the effects of leader behavior on subordinate satisfaction, motivation, and performance is presented. The explanation is derived from a path-goal theory of motivation. Dimensions of leader behavior such as leader initiating structure, consideration, authoritarianism, hierarchical influence, and closeness of supervision are analyzed in terms of path-goal variables such as valence and instrumentality. The theory specifies some of the situational moderators on which the effects of specific leader behaviors are contingent. A set of general propositions are advanced which integrate and explain earlier fragmentary research findings. Several specific predictions are made to illustrate how the general propositions can be operationalized. The usefulness of the theory is demonstrated by showing how several seemingly unrelated prior research findings could have been deduced from its general propositions and by applying it to reconcile what appear to be contradictory findings from prior studies. Results of two empirical studies are reported that provide support for seven of eight hypotheses derived directly from the general propositions of the theory. A third study designed to test three of the original eight hypotheses is also reported. Two of these three hypotheses are successfully replicated. In the light of these results and the integrative power of the theory, it is argued that the theory shows promise and should be further tested with experimental as well as correlational methods.
This study investigated the personality characteristics, leadership behaviors, and influence tactics of champions of technological innovations. Analyses of questionnaires and interview transcripts of twenty-five matched pairs of champions and nonchampions revealed that champions reported using transformational leader behaviors to a significantly greater extent than did nonchampions. Champions exhibited higher risk taking and innovativeness, initiated more influence attempts, and used a greater variety of influence tactics than nonchampions. Regression analysis of a model of champion emergence, relating personality characteristics, transformational leader behaviors, and influence tactics, showed that champions were significantly higher than nonchampions on all paths in the model.
Examines R. J. House's (1971) path-goal leadership theory suggesting that it is time to reexamine the level of support for the theory. In light of the absence of studies testing the critical motivational hypotheses of the theory it is hard to argue that the theory has undergone reasonable testing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)