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Human Trafficking in Eastern Europe: The Case of Bulgaria
Abstract
Eastern Europe is among the major sources of migrants who travel for work to other European nations. In this research, in-depth interviews and analysis of legal cases of migration in Bulgaria reveal that the typical kinds of human trafficking in the region are sexual exploitation, labor exploitation, forced servitude, and trafficking of pregnant women for the sale of their babies. For each type, I examine victim profiles, recruitment strategies, transportation, and the types of control and exploitation that traffickers use. Comparisons are drawn between the Bulgarian findings and patterns in other Eastern European nations.
... The main destinations of sex trafficking, according to Petrunov's (2014) The main form of crime is trafficking for sexual exploitation, both abroad and within the country (GRETA 2011, Petrunov 2014. A recent study also suggests that the prevalent form of recruitment used is 'intimate relationship or boyfriend' (Petrunov 2014). ...
... The main destinations of sex trafficking, according to Petrunov's (2014) The main form of crime is trafficking for sexual exploitation, both abroad and within the country (GRETA 2011, Petrunov 2014. A recent study also suggests that the prevalent form of recruitment used is 'intimate relationship or boyfriend' (Petrunov 2014). ...
... The main destinations of sex trafficking, according to Petrunov's (2014) The main form of crime is trafficking for sexual exploitation, both abroad and within the country (GRETA 2011, Petrunov 2014. A recent study also suggests that the prevalent form of recruitment used is 'intimate relationship or boyfriend' (Petrunov 2014). Women constitute the prevalent majority of victims and there are sizeable and concerning proportions of child victims detected (GRETA 2011). ...
This report chapter examines the extent to which the countires named have sufficiently taken into account their legal obligation to consider the gender perspective in their implentation of the EU anti-trafficking Directive. It examines the state practice and pioints out deficiences in each case, as well as making proposals for reledial actions.
... The main destinations of sex trafficking, according to Petrunov's (2014) The main form of crime is trafficking for sexual exploitation, both abroad and within the country (GRETA 2011, Petrunov 2014. A recent study also suggests that the prevalent form of recruitment used is 'intimate relationship or boyfriend' (Petrunov 2014). ...
... The main destinations of sex trafficking, according to Petrunov's (2014) The main form of crime is trafficking for sexual exploitation, both abroad and within the country (GRETA 2011, Petrunov 2014. A recent study also suggests that the prevalent form of recruitment used is 'intimate relationship or boyfriend' (Petrunov 2014). ...
... The main destinations of sex trafficking, according to Petrunov's (2014) The main form of crime is trafficking for sexual exploitation, both abroad and within the country (GRETA 2011, Petrunov 2014. A recent study also suggests that the prevalent form of recruitment used is 'intimate relationship or boyfriend' (Petrunov 2014). Women constitute the prevalent majority of victims and there are sizeable and concerning proportions of child victims detected (GRETA 2011). ...
... He posited a total of eight methods that were used as coercive techniques, which included the use of isolation, increased dependency upon the abuser, induced exhaustion, degradation, enforcing trivial demands, demonstration of omnipotence, perception distortion and alternating between engaging and aggressive behaviours (Baldwin et al., 2015;Dando et al., 2016). This concept of using coercive tactics without the use of violence was also identified by Petrunov (2014) who notes that within a sample of 92 respondents, 75 per cent stated that they had not been a victim of physical coercion. Within the sample findings in this project, whilst there was note of some use of physical violence, the majority of victims indicated that they had been controlled by non-physical coercive tactics. ...
... The findings of this project echo a number of findings identified within research of the use of financial constraints to control victims, whether this is through debt bonds or garnering all wages that were earned 'legitimately' (Jones et al., 2011;Petrunov, 2014;Reid, 2016;Preble, 2019). Furthermore, the victims identified in this project were all the same nationality as the perpetrators. ...
... For example, in Albania, young women are enticed with seemingly promising offers of employment as nannies or in restaurants and are trafficked to Italy or Greece to be sold into prostitution and domestic servitude (Van, 2006). Bulgarian women reported being emotionally manipulated by being groomed by a man who courts them until they are willing to follow him anywhere (Petrunov, 2011). A recent and disturbing trend in the United Kingdom is for traffickers to prey on underage runaway women who are consequently enslaved in the sex trade (Biehal & Wade, 2002). ...
... One author, Kara (2009) provides an example of how some women are psychologically manipulated into believing that people like them would be at risk in case they got out and went outside and so they stay indoors all along believing that. From the examples provided, it is particularly intriguing for instance how Bulgarian women who are emotionally manipulated by being groomed by a man who courts them until they are willing to follow him anywhere (Petrunov, 2011). Grooming is indeed not only done in children, it is also done to women who might not realise the complex web they are in until after they realise that they might be facing some emotional abuse. ...
Based on its established relationship to poverty and violence, and its exploitative, profiteering nature, human trafficking has become the most prevalent manifestation of contemporary slavery in the world today. Slavery has been defined as the permanent, violent domination of discrimination against persons. There is agreement among scholars and legislators that violence or the threat of violence for the control of another person is the central element of slavery. This broadens the definition to include both historical and contemporary slavery where people are forced to work through violence for no compensation.
... Perdagangan manusia beroperasi dengan subur di daerah yang membutuhkan banyak pekerjaan (Petrunov, 2014) dan yang marak dengan praktik prostitusi (Cho, Dreher, & Neumayer, 2013). Area negara-negara berkembang seperti ASEAN membutuhkan banyak pekerjaan sehingga rawan akan perdagangan manusia (Ismail, 2018). ...
... Seperti pada keadaan kelima partisipan, korban perdagangan manusia memang banyak yang berasal dari latar belakang sosio-ekonomi yang rendah, membutuhkan pekerjaan, serta merupakan pemudi yang sehat dan bugar. Kondisi mendesak untuk memperoleh penghasilan tetap(Petrunov, 2014) ditambah dengan rendahnya pendidikan yang ditempuh, seperti yang dialami kelima partisipan membuat korban lebih mudah ditipu dan dimanfaatkan(Stotts Jr & Ramey, 2009). Kesulitan dari sisi ekonomi dan pendidikan kemudian ditambah dengan adanya dorongan untuk menjalankan peran ekonomi dalam keluarga, serta dorongan untuk meniru dan meningkatkan status sosial (social learning) membuat ketiga motif ini seringkali bekerja secara simultan untuk memperkuat dorongan bekerja sebagai tenaga kerja wanita (TKW) ilegal. ...
Abstract – Female adults in East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Timur; NTT) are at risk to be victims of national and international human trafficking. This research describes the motives, psychological impacts, and supports perceived by adult female victims from NTT. Qualitative approach was applied with thematic analysis as the analysis method. Participants were five victims of human trafficking aged between 21 – 37 years old who have returned to NTT. It was found that participants were motivated to worked outside NTT due to economical, familial, and social reasons, while some other participants also reported being forced to work abroad. The perceived psychological impacts were maladaptive behaviors, deep sadness, helplessness, and being ashamed by stigma associated with being victims. Supports that were positively meaningful were the opportunity to share with other victims and to have a counseling sessions with mental health practitioners. Initiative to improve mental health services is indispensable as a base to combat human trafficking and to support victims.
Abstrak — Wanita dewasa di Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT) rentan terhadap kejahatan perdagangan manusia, baik dalam skala nasional maupun internasional. Penelitian ini mendeskripsikan tentang motif, dampak psikologis, dan dukungan yang dipersepsi oleh wanita dewasa dari NTT yang berhasil bertahan hidup dari pengalaman menjadi korban perdagangan manusia. Pendekatan kualitatif diaplikasikan dalam penelitian ini, dengan analisis tematik sebagai teknik analisis. Partisipan adalah lima orang wanita berusia antara 21–37 tahun yang dijadikan pekerja ilegal di luar NTT dan telah kembali ke NTT. Ditemukan bahwa motif yang mendorong partisipan untuk bekerja di luar NTT adalah motif ekonomi, keluarga, sosial, dan paksaan. Dampak psikologis yang dialami adalah perilaku maladaptif, rasa sedih yang mendalam dan tak berdaya, serta rasa malu oleh stigma. Dukungan yang dimaknai secara positif adalah kesempatan untuk berbagi semangat dengan sesama korban dan sesi konseling dengan praktisi kesehatan mental. Inisiatif untuk meningkatkan pelayanan kesehatan mental sangat dibutuhkan sebagai dasar untuk melawan perdagangan manusia dan untuk mendukung korban.
... We found scant literature that offered disaggregated data specifically for pregnant labor-trafficked people, which consequently limits our view into the social and clinical course of pregnancy experienced by those experiencing labor trafficking [23,[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]. This dearth of data is likely multifactorial, including historical underfunding of labor trafficking health care research as well as lack of access to reproductive health care among labor-trafficked people. ...
We set out to map the (1) living/occupational hazards, (2) health outcomes, and (3) barriers to care that exist for pregnant labor-trafficked people. Eight databases were systematically searched based on inclusion criteria. Five papers were eligible for inclusion. Data on study characteristics, social determinants, hazardous exposures, health outcomes, and barriers to care were extracted and synthesized. Common risk factors and occupational/living hazards were identified. Both were thematically connected with barriers to care and a host of adverse health outcomes. More importantly, a significant gap was discovered with no disaggregated quantitative data on the experience of pregnancy among labor-trafficked people. The interaction of risk factors, occupational/living hazards, and barriers to care experienced by pregnant labor-trafficked people may influence their susceptibility to adverse health outcomes. We need population-based studies, informed by those with lived experience of labor trafficking to examine the experience of pregnancy for labor-trafficked people to improve intervention and support efforts for this population.
... Perdagangan manusia beroperasi dengan subur di daerah yang Jurnal Bakti Masyarakat Indonesia ISSN 2620-7710 (Versi Cetak) Vol. 5, No. 1, Mei 2022, Hal. 153-158 ISSN 2621 membutuhkan banyak pekerjaan (Petrunov, 2014), Sebagai negara dengan jumlah penduduk yang besar, tentunya Indonesia membutuhkan banyak lapangan pekerjaan, sehingga ancaman, penipuan dan pemaksaan dalam merekrut orang sudah banyak terjadi di Indonesia. ...
Fraud in Tegal Bedug Hamlet occurred several times, such as fraud in the form of fraudulent investments, the departure of illegal migrant workers and there was also hypnosis-based fraud. Lack of knowledge of anti-fraud toughness makes them not aware of the impact and how to overcome it if fraud occurs. Often people in rural areas do not find out more about the modus operandi of fraud, they always believe in lucrative things because of economic and job demands. Psychoeducation is used to benefit the people of Dusun Tegal Bedug in terms of providing education and mental strength in the future. Implementation of the anti-fraud resilience program counseling as a form of psychoeducational activity provided to community participants in collaboration with Tegal Bedug Hamlet, Indramayu. To see the benefits of the anti-fraud resilience program to the community, we give the pre-test and post-test and an interviews also were conducted after the activity. The results obtained indicate that community participants benefit from information about resilience in fraud, reduced victims, and increased curiosity about the characteristics of fraud. This program also has benefits as a mental psychoeducational activity for the community as an effort to improve the quality of life in rural communities ABSTRAK:Penipuan di Dusun Tegal Bedug terjadi beberapa kali, seperti penipuan yang berupa investasi bodong, pemberangkatan TKI ilegal dan ada juga penipuan berbasis Hipnotis. Kurangnya pengetahuan akan ketangguhan anti penipuan membuat mereka tidak mengetahui dampak dan cara penanggulangan apabila terjadinya penipuan. Seringkali masyarakat di pedesaan tidak mencari tahu lebih lanjut modus modus penipuan, mereka selalu percaya kepada hal yang menggiurkan karena faktor tuntutan ekonomi dan pekerjaan. Psikoedukasi digunakan untuk memberi manfaat bagi masyarakat Dusun Tegal Bedug dalam hal memberi edukasi dan juga kekuatan mental kedepannya. Pelaksanaan penyuluhan program ketangguhan anti penipuan sebagai salah satu bentuk kegiatan psikoedukasi yang diberikan kepada partisipan masyarakat yang bekerjasama dengan Dusun Tegal Bedug, Indramayu. Untuk melihat manfaat dari program ketangguhan anti penipuan pada masyarakat, dilakukan pemberian tes sebelum dan sesudah kegiatan serta wawancara setelah kegiatan. Hasil yang didapat menunjukkan bahwa para partisipan masyarakat mendapatkan manfaat informasi mengenai ketangguhan dalam penipuan, berkurangnya korban, dan meningkatnya keingintahuan mengenai ciri-ciri penipuan. Program ini juga memiliki manfaat sebagai kegiatan psikoedukasi mental kepada mayarakat sebagai upaya meningkatkan kualitas kehiadupan di masyarakat desa
... Chaotic environments created by mass population movement in the immediate aftermath of conflict provide opportunities for traffickers to exploit vulnerable refugees. The region has long been notorious for the activities of its trafficking rings, 3 and there are reports from neighbouring countries of Ukrainian women and children being targeted. 4 Compounded by trauma already experienced, gender-based violence (GBV) is an ongoing risk during transition and in refugee settlements or holding centres, where women and girls are in danger of opportunistic assault. ...
... Since the 1990s, no criminals from other nationalities have ever had noticeable presence in the country or played any role in cross-border trafficking. Generally, the following profiles of sets of actors can be distinguished: hierarchically structured organisations; loose networks of collaborating independent traffick-ers; family/clan-based organisations; independent traffickers (Bezlov et al. 2016;Petrunov 2014). The hierarchically structured organisations are usually remnants of the formidable violent entrepreneurship syndicates that emerged in the early 1990s also known as grupirovki, as well as robust regional criminal organisations that emerged in the beginning of the 21st century (CSD 2007). ...
This unique volume addresses the financial mechanisms that enable human trafficking - its actors, structures, and logistics. Viewing each stage of the market, human traffickers may need significant financial resources for recruitment, transportation, and exploitation.
Drawing upon cross-disciplinary research expertise in criminology, sociology, law and economics, this book offers insights from law enforcement officers, policy makers, NGOs, and traffickers and their victims. Using three European countries - Bulgaria, Italy and the United Kingdom - it provides an account on the sources of capital for initiating and sustaining a human trafficking scheme, discussing the involvement of criminal structures, legitimate businesses, financial institutions, and information and communication technologies in the running of these enterprises. It also addresses the ways in which entrepreneurs and customers settle payments, the costs of conducting business in human trafficking, and how profits from the business are spent and invested.
This important contribution to the transnational organized crime knowledge base will be of interest to researchers and academics, as well as law enforcement, regulatory agencies, and policy makers combating human trafficking.
... The living conditions in Bulgaria and the strong desire of people to migrate, motivated by the search for a better standard of living abroad, create a fertile ground for the operations of traffickers who thus respond to the demands of exploitative employers for cheap labor (Mansoor & Quillin, 2006;Mahmoud & Trebesch, 2010). The exploitation of victims of trafficking ranges from sexual exploitation, forced labor, to begging and organ harvesting (Petrunov, 2014). The next section of the report focuses on trafficking for labor exploitation. ...
... Perdagangan manusia beroperasi dengan subur di daerah yang membutuhkan banyak pekerjaan (Petrunov, 2014) dan yang marak dengan praktik prostitusi (Cho, Dreher, & Neumayer, 2013). Area negara-negara berkembang seperti ASEAN membutuhkan banyak pekerjaan sehingga rawan akan perdagangan manusia (Ismail, 2018). ...
Wanita dewasa di Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT) rentan terhadap kejahatan perdagangan manusia, baik dalam skala nasional maupun internasional. Penelitian ini mendeskripsikan tentang motif, dampak psikologis, dan dukungan yang dipersepsi oleh wanita dewasa dari NTT yang berhasil bertahan hidup dari pengalaman menjadi korban perdagangan manusia. Pendekatan kualitatif diaplikasikan dalam penelitian ini, dengan analisis tematik sebagai teknik analisis. Partisipan adalah lima orang wanita berusia antara 21–37 tahun yang dijadikan pekerja ilegal di luar NTT dan telah kembali ke NTT. Ditemukan bahwa motif yang mendorong partisipan untuk bekerja di luar NTT adalah motif ekonomi, keluarga, sosial, dan paksaan. Dampak psikologis yang dialami adalah perilaku maladaptif, rasa sedih yang mendalam dan tak berdaya, serta rasa malu oleh stigma. Dukungan yang dimaknai secara positif adalah kesempatan untuk berbagi semangat dengan sesama korban dan sesi konseling dengan praktisi kesehatan mental. Inisiatif untuk meningkatkan pelayanan kesehatan mental sangat dibutuhkan sebagai dasar untuk melawan perdagangan manusia dan untuk mendukung korban.
... fake boyfriends), per nelegalias turizmo ar 53 Žibas, Karolis, supra note 38; įdarbinimo agentūras, per pažinčių tarnybas, internetu/telefonu (Sipavičienė Pabrėžtina, kad neretai patys verbuotojai yra iš tos pačios socialinės aplinkos kaip ir aukos. Jie stengiasi įsilieti į aukų aplinką, sudaryti dosnių, patikimų ir padėti norinčių asmenų įvaizdį, palaiko nuolatinį kontaktą ir siūlo finansinę bei kitokią pagalbą aukoms (Petrunov 2014) 58 . ...
... As well as in other countries of Eastern Europe, Ukraine's social-economic situation is widely considered to be a major factor in the prevalence of trafficking in persons. Various authors mention that high unemployment and low living standards force people to accept the risky job proposals abroad, while active international labour migrations and low levels of awareness on the potential vulnerability contribute to the problem (Gerasymenko 2011;Weitzer & Zhang 2014;Petrunov 2014). ...
... We found the advertisements often detailed expected hours and wages as 7 Advertisements posted in a language other than Lithuanian would imply the applicant was expected to know that language. The literature suggests that trafficking victims tend to have limited knowledge of the local language of the destination country (Craig et al. 2007;Petrunov 2014). ranges (e.g. 45 to 60 h per week). ...
Despite considerable concern about how human trafficking offenders may use the Internet to recruit their victims, arrange logistics or advertise services, the Internet-trafficking nexus remains unclear. This study explored the prevalence and correlates of a set of commonly-used indicators of labour trafficking in online job advertisements. Taking a case study approach, we focused on a major Lithuanian website aimed at people seeking work abroad. We examined a snapshot of job advertisements (n = 430), assessing both their general characteristics (e.g. industry, destination country) and the presence of trafficking indicators. The vast majority (98.4%) contained at least one indicator, suggesting certain "indicators" may in fact be commonplace characteristics of this labour market. Inferential statistical tests revealed significant but weak relationships between the advertisements’ characteristics and the number and nature of indicators present. While there may be value in screening job advertisements to identify potential labour trafficking and exploitation, additional information is needed to ascertain actual labour trafficking. We conclude with an outlook on automated approaches to identifying cases of possible trafficking and a discussion of the benefits and ethical concerns of a data science-driven approach.
... Citations in the PsyINFO database with the subject heading "Human trafficking" have increased dramatically over the past 12 years (see Figure 1). In May of 2014, a special issue of the journal Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science was devoted to human trafficking; authors addressed issues related to victims, kinds of trafficking, the nature of the traffickers, and the anti-trafficking movement in countries as diverse as Cambodia, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, South Africa, Argentina, Vietnam, and the United States (Belanger, 2014;Brennan, 2014;Gould, 2014;Joarder & Miller, 2014;Keo, Bouhours, Broadhurst, & Bouhours, 2014;Petrunov, 2014). ...
... Since the 1990s, no criminals from other nationalities have ever had noticeable presence in the country or played any role in cross-border trafficking. Generally, the following profiles of sets of actors can be distinguished: hierarchically structured organisations; loose networks of collaborating independent traffick-ers; family/clan-based organisations; independent traffickers (Bezlov et al. 2016;Petrunov 2014). The hierarchically structured organisations are usually remnants of the formidable violent entrepreneurship syndicates that emerged in the early 1990s also known as grupirovki, as well as robust regional criminal organisations that emerged in the beginning of the 21st century (CSD 2007). ...
Trafficking in human beings for the purpose of sexual exploitation is considered one of the largest Bulgarian criminal markets since the beginning of the new millennium. After the lifting of Schengen visas for Bulgarian nationals in 2001, Bulgaria became a major country of origin for the trafficking in human beings exploited in the EU. The current analysis examines in-depth the financial underpinnings of the human trafficking for sexual exploitation in Bulgaria and discusses both the domestic market and the cross-border trafficking. It provides a general overview of the sources and mechanisms of the financing of trafficking in human beings, settlement of payments, access to financing in critical moments, costs of business, and the management of profits.
... Since the 1990s, no criminals from other nationalities have ever had noticeable presence in the country or played any role in cross-border trafficking. Generally, the following profiles of sets of actors can be distinguished: hierarchically structured organisations; loose networks of collaborating independent traffick-ers; family/clan-based organisations; independent traffickers ( Bezlov et al. 2016;Petrunov 2014). The hierarchically structured organisations are usually remnants of the formidable violent entrepreneurship syndicates that emerged in the early 1990s also known as grupirovki, as well as robust regional criminal organisations that emerged in the beginning of the 21st century (CSD 2007). ...
The UK is primarily a destination country for trafficking victims from central and southeastern Europe, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. There have also been cases in which the UK was a transit and source country for trafficking victims. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an account of the financial management of the human trafficking business in the UK. It provides a general overview of the human trafficking business and discusses existing relations between the legitimate sectors and human trafficking in the UK. Moreover, it offers an account of the social organisation of human trafficking in the UK and the key actors involved before describing the financial aspects of human trafficking in terms of sources of financing, settlement of payments, costs of business, as well as profits, profits spending and investment. Finally, it examines the role of the internet in the human trafficking business and its finances.
... The idea that victimization of labor trafficking is not as damaging is further strengthened, and it is argued here, by a low selfidentification of victimhood among those that would legally qualify as victims of labor trafficking. Moreover, the degree of self-identification is low across the entire spectrum of exploitative situations, even for those who have experienced extreme forms of violence, fraud, and compulsion (Petrunov 2014). ...
Although labor exploitation has been criminalized as human trafficking, also known as labor trafficking, forced labor, or modern slavery, globally, many cases remain undetected. In part, this underreporting is arguably due to low levels of self-identification of victimization of labor trafficking. Low self-identification suggests that a discrepancy exists between legal definitions of labor trafficking victimhood and the lived experiences of work and employment by what are often labor migrants. This contribution discusses scholarly literature that identifies factors that obstruct self-identification among those subjected to labor exploitation. Also, a study is discussed that analyzed how some victims do arrive at self-identification. This contribution finds that labor trafficking often refers to situations in which migrants have consciously left their country of origin in search of work. Their work conditions may be valued as a temporary arrangement to achieve upward social mobility and considered from their home country’s work and income standards. Therefore, such migrants may perceive themselves as active agents of their destiny who make their own decisions in engaging in certain working conditions and not as passive victims of exploitation. Finally, two trajectories through which victims of labor exploitation do arrive at self-identification are discussed. On the first path, the victim gradually comes to self-identification. On the second path, a radical event in the personal life of victims triggers them to become aware of their victimhood. The insights provided in this chapter are valuable for the future combat of labor trafficking, in which victim self-identification plays an important role.
... After the collapse of the communist regime, Bulgaria became a country of migration (Guentcheva et al., 2004). The main push factors were economic: high levels of unemployment, low income and poverty (Petrunov, 2014). Higher wages and more work opportunities abroad were the main pull factors. ...
Migration is an important phenomenon at both the macro and the micro levels. It shapes national economies as well as individual biographies across Europe, and freedom of movement and residence have been a cornerstone of the EU from the very beginning. When Europeans move from one place to another, they often do so over rather short distances, and the move is often temporary. For many, migration is an episode in early adulthood. This chapter examines the stories of three such temporary migrants and the networks involved. We utilise a life-course approach to discuss their journey out, as well as their return to their country of origin. What are the subjective consequences of such migration experiences in the specific context of European youth unemployment? Both negative and positive experiences add up, and contribute to a fuller picture of the increasingly transnational nature of the lives of young Europeans.
... Since the 1990s, no criminals from other nationalities have ever had noticeable presence in the country or played any role in cross- border trafficking. Generally, the following profiles of sets of actors can be distinguished: hierarchically structured organisations; loose networks of collaborating independent traffickers; family/clan-based organisations; independent traffickers ( Bezlov et al., 2016, Petrunov, 2014). ...
... Over the last 25 years, there are clearly stratified ranges of prostitution: a low range of street prostitution (where prices are 10-15 euros per session); a middle range of clubs (30-50 euros per hour), strip bars (typically 75 euros per hour), and escorts (typically between 30 and 100 euros per hour); and a high range of elite prostitution (typically 500 euros up to several thousand euros per meeting, depending on the client) (Petrunov 2010). We also know that after the country's accession to the European Union, many Bulgarian sex workers and pimps have made their way to the more profitable markets in the countries of Western Europe, especially where prostitution is legalized, for example, Austria, Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands (Petrunov 2014;Siegal 2012). ...
The article focuses on a specific form of high-end prostitution, referred to as elite prostitution. Its clients are representatives of the economic, political, sports, and criminal elite, and sex workers are often popular figures, such as models and dancers. A key actor in elite prostitution is the broker, whose network of contacts encloses this form of sex for sale. The primary interest of this paper is precisely the experience and perspective of the brokers. Presented are the results of empirical research with six elite prostitution brokers in Bulgaria, examining their histories of entering elite prostitution, business models, relations with sex workers and clients, and the brokers’ advertising strategies. Drawing upon the results of the study, the author discusses the typical characteristics of elite prostitution, its modus operandi, the significant role of brokers in this segment, and its potential to be influenced by public policies related to prostitution.
... Daneben gibt es, ähnlich den frühen bundesrepublikanischen Studien, Untersuchungen, die sich im Wesentlichen auf die Befragung von Polizeibeamten und anderen Experten stützen (Duran-Martinez 2015; Jones 2016; Silverstone 2011). Bei bestimmten Delikten, zum Beispiel dem Menschenhandel, ist auch die Befragung von Opfern eine wichtige Methode der Datenerhebung(Chin & Finckenauer 2011;Petrunov 2014). ...
... Citations in the PsyINFO database with the subject head- ing "Human trafficking" have increased dramatically over the past 12 years (see Figure 1). In May of 2014, a special issue of the journal Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science was devoted to human traf- ficking; authors addressed issues related to victims, kinds of trafficking, the nature of the traffickers, and the anti-trafficking movement in countries as diverse as Cambodia, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, South Africa, Argentina, Vietnam, and the United States (Belanger, 2014;Brennan, 2014;Gould, 2014;Joarder & Miller, 2014;Keo, Bouhours, Broadhurst, & Bouhours, 2014;Petrunov, 2014). ...
Intercountry adoption (ICA) is the subject of polarized and contentious debates that can be expressed as “child rescue” versus “child trafficking.” This article describes the parallels between ICA and human trafficking, the international agreements that govern ICA and human trafficking, the evidence for fraud and corruption in some ICAs, and the conditions under which ICA can be considered trafficking. It concludes with recommendations for reform of ICA: addressing poverty and corruption as root causes, eliminating loopholes in international agreements, and ensuring protection for birth mothers and families.
... Mensen kunnen tijdelijk uitbuiting accepteren, om daarna met hun verdiensten iets op te bouwen in hun herkomstland (Cleiren e.a., 2015;Van Meeteren, 2014). Opvallend is dat de literatuur aanneemt dat de mate van zelfidentificatie van slachtoffers van arbeidsuitbuiting over het gehele spectrum laag is, zelfs voor mensen die extreme vormen van geweld, bedrog en dwang hebben ervaren (Petrunov, 2014). Slechts enkele wetenschappers betwisten deze aanname (Turner-Moss e.a., 2014). ...
Victim of labour exploitation? A qualitative study revealing ideal-typical pathways to self-identification as a victim of human trafficking
Although the Netherlands criminalised some forms of labour exploitation as human trafficking, many cases remain undetected. This is probably due to low self-identification among victims. Whereas research revealed factors obstructing self-identification among victims, it remains unclear how some victims do arrive at self-identification. Drawing on in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with victims and professionals, this qualitative study identifies two ideal-typical pathways to self-identification. In the first trajectory self-identification is gradually formed through information gathering and deteriorating working conditions. In the second trajectory self-identification is triggered by a sudden vital event.
... The expertise of Petrunov on underground economic activities in Bulgaria is widely recognised (see e.g. Petrunov, 2006Petrunov, , 2011Petrunov, , 2014 21 Conversation with G. Petrunov by e-mail on 24 and 25 June 2015. ...
This contribution develops an empirically informed measure of output in prostitution in Belgium. Its starting point is to measure income in one locational segment of the prostitution market: window prostitution. Output is decomposed in overall supply of sex workers, average transactions in a given working time, and price per transaction. These factors are estimated for existing red light districts. Data are based on systematic observations of supply and transactions, and of internet relics on prices.
The consolidated measure of heterosexual prostitution makes use of the window prostitution benchmark. This way, the relative size in transactions in other segments (such as brothels or escort services) are estimated.
User-generated websites allow to collect data about each sex worker’s page impressions, discussions and standardized review forms submitted. Principal component analysis indicates that all indicators refer to one latent variable. This multi-item proxy allows for an estimate of transaction shares of segments other than window prostitution. Combined with prices from internet relics, we measure output of every heterosexual prostitution segment. An increment of 5% for the market share of male sex workers allowed for a consolidated estimate of all income earned in prostitution activities in Belgium. Finally, non-resident production - production by migrants who reside less than a year in Belgium, that is - is accounted as an import in national accounts. This estimate was based on expert opinions combined with data on sex workers’ country of origin.
Because the estimates are an outcome of ratios of multiple indicators, Fieller’s theorem allows to model the confidence intervals. This results in an estimate of added value of prostitution in Belgium (2015) ranging between 617 and 688 million €, which is about twice as much as in the former estimate that was used in the national accounts.
This chapter explores the critical role of teacher education in addressing human trafficking, a significant social justice challenge in South Africa. An overview of the multifaceted nature of trafficking is provided, and its historical roots, current manifestations, and challenges involved in recognising it are addressed. The importance of understanding trafficking through the lived experiences and stories of victims is emphasised. After the intersections between trafficking and social justice are discussed, I provided three possibilities of how teacher education can respond to trafficking as a social justice concern. Firstly, teacher education can be guided by the 4P-Paradigm of Prevention, Protection, Prosecution, and Partnership to respond to trafficking. Secondly, by examining the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ), the chapter suggests practical ways to incorporate knowledge of trafficking into disciplinary and situational learning within teacher training programmes. Thirdly, a holistic approach can be taken to include teaching about trafficking within the broader context of social justice education, preparing student teachers to become proactive agents of change in combating trafficking. The chapter concludes by stressing the need for empirical research to deepen the understanding of how teacher education can respond to trafficking and enhance teacher preparedness, aiming to create a more informed, empathetic, and proactive teaching community in the fight against trafficking.
Human trafficking is considered one of the most significant blights on our current society, as it deprives people of their most fundamental rights. Despite commendable efforts against this transnational scourge, emphasis often leans towards addressing criminal aspects tied to migratory flows, potentially undermining victim protection. New technologies further complicate the landscape, challenging conventional anti-trafficking policies. This chapter stresses the critical need to bridge the gap between human trafficking manifestation and prevention/prosecution strategies, enriching discourse on international security. It aims to spotlight challenges hampering anti-trafficking policy effectiveness, empowering governments to fortify identification systems and combat the perpetuation of this heinous offense.
For the last two decades, forced migrations become so massive that no one could deny the fact that millions of people left their homes, maybe forever, running away from wars, civil wars, violence, and/or political victimization. War and violence are for sure two of the most serious traumatic events, as they are long-termed, cause different kinds of injuries, fear, unsafety, and hopelessness – and this is the first stress migrants are faced with. By being concerned for their own or the lives of their families, many migrants agree to be smuggled. But smugglers offer inhumane and often intolerable conditions, placing more migrants in their vehicle or boat than it can receive, and this leads to many migrants' lives being lost. In situations of fear, hopelessness, and uncertainty, which migrants running away from, they are vulnerable to many risks, and one of them is human trafficking, which can occur during their trip, illegal migration, or even when they get the final destination. It is important to understand the difference between smuggling and human trafficking.
The study focuses on the emerging Second Polish Republic and its involvement in the international fight against the trafficking of women and children under the auspices of the League of Nations. In conflict with all neighbouring states, Poland was highly dependent on support from the new Western Entente-backed international system and in turn had to adhere closely to existing conventions and newly negotiated international policies. Using the example of the ratification process of the League of the Nations International Convention against the Traffic in Women and Children of 1921, the study shows that internationalism in the interwar period had a significant impact on national policymaking and state-building. Thus, it provides a better understanding of how anti-trafficking efforts in Poland interacted with policies deployed by the League of Nations and how international and transnational activism affected the construction of state institutions.
The framing of human trafficking as exclusively a problem of victims versus offenders often misses the empirical realities found in actual cases. “Consent,” “coercion,” and “fraud” are central concepts to legal definitions of human trafficking, yet there is mutual exploitation in some cases and “self-initiation” in others. Both traffickers and victims can be found making unenviable choices between working long hours for low pay in grinding global and local economies where margins are impossibly tight, or participating in illicit, cash-based, businesses. Using interview findings from published studies based on more than 3,500 first-hand accounts from victims and offenders from 22 countries, this article presents a less adversarial picture of human trafficking. The picture presented remains cognizant of the brutality sometimes entailed and the limited protections from threat of violence endured by the exploited, while demanding a more nuanced response from law and policymakers committed to being responsive to the personal, social, and economic dynamics of human trafficking.
The collection presents the findings of a research project on the theme “Subcultures as agents of change in the Transition” that was conducted between April and December 2020 by a research team from the State University of Library Studies and Information Technology (SULSIT) in Sofia. The term “Transition” refers to the social, political and economic processes in Bulgaria that began in the 1980s and ended in the first decade of the 21st century, and encompassed the transformation of Bulgarian society from totalitarianism to democracy and market economy.
The project team was led by Assoc. Prof. Alexander Karakachanov, PhD, and comprised of Prof. Georgeta Nazarska, PhD, and Assoc. Prof. Nina Debruyne, PhD.
The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis, defined in the preliminary phase, that at the end of the so-called “Real Socialism” and the beginning of the Transition, several main subcultures were formed in the political, economic and cultural scene in Bulgaria and that these had varying but significant degrees of influence over the development of the processes in the country. One of the mechanisms of influence, which present subcultures as agents of change in the historical process, are culturemes. One of the research objectives was to identify, by the use of various techniques including sociological survey, such subcultures and validate specific culturemes as their key identifiers.
The structure of the proposed collection consists of three parts. Following the study logic, the first part, “Mechanisms of Transition in Bulgaria”, presents the theoretical formulations underlying the research approach. The latter is based on two theoretical concepts presented in the paper “The mechanisms of social transformation and the Bulgarian transition from totalitarianism to democracy”. One examines the overall development of society through the prism of the so-called Monopoly model. It seeks to provide a different model of societal change that is also potentially more adequate than both the formation or stages approach (Karl Marx, Daniel Bell, Walt Rostow, Alvin Toffler) and the civilization approach (Pitirim Sorokin, Arnold Toynbee). The proposed model is based on the view that from the dawn of the first civilizations until now the structure of human communities and the society as a whole remains virtually unchanged and that any and all variations are occurring only within certain parameters. These reflect the degree of concentration and monopolization of resources in the main social dimensions or spheres – the cultural, the political and the economic.
The other theoretical concept (the subcultural approach), which is presented in the same article, defines subcultures as active agents of social change. Their role is logically embedded in the Monopoly model, where the main driver of social change are changes in the cultural sphere. Therefore, priority objectives in the further course of the research were set to be the identification and analysis of the subcultures of the Transition and culturemes as the main mechanism of inducing social action within the respective (especially political) subcultures.
The first part also includes a high-level analysis of the survey conducted in order to bring out the respondents' view of the weight and role of the proposed main subcultures in the Transition processes (see “Analysis of the results of the survey on the mechanisms of the Transition in Bulgaria”).
The second part, “Subcultures as agents of change in the Transition”, offers a detailed analysis of the seven identified as main subcultural groups of the Transition. It begins with the two political subcultures, namely Real socialism and Anti-communism, which play a decisive role in the course of the political and economic processes during this dramatic period for the Bulgarian society. The analysis presents their systems of ideologemes (culturemes), highlighting their mutual opposition, but also the interconnectedness that underpins the so-called bipolar political model established for most of the Transition. This model, a product of these two political subcultures, was the main reason for the Transition turning as it did – corrupt and at an unjustifiably high social cost.
Following the chronological order of historical events, the next two subcultures considered in the collection are Wrestlers/Mutri and Chalga/Popfolk. Despite their different origins, the two subcultures formed a symbiosis immediately after 1989 that not only quickly established them on the public stage, but also largely synchronized their development curves. Highly distinctive and clearly recognizable, both became objects of extremely negative perceptions, almost uniformly reviled as emblematic and somewhat cartoonish counterpoint to all “normal”, “legal”, “moral”, “cultured”. At certain points in time both groups presented characteristics of countercultures. Both groups experienced two main stages of development, which is embedded in the ‘double-barrelled’ names: the first elements (Wrestlers and Chalga) dominated the first half of the study period, but gradually waned, went out of public view and became supplanted by the second elements (Mutri and Popfolk), which became the recognizable carriers and representatives of the subcultural characteristics. At the end of the study, two main areas of research interest presented themselves: the one is related to the apparent merging of the Wrestlers/Mutri (now only Mutri) subculture with that of the Honest entrepreneur (the new capitalist), and the other to the popfolk’s potential exit from the subcultural scene and its acceptance as part of the diversity of the dominant culture (mainstream).
The collection also examines the subcultures of the Honest entrepreneur (the new capitalist), the Environmentalist, and the Populist patriot. The subculture of the Honest entrepreneur (the new capitalist, was formed in the 1990s and became a protagonist in the Transition, exploiting social processes to its own benefit. It was formed following foreign models and displayed economic characteristics but was closely connected to the political subcultures of Real socialism and Anti-communism while actively interacting with the emerging subcultures of Chalga/Popfolk and Populist patriots.
The Environmentalist subculture was formed only at the beginning of the 21st century, and although it did not play a significant role in the Transition, it played an important role as a ‘bridge’ between the dissident political countercultures prior to 1989 and the subcultures of the Transition. Initially closely connected with the subculture of Anti-communism, it later became the antagonist of almost all other subcultures and particularly of the Honest entrepreneur (the new capitalist).
The Populist patriot subculture was formed at the beginning of the 21st century and at this point it is inconclusive to what extent it was an agent of change in the Transition, as it gradually grew to encompass main actors from the political, economic and cultural spheres. This subculture is in constant dialogue and strong collision with other subcultures and especially with Chalga/Popfolk.
The third part of the collection, “Public Lectures on the Bulgarian Transition”, offers additional perspectives on the processes of Transition from totalitarianism to democracy and market economy in Bulgaria by renown Bulgarian intellectuals who actively participated in the historical events. These are Assoc. Prof. Krasen Stanchev, PhD, Prof. Mihail Nedelchev, and Prof. Yanaki Stoilov, PhD. In accordance with the project scope, the three were invited to share their views and thoughts on the historical processes and events. The project team expresses sincerest gratitude to Assoc. Prof. Stanchev, Prof. Nedelchev and Prof. Stoilov for their strong and meaningful contributions to the collection.
The collection ends with several appendices, which present additional data and some statistical results of the survey.
Лекцията прави анализ на доверието, на съотношението между икономика и вяра в обществения живот на България от 80-те год. на ХХ в. до наши дни.
This chapter interrogates the role of the internet and digital technologies in the processes of human smuggling and trafficking in the UK. The research presented here examines how the Internet and digital technologies facilitate the recruitment and transportation/entry phases of people smuggling towards and/or into the UK, and the recruitment, transportation and exploitation phases of the trafficking process in the UK sex and labour markets. Our findings suggest that the internet and digital technologies do not simply complement existing offline practices, but rather expand the potential for illicit enterprise. In the UK context, online activity entails that the prevalence of such illicit enterprise may be significantly underestimated and, therefore, further research is clearly warranted.
The foreign women who were initially involved in the Kosovar sex industry are introduced in this chapter. In 1999, shortly after the end of the Kosovo War, women from Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine—and, to a lesser extent, Serbia and Bulgaria—entered Kosovo and engaged in prostitution. Studies on prostitution in the context of peacekeeping missions that feature foreign women tend to portray these women singularly as victims of trafficking. Yet, such an exclusive focus on the victimhood of these women does not do justice to their lived experiences. Unambiguous accounts essentialize suffering while less stereotypical and more complex aspects of the lives of these women are ignored. These accounts, for instance, fail to describe how foreign women resisted structural inequalities, negotiated their situations and sought to achieve pleasure and fulfillment. The chapter thus aims to widen the rather restrictive lenses through which women engaged in out-country prostitution in the context of peacekeeping missions are generally viewed to include conceptualizations of it as labor or survival. This chapter will do so through a discussion of the life trajectories of foreign women involved in post-war prostitution in Kosovo. Where did these women come from? Why and how did they come to Kosovo? What did the women expect before their departure, and what did they encounter after their arrival? And why did foreign women disappear from the scene around 2012, almost without exception?
This paper demonstrates why and how a fuller geographical perspective extends contemporary scholarship on human trafficking within and beyond the discipline. We employ a relational approach and draw on in‐depth qualitative research with trafficked persons and a range of stakeholders in Slovakia and the United Kingdom (UK), to depict how the processes underpinning human trafficking are non‐linear and operate instantaneously at multiple intersecting scales and temporalities and through diverse mobilities. The analysis problematises the discrete and homogeneous notion of space coupled with a linear conceptualisation of time and, more specifically, the normative portrayals of recruitment, transit and exploitation as distinct and sequential phases of human trafficking. Instead, the individuated experiences of trafficked persons are examined in relational geographies of inequality, manoeuvring and mobilities. Such a conceptual shift ensures that efforts to understand and combat human trafficking address its effects as well as the wider social relations and structural conditions that facilitate exploitation. We conclude the paper by outlining how a relational‐geographic perspective has the potential to foster new forms of dialogue and inquiry within and beyond the discipline.
This chapter explores the possibilities of applying a human rights framework to sexual exploitation, sex work and sporting events. Human rights perspectives are emerging as useful ways to interrogate a range of global social injustices. However, defining sexual exploitation is not straightforward. First, I focus on how sexual exploitation and sex work are understood within human rights instruments. Second, I provide a vivid illustration of the trafficking of women for sexual exploitation. Through this case study, I demonstrate the conditions and mechanisms of supply of, and demand for, women for sexual exploitation. Finally, I return to the existing sport-related literature to elucidate the state of current knowledge of sexual exploitation, sex work and international sporting events. In doing so, I highlight the potential of adopting a human rights framework for future feminist research.
The current study is a research synthesis on human-trafficking literature. The purpose of this study is to examine trends over time, areas of research that have been covered by the literature, and areas where research is still needed. The data for this study come from a collection of 1,231 articles between the years 2000 and 2014. Articles were coded based on discipline, type of research, theory, data collection, type of sample, type of data analysis, type of trafficking, victim population, main purpose of the article, and geographic focus. Findings from this study identify prominent trends in the top article-producing disciplines and the need for more empirical studies. The implications for future research highlight the need for more theoretical-based studies and challenges researchers to address a variety of methodological issues such as data-collection techniques and sampling, with a specific focus on male and labor- and organ-trafficking victims, as well as their exploiters.
Research on the sexual trafficking of juveniles has increased. However, there has been no theoretical model developed incorporating variables into a systemic, interactive analysis of the issue. Utilizing Parsonian functionalism as its foundation, the authors developed such a model. The model is based on sociological, criminological, and psychological theories and concepts with a particular emphasis on the role of environmental design in trafficking. Unique to this study, the authors propose that a symbiotic relationship exists between the adolescent brain and trafficker as psychopath as contextualized in the Stockholm syndrome. We offer research and policy implications based on the model.
Shame and mistrust are factors that complicate a trafficking survivor’s readiness to benefit from services offered by multidisciplinary providers. Shame is understood as one of the consequences of the trafficker’s coercion. Experiences of coercion and resulting shame later complicate trust building with psychotherapists. Through case studies of psychotherapy work in a public hospital, the authors describe how trust and shame issues are worked through. The psychotherapist facilitates the survivor’s work towards restoring a sense of humanity and dignity.
When you receive a cash payment do you always report it to the authorities? How many
people pay the taxes due on such income and how many do not? In fact, is it not easier
to do business informally than to follow all the rules prescribed by the state and the
society? Is informality not more characteristic of emerging markets than of developed
economies? Is this way of doing business a feature of economic and social
backwardness or a sign of efficiency? Is the gray economy good or bad for the society
– for instance, lower prices on smuggled consumer goods? How should a national
government fight shady business given the fact that it originates from beyond the
boundaries of its country? By taking radical measures against groups of its citizens
involved in illegal activities (for instance, drug dealing, human trafficking and
prostitution) will the government not support implicitly these groups’ foreign
competitors given the fact that such activities have an international dimension?
Questions of this kind have recently attracted the attention of academics, policy makers
and representatives of civil society; answers have come through interdisciplinary or
single field analysis from different perspectives to show that the informal economy is
part of everybody’s life. A large amount of data has been accumulated for the last couple
of decades; studies of causal relationships between different facets of informal business
as well as between informal activities and government policies have improved our
understanding of the causes, mechanisms and implications of the informal economy for
the state and society.
The aim of the paper is to present current trends in migratory behaviour in CEE countries in the
context of socio-economic transition and to analyze selected features of nowadays migration in this part
of the world. The question will be raised whether CEE still constitute a coherent / uniform region in
respect to mobility behaviors and if so, what are the distinct common features of recently observed
migration. Migration in the region is presented as a consequence of 'interplay' of three kinds of imbalances
in particular countries or between countries: demographic, economic and political.
The definition of trafficking in the United Nation (UN) Protocol on Trafficking from 2000 is the starting point of different countries’ definition of trafficking. In Norway, as in other countries, there are still difficulties in identifying victims of trafficking in the day-to-day work of the police, social workers and others. The definitions of and demarcation between human trafficking and human smuggling have grave consequences for legal approaches, policies and help offered. It is thus necessary to continually discuss how to define trafficking if we want the term to be a fruitful tool in framing the phenomenon—which in turn impacts the ability to aid victims, prevent victimization and to prosecute traffickers.In this article we approach this matter through two qualitative studies among Nigerian women in prostitution in Norway. Their stories are complex and their travels long, and along the way, their migration and prostitution has been organized by different agents. These agents were sometimes human traffickers; other times smugglers of migrants. In this article, we explore which is which, with the definition in UN's Trafficking Protocol as our starting point. This article is an attempt to analyze the complexities of the women's situation in order to link theoretical debates on trafficking definitions with women's lived experiences.
This paper explores empirically and theoretically one of the least studied economic phenomenon: the trafficking of women and children into slavery. By focusing on market imper-fections and differential bargaining power amongst the concerned parties, we pin down how the incentives of traffickers (middlemen) are affected in response to interventions that grant legal status to trafficked persons in host countries and tougher legislation targeting traffickers in the source countries. Using cross-national data, we find that (i) a typical worker in a source country of international trafficking and trafficking hubs are more likely to be employed in agriculture, (ii) a higher dependency ratio due primarily to the larger size of children population in source countries and trafficking hubs compared to host countries, (iii) higher incidence of child labor in source countries and trafficking hubs and (iv) host countries have, on average, the highest police force per capita compared to source countries and trafficking hubs. Nevertheless, the number of convicted persons per recorded crime is also the lowest there. Finally, the granting legal status to trafficked victims in host countries, as well as a legal ban on prostitution in source countries, are both associated with an increased likelihood of trafficking.
In this paper we focus on the ways ‘victims’ and ‘perpetrators’ are imagined in the narratives on women who have been trafficked
to West Europe for sexual exploitation. Three specific domains: international/national law, local law enforcement and ethnographic
academic perspective are particularly important as they strongly influence political reaction to trafficking and describe
the phenomenon from the perspective of the individuals concerned. In our analysis, an explanation of the diversity of the
perceptions in these three domains is provided.
KeywordsHuman trafficking for sexual exlpoitation–‘Narratives’ and ‘imageries’–Legal definitions–Victims and perpetrator–Ethnography
This article will define the concepts of smuggling and trafficking in human beings and discuss the difficulty in applying the definition. The magnitude and scope of the problem will be examined as well as its causes. Trafficking in human beings will be analysed as an illegal market, particularly with reference to its relationship with other illegal markets and the involvement of organised crime groups. The phenomenon will be discussed in more depth focusing on countries and regions where projects are currently being implemented under the auspices of the United Nations Global Programme against Trafficking in Human Beings. The discussion closes with an overview of situations which facilitate the practice, and current measures and recommendations to stem the tide of smuggling and trafficking.
The subject of human trafficking has recently received a lot of attention from society and the world of politics. The criminal-law
approach to human trafficking has also been placed high on the agenda of law enforcers. Human trafficking is, however, a complex
crime with several specific characteristics. For example, there is often a complex relationship between victims and perpetrators
of human trafficking and victims are often too afraid to file a report. How do the police and the judicial authorities work
in the investigation of human trafficking in view of the specific characteristics of human trafficking? What choices are made
in practice and what different police investigative strategies can be distinguished? What opportunities and risks are inherent
in the choices made? In this article we answer these questions on the basis of four large scale police investigations into
human trafficking that we studied closely. The four criminal cases all focused on violent groups of human traffickers that
operated in the Amsterdam window prostitution. All criminal cases have since been concluded (in first instance). It turned
out that in each of the four investigations the relevant police team applied a different investigative strategy: one investigation
focused primarily on the victim statements, one investigation focused on public nuisance, one investigation focused on the
evidence against the criminal organisation and one investigation focused on the offences (evidence concerning the exploitation
of prostitutes). In this article we compare the four strategies applied and consider the consequences of each strategy for
the course of the investigation and the criminal prosecution and what dilemma’s are faced in each strategy. Although the various
investigations cannot be easily compared and a uniform ‘best’ strategy cannot be designated, the comparison does show that
some choices or decisions entail great opportunities or great risks as regards the successful investigation and prosecution
of human trafficking. It concerns, for example, the choice of involving local investigative services (district police) or
the choice for short-term or, as the case may be, longer-running investigations.
KeywordsHuman trafficking–Organized crime–Criminal investigation strategies
In the second half of the 20th century the sex industry became a worldwide phenomenon. The annual illicit profits of criminal organizations involved in human trafficking are estimated by the United Nations at about seven billion dollars (Caldwell et al, 1997:42). Many countries, ranging from Asia to Africa, have gained a reputation for being involved in women trafficking. The Ukrainian Ministry of Interior, for instance, estimated that 400,000 Ukrainian women were trafficked in the past decade, according to figures from the International Organization for Migration. In the Baltic countries there is considerable trafficking from Lithuania. (IOM, April 25, 2001)67.
67 Excerpts: IOM Figures on Global Scale of Trafficking, http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/global/traffic/01042503.html
This book examines all forms of human trafficking globally, revealing the operations of the trafficking business and the nature of the traffickers themselves. Using a historical and comparative perspective, it demonstrates that there is more than one business model of human trafficking and that there are enormous variations in human trafficking in different regions of the world. Drawing on a wide body of academic research – actual prosecuted cases, diverse reports, and field work and interviews conducted by the author over the last sixteen years in Asia, Latin America, Africa, Europe, and the former socialist countries – Louise Shelley concludes that human trafficking will grow in the twenty-first century as a result of economic and demographic inequalities in the world, the rise of conflicts, and possibly global climate change. Coordinated efforts of government, civil society, the business community, multilateral organizations, and the media are needed to stem its growth.
Dit boek is een gedetaillerd onderzoek naar een groep Albanese vrouwen werkzaam in de seksindustrie in Parijs. My Name is Not Natasha laat zien hoe deze vrouwen, gedwongen of bewust 'gekozen' voor het beroep, allerminst het slachtoffer zijn van een economisch uitzichtloze situatie. Ze zijn evenmin naïve laagopgeleide vrouwen, onder valse voorwendselen de seksslavernij ingelokt. Dit boek laat zien dat ze zonder hulp van buitenaf weerbaar zijn en hun eigen doelen weten te bereiken. Het is een getuigenis van hun veerkracht en zelfredzaamheid.
This article reports on an ethnographic study of Russian-speaking immigrants in the Netherlands. Using interviews and media accounts, explanations are found for Russian immigrants' choice of the Netherlands as a place to conduct organized crime operations, why criminal proceeds are invested inside the Netherlands, and why there is a prevailing view of consensual organized crime activity as being nonserious. The negative public identity of Russian immigrants and how they have chosen to manipulate their criminal image, rather than contest it, are examined. It has become part of a social process in which a new Russian ethnic identity is constructed.
Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 12.1 (2005) 118-140
Most of the prostitutes in Kosovo have been trafficked illegally from the poorest parts of the ruined Soviet state. They are lured by the promise of a good job, usually in Italy or Germany, their passports are confiscated, and they generally wind up sold to Albanian pimps, who force them to work in brothels to pay off their "debt."
The traffic in women and girls for prostitution has recently commanded the attention of state authorities, activists, journalists, and academics the world over, although it is hardly a new phenomenon. While the extent of trafficking in women and its geographic routes have changed in the past hundred years, its structural causes and organization remain remarkably stable. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, China, Japan, and many European countries supplied prostitutes to other countries. The first wave of globalization, accompanied by population increases, urbanization, international migration, colonization, and political change contributed importantly to the growth of prostitution and the traffic in women and girls around the world. French, Polish, Russian, and Italian women were sent to brothels primarily in other European countries, Argentina, and Brazil. In the East, Chinese women went to brothels in British Hong Kong, the Dutch East Indies, Indo-China, the Malay States, Singapore, and Shanghai. Japanese women, including those of Korean ethnicity, went to Japanese holdings in Chosen (Korea), Kwantung (Manchuria), Tientsin, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (see Limoncelli forthcoming).
These women were transported primarilyóalthough not exclusivelyó to service men of their own nationality and/or ethnicity; laborers, military men, merchants, and administrators located abroad were their customers. What we now think of as sex tourism was a thriving business in Egypt and Algeria during the interwar period when the winter months attracted European men to brothels in warm climates. Over time and with the growing commercialization of sex, a tacit proscription against interethnic sexual encounters faded. Today, women are advertised as "exotic" to local men and tourists alike (Bishop 1998; Fusco 1998; Cabezas 2004; Wilson 2004). For example, Thai women are trafficked to Japan to service Japanese men (Human Rights Watch 2000), but they are also the objects of Western men's fantasies that may be fulfilled through sex tours to Thailand promoted by organizers and agencies in the United States, Germany, and other countries.
The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989 has since provided new resourcesógeographical and humanófor the sex trade and traffic. Indeed, one of the most striking images of the changes in Eastern Europe soon after the fall of the Berlin Wall was that of women lining the highways across the region, offering sex for sale. Political and economic liberalization as well as internal and international militarism created new opportunity structures and daunting economic uncertainties that have produced both a demand for and a supply of sex workers in and from Eastern Europe. The majority of these sex workers have been and are women and girls. Recent reports consistently note the increased number of women and children trafficked to, through, and from Central and Eastern Europe. Whether working part-time to supplement income, full-time voluntarily in sex clubs, or forced in the context of trafficking, prostitution is a stable, ever-expanding feature of the global service economy.
Furthermore, as the epigraphs attest, the methods used to traffic women have stood the test of time; traffickers still use variants of them today. Then, as now, some used marriage or promises of marriage to recruit women and girls; others assured them of domestic service or entertainment work abroad. Still others enticed women already engaged in prostitution, who then willingly left for foreign brothels. Whatever the particularities of the recruitment method, there has been no shortage of persons ready to benefit from the availability of...
Human trafficking is a humanitarian problem of global scale, but quantitative research on the issue barely exists. This paper is the first attempt to analyze the economics of human trafficking and labour migration based on micro data, using unique household surveys from Belarus, Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine. We find that individual trafficking risks are much higher in regions with large emigration flows. The reasons are lower recruitment costs for traffickers in emigration areas and, to a less extent, more negative self-selection into migration. Our results also indicate that illegal migration increases trafficking risks and that better information, e.g. through awareness campaigns, might be an effective strategy to reduce the crime. These findings may help policymakers to better target anti-trafficking efforts.
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Economics of human trafficking: A survey. Acton: Australian National university
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Chand, Satish. 2008. Economics of human trafficking: A survey. Acton: Australian National university.
Sex trafficking and money laundering: The cases of Bulgaria. Sofia: riskMonitor. Petrunov, Georgi. 2010b. Spravedliv proces za jertvite na trafik
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Organized crime in the Western Balkans
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Balkan migrations and the European union: Patterns and trends
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- Irina Caunic
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