Archaeological Discoveries on Schnidejoch and at Other Ice Sites in the European Alps

Abstract

Only a few sites in the Alps have produced archaeological finds from melting ice. To date, prehistoric finds from four sites dating from the Neolithic period, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age have been recovered from small ice patches (Schnidejoch, Lötschenpass, Tisenjoch, and Gemsbichl/Rieserferner). Glaciers, on the other hand, have yielded historic finds and frozen human remains that are not more than a few hundred years old (three glacier mummies from the 16th to the 19th century and military finds from World Wars I and II). Between 2003 and 2010, numerous archaeological finds were recovered from a melting ice patch on the Schnidejoch in the Bernese Alps (Cantons of Berne and Valais, Switzerland). These finds date from the Neolithic period, the Early Bronze Age, the Iron Age, Roman times, and the Middle Ages, spanning a period of 6000 years. The Schnidejoch, at an altitude of 2756 m asl, is a pass in the Wildhorn region of the western Bernese Alps. It has yielded some of the earliest evidence of Neolithic human activity at high altitude in the Alps. The abundant assemblage of finds contains a number of unique artifacts, mainly from organic materials like leather, wood, bark, and fibers. The site clearly proves access to high-mountain areas as early as the 5th millennium BC, and the chronological distribution of the finds indicates that the Schnidejoch pass was used mainly during periods when glaciers were retreating.

Full text

ARCTIC
VOL. 65, SU PPL. 1 (2012) P. 189 – 202
Archaeological Discoveries on Schnidejoch and at Other Ice Sites in the European Alps
ALBERT HAFNER1
(Received 28 February 2011; accepted in revised form 19 December 2011)
ABSTRACT. Only a few sites in the Alps have produced archaeological nds from melting ice. To date, prehistoric nds from
four sites dating from the Neolithic period, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age have been recovered from small ice patches
(Schnidejoch, Lötschenpass, Tisenjoch, and Gemsbichl/Rieserferner). Glaciers, on the other hand, have yielded historic nds
and frozen human remains that are not more than a few hundred years old (three glacier mummies from the 16th to the 19th
century and military nds from World Wars I and II). Between 2003 and 2010, numerous archaeological nds were recovered
from a melting ice patch on the Schnidejoch in the Bernese Alps (Cantons of Berne and Valais, Switzerland). These nds
date from the Neolithic period, the Early Bronze Age, the Iron Age, Roman times, and the Middle Ages, spanning a period
of 6000 years. The Schnidejoch, at an altitude of 2756 m asl, is a pass in the Wildhorn region of the western Bernese Alps. It
has yielded some of the earliest evidence of Neolithic human activity at high altitude in the Alps. The abundant assemblage
of nds contains a number of unique artifacts, mainly from organic materials like leather, wood, bark, and bers. The site
clearly proves access to high-mountain areas as early as the 5th millennium BC, and the chronological distribution of the nds
indicates that the Schnidejoch pass was used mainly during periods when glaciers were retreating.
Key words: ice patch archaeology, Alps, Switzerland, Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Roman Period, Medieval Period, bow
equipment, climate history, alpine pass
RÉSUMÉ. Dans les Alpes, la glace en fusion a donné lieu à des découvertes archéologiques à seulement quelques
emplacements. Jusqu’à maintenant, des découvertes préhistoriques en provenance de quatre sites remontant à la période
néolithique, à l’âge du bronze et à l’âge du fer ont été faites dans de petits névés (Schnidejoch, Lötschenpass, Tisenjoch et
Gemsbichl-Rieserferner). Par contre, les glaciers ont permis de faire des trouvailles historiques et de découvrir des restes
humains qui ne datent pas de plus de quelques centaines d’années (soit trois momies de glaciers allant du XVIe au XIXe siècles
et des découvertes militaires de la Première Guerre mondiale ainsi que de la Seconde Guerre mondiale). Entre 2003 et 2010,
de nombreuses découvertes archéologiques ont été effectuées dans un névé en fusion du Schnidejoch, dans les Alpes bernoises
(cantons de Berne et de Valais, en Suisse). Ces découvertes datent de la période néolithique, du début de l’âge du bronze, de
l’âge du fer, de l’époque romaine et du Moyen-Âge, ce qui s’échelonne sur 6 000 années. Le Schnidejoch, se trouvant à une
altitude de 2 756 m, est un col de la région Wildhorn, dans l’ouest des Alpes bernoises. Cet endroit a permis de découvrir les
plus anciennes preuves d’activité humaine de la période néolithique en haute altitude dans les Alpes. L’abondant assemblage
de découvertes comprend un certain nombre d’artefacts uniques principalement composés de matériaux organiques comme le
cuir, le bois, l’écorce et les bres. Ce site prouve nettement que dès le cinquième millénaire av. J.-C., l’être humain avait accès
aux régions en haute montagne. Par ailleurs, la répartition chronologique des découvertes indique que le col du Schnidejoch
était principalement utilisé en périodes de recul des glaciers.
Mots clés : archéologie des névés, Alpes, Suisse, néolithique, âge du bronze, âge du fer, période romaine, période médiévale,
équipement d’arc, histoire du climat, col alpin
Traduit pour la revue Arctic par Nicole Giguère.
1 Archäologischer Dienst des Kantons Bern, Postfach 5233, CH-3001 Bern, Switzerland; present address: Institute of Archaeological
Science, Department of Prehistory, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland; albert.hafner@erz.be.ch
© The Arctic Institute of North America
INT RODUCTION
Archaeological nds retrieved from ice are a rather recent
phenomenon, perhaps because ice patches are in locations
that are not very easily accessed: polar and subpolar regions
or nival and subnival areas of high mountain ranges. Out-
side the Alps, ice patch nds are known from Scandina-
via (Farbregd, 1972, 2009; Astveit, 2007; Finstad and Pilø,
2010) and North America (Farnell et al., 2004; Hare et
al., 2004; Dixon et al., 2005; VanderHoek et al., 2007a, b;
Andrews et al., 2009; Lee, 2010). Schär et al. (2004) point
out that instrumental observation and reconstructions of
global and hemispheric temperature evolution reveal pro-
nounced warming during the last 150 years, which led to
glaciers retreating, ice patches becoming smaller, and per-
mafrost soils thawing to a deeper extent. This process has
signicantly accelerated in recent years. When glaciers and
ice patches melt, the terrain uncovered has usually not been

190 • A. HAFNER
exposed for a long time. Archaeological artifacts that have
been trapped in the ice for hundreds and sometimes thou-
sands of years come to light once again.
When a Neolithic ice mummy dating around 3300 – 3100
BC was discovered in 1991 in the Ötztal Alps (Austria/
Italy), it constituted the rst ever recognized Neolithic
ice-patch nd in the Alps (Höpfel et al., 1992; Spindler
et al., 1995, 1996; Bortenschlager and Oeggl, 2000; Egg
and Spindler, 2009). The site was located at an altitude of
3210 m on the Tisenjoch, a crossing from the Ötztal Val-
ley in the north to the Schnalstal Valley in the south.
Until this discovery, researchers had generally assumed
that alpine regions above the tree line and above 2000 m
had not been frequented at all during the Neolithic period
(5500 – 2200 BC). This opinion seemed to be conrmed by
the nearly complete absence of nds dating from the period
of the earliest farming communities. It was presumed that
the Neolithic societies had no interest in regions with a low
farming potential (Wyss, 1991). The earliest groups that
were believed to have operated an early pasture economy
and to have used the alpine zone were the Bronze Age pop-
ulations (2200 – 800 BC). Archaeological evidence in the
remains of high-altitude settlements and individual nds of
bronze artifacts had already come to light at the beginning
of the 20th century (Wyss, 1971). Human remains found
on glaciers had also been known for a long time. In most
cases these were modern-day mountaineers who had died
as a result of accidents and were therefore not archaeologi-
cal nds in the strict sense (Meyer, 1992). The novelty and
surprising feature of the Tisenjoch ice mummy nd was
actually that it was lying in stagnant ice in a hollow sur-
rounded by steep ridges (Egg and Spindler, 2009:39 – 45
and Figs. 7 – 9). The excellent preservation conditions that
existed on the Tisenjoch were thus due to its special topo-
graphical features. That such ice-lled hollows are rare is
illustrated by the fact that despite intensive searches in vari-
ous regions of the Alps, only two new nds have come to
light since 1991.
ICE PATCH AND GLACIER SITES IN THE ALPS
In the entire alpine region four sites are known to have
yielded prehistoric nds from the ice (Fig. 1:1 – 4). Besides
Tisenjoch and Schnidejoch, mentioned above, the prehis-
toric ice patch sites of Lötschenpass in the western Bernese
Alps and Gemsbichl/Rieserferner in the Noric Alps can be
cited. Historic nds from glaciers are known from Swit-
zerland, Austria, and Italy. Of archaeological interest are
three frozen human bodies that were embedded in the ice
between the 16th and 19th centuries (Fig. 1:5 – 7). The scat-
tered corpses and their dispersed equipment were found on
the lowest parts of alpine glaciers. In contrast to ice patches,
alpine glaciers move down the valley at an average speed of
10 to 30 m per year. This means that persons or objects that
fall into crevasses are transported approximately 1 to 3 km
over a period of 100 years. For reasons of glacier mechanics,
archaeological nds more than a few hundred years old
cannot be expected. The latest archaeological remains stem
from alpine military actions (Fig. 1.8 – 11). The sites include
World War I battleelds in the former Austro-Italian bor-
der zones, from the so-called Guerra Bianca (White War)
of 1915 – 18, and wrecks of two aircraft that crashed on gla-
ciers during and shortly after World War II.
Lötschenpass
Between 1934 and 1944, several bows, bow fragments,
medieval crossbow bolts, Roman coins, and other items
were discovered on the Lötschenpass at 2690 m above sea
level (asl) in the Bernese Alps of Switzerland (Bellwald,
1992; Meyer, 1992; Hafner, 2008). It was not until 1989
that the bows were rediscovered in the former workshop of
the nder. Radiocarbon dating revealed that they date from
the end of the Neolithic period and the Early Bronze Age
(2400 – 1800 BC).
Gemsbichl/Rieserferner
In 1992 and 1994, several textiles and leather fragments
were found on an ice patch near Gemsbichel/Rieserferner
(2841 m asl), a pass in the South Tyrol (Italy). The ndings
consist of one pair of “socks,” two pairs of woolen leggings,
strips and cords of wool, and two sewn leather fragments,
probably parts of shoes. The objects are probably parts of
personal equipment that were lost in the same event. Radio-
carbon dating of one item reveals that the object stems
from the Iron Age, around 800 – 500 BC (dal Ri, 1996;
Bazzanella et al., 2005).
Theodul Glacier
Between 1985 and 1990, the scattered skeletal remains
of a man approximately 45 years old at the time of his death
were found on the Theodul Glacier in the Pennine Alps
south of Zermatt (Switzerland); a rapier, a dagger, and a
pistol, as well as the remnants of clothing and shoes, were
also found (Meyer, 1992). The site is located at an altitude
of approximately 3000 m asl. Twelve coins were also found,
with issue dates ranging from 1578 to 1588, which means
that the accident may have occurred at the end of the 16th
ce nt ur y.
Porchabella Glacier
“Porchabella” was the name given to a woman aged
between 20 and 30, who had probably been the victim of an
accident in the 17th century and whose remains were found
between 1988 and 1992 at the foot of the Piz Kesch in the
Albula region. She had obviously met her death while try-
ing to cross the Porchabella Glacier. The site is situated at
an altitude of 2680 m asl. The remains included the skull,
ribs, and fragments of the pelvis, hair, and body tissue.
She had been wearing a woolen coat, a felt hat, a blouse,

ICE PATCHES IN THE EUROPEAN ALPS • 191
and leather shoes. Various small nds—a bowl, a spoon,
a comb, and rosary beads, all made of wood—were also
recovered (Rageth, 1995).
Gradetzkees
The Gradetzkees is a glacier in the Granatspitz Moun-
tains of Eastern Tyrol (Austria). In 1929 a glacier mummy
melted out of the ice at about 2800 m asl. The head and
other body extremities were missing, whereas parts of the
clothing, buttons, hair, a knife, bullets, a rie, and a pocket-
watch were found nearby. Police investigations revealed
that the body must be that of the poacher Norbert Matters-
berger, who was lost in the area in 1829. However, because
no autopsy was undertaken and the human remains were
buried soon after the body was found, the identity of the
person remains uncertain (Stadler, 2005).
War Relics and Military Items
From the 1990s on, archaeologists found high-alpine
World War I ghting positions in the Ortles and Adamello
regions of Italy covered by thick layers of ice, and discov-
ered cantonments, checkpoints, weapons, and personal
objects. Since 2004, several corpses of Austro-Hungar-
ian soldiers have been found (Martinelli, 1996 – 2002;
Rasper, 2011). Military items include wrecks of airplanes
that crashed on glaciers during or shortly after World War
II. In 2003, the remains of a German Junkers Ju 52 were
found at about 2750 m asl on the Umbalkees, a glacier in
the Hohe Tauern region of Eastern Tyrol. The plane had
been forced to land in January 1941 (Von Schulz, 2003). In
1946, a Douglas Dakota C-53 from the United States Air
Force crashed on the Gauli Glacier in the Bernese Alps.
The wreck sank in the ice at about 3350 m asl. It is still in
the glacier and will probably melt out in the next few years
(Cornioley, 2006).
FIG. 1. Location of prehistoric ice patch and historic glacier sites in the European Alps, Switzerland, cited in the text. Prehistoric ice patch sites (dot): 1
Schnidejoch, 2 Lötschenpass, 3 Tisenjoch, 4 Gemsbichl/Rieserferner. Historic glacier sites, 17th to 19th century (square): 5 Theodul Glacier, 6 Porchabella
Glacier 7, Gradetzkees. Battleelds of World War I or airplane wrecks of World War II (triangle): 8 Ortles region, 9 Adamello region, 10 Umbalkees, 11 Gauli
Glacier.

192 • A. HAFNER
DISCOVERY, LOCATION, AND NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT OF THE SCHNIDEJOCH SITE
The Schnidejoch is a pass at an altitude of 2756 m asl
in the Wildhorn region of the western Bernese Alps
(46˚22ʹ09.10ʺ N, 7˚23ʹ19.70ʺ E; Figs. 1, 2). Discovered
in 2003 by hikers, the site has been the scene of inten-
sive archaeological investigations since 2004 (Suter et al.,
2005; Hafner, 2009). The catalyst for the discovery was the
extremely warm summer of 2003, which led to a degree of
glacial melt in the Alps that had not been experienced for a
number of decades (Schär et al., 2004; Zemp et al., 2006).
The small ice patch on the northern slope of the Schnide-
joch was particularly affected by this melt and probably lost
more than half of its volume during that summer. In the at
and slightly sloped depression, this loss was clearly visible
as a marked decrease in the size of the ice surface.
This melting process continued in 2004 and 2005, so
that one had to expect the entire ice patch to disappear
completely (Fig. 3). The southern slope had been free from
glaciations for quite some time. Most of the fragile objects
made from organic materials were found along the reced-
ing edge of the ice within those two years. Contrary to all
expectations, however, the summers in 2006 – 08 were no
longer warm enough, and the residual ice remained stable
during that time. The autumn of 2009 once again saw a
considerably reduced mass of ice. But in 2010 and 2011, the
ice stopped melting again, protected by a thick snow cover
from winter precipitation. The ice mass at Schnidejoch is
clearly too small to survive, but the experience of the last
few years shows that we cannot predict how long it will
take for the ice to disappear completely.
Geologically, the Wildhorn region and the Schnidejoch
are part of the large formation of the Wildhorn nappe within
the Helvetic nappes. The Schnidejoch area mainly consists
of alpine hard limestone. All mountain slopes of this area
are exposed to erosion, and massive accumulations of scree
have formed at their bases. The geomorphology of the land-
scape at Schnidejoch is characterized by rugged rock faces,
vast cones of debris, glacier forelands, moraines, and gla-
ciers. The site is located in the subnival belt of the Alps,
which ranges from the last continuous alpine meadows to
the upper limits of owering plants (Staffelbach, 2008).
Present-day vegetation is limited to scattered cushion
plants and mosses. The snow-free period in the area is lim-
ited to a few weeks between mid August and early Octo-
ber. At 2700 m asl in the Alps, one would generally expect
continuous snow cover on more than 300 days a year and
snowfall on 160 days a year, the summer months included
(Ellenberg, 1996). The zone with the highest precipitation
FIG. 2. Schnidejoch (Bernese Alps, Switzerland). View of the site at 2750 m asl which is situated in the foreground, marked by a oval. Most of the nds came
from the ice patch on the north side of the pass and only a few objects came from the south side. In the background can be recognized the Chilchli Glacier, which
extends down from the summit of the Wildhorn (3246 m asl).

ICE PATCHES IN THE EUROPEAN ALPS • 193
in Switzerland extends along the northern alpine crest,
reaching its maximum in the Bernese and Valais Alps. The
annual average precipitation rates in the area of the Sch-
nidejoch lie at more than 2000 mm (Schwarb et al., 2001).
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
AT SCHNIDEJOCH 2004 – 11
More than 30 surveys were carried out by small teams
between 2004 and 2011. Surveying usually begins when
the pass area is free of snow—not before the end of July—
and ends with the rst autumn snowfalls in October. At
an altitude of almost 3000 m asl and because of an unfa-
vourable seasonal decrease in solar radiation at the site,
the ice would typically stop melting at the end of Septem-
ber. The archaeological work on the Schnidejoch does not
consist of excavations in the proper sense, as most artifacts
are found lying on the surface. In addition to scanning the
terrain with the naked eye, the survey teams systemati-
cally searched the area surrounding the Schnidejoch with
a metal detector. Except for a few nds from the begin-
ning of the investigations, all nds were systematically
mapped by means of a GPS station. Hobnails and wood
with no sign of human alteration were mapped only by sec-
tor. More than 800 artifacts, most of organic material, were
found between 2004 and 2011 on both sides of the summit
of the pass. The preservation conditions for objects made
of wood, bark, leather, and plant bers were considerably
better on the northern shady side than on the intensely sun-
lit southern side. A large majority of the nds, therefore,
came from the northern side of the pass (Fig. 4). Organic
nds have only a limited chance of being preserved once
they are no longer encased in ice and become exposed to
the elements. Once objects are free of the ice, they remain
covered by snow for almost nine months of the year; for the
remaining months, however, they are exposed to frequent
rain and snowfall alternating with intense sunlight and
strong winds. Artifacts lying on the surface are blown away
by the wind or exposed to UV radiation, which makes them
brittle. Compared to the lowlands, there are probably fewer
active decomposers at 2700 m asl and at such low tempera-
tures. Nevertheless, unprotected fragile artifacts such as
leather or textiles would likely not have survived more than
a few years. Timber fragments lying exposed on the surface
of the scree would probably have survived considerably
longer, perhaps for 50 to 100 years. Despite the fact that the
deposition of the nds in the ice had occurred over several
millennia, no stratigraphic sequence could be identied.
Finds dating from quite different periods were intermin-
gled. Moreover, the nds usually came from the base of the
ice layer and were found lying on the bedrock. An explana-
tion could be that darker objects, while still trapped in the
ice, may absorb more energy than the lighter-coloured ice
surrounding them and slowly melt their way to the bottom
over time.
Neolithic Finds
The Neolithic nds from the Schnidejoch can be attrib-
uted to three time slots between 4800 and 2200 BC (Fig. 5).
The chronological position of the Neolithic artifacts could
be established only by means of radiocarbon dating, since
neither pottery nor other typologically characteristic nds
have so far been recovered. The dates of several objects
point to the earliest phase being around 4800 to 4300 BC.
The second Neolithic phase, from 3700 to 2900 BC, is cur-
rently represented by ve C14 dates. A third period (2900 to
2200 BC) has been identied on the basis of 28 radiocarbon
dates.
The oldest objects from the Schnidejoch include a frag-
ment of a bowl made of elm wood (Fig. 6) and several
fragments of arrows. Five pieces of leather and wood dat-
ing from around 800 to 1000 years later can be attributed
to the second Neolithic time slot from 3700 to 2900 BC.
The third Neolithic time slot, between 2900 and 2200 BC,
FIG. 3. Lenk, Schnidejoch. View of the site in September 2004 (above) and
again in September 2009 (below). A dramatic melt has obviously occurred in
the intervening ve years.

194 • A. HAFNER
FIG. 4. Lenk, Schnidejoch. Northern side of the pass. Extension and reduction of the ice patch between 2005 and 2009 and distribution of the nds.
yielded particularly numerous and spectacular nds. An
almost complete bow kit was found over the course of a few
years in many pieces that were likely from one kit. The bow
kit consisted of a complete bow, 1.6 m long, made of yew
wood (Fig. 7); a bow string made of an unidentied mate-
rial, probably of animal origin; a bow case made of birch
bark (Fig. 8); numerous complete arrow shafts, as well as
many fragmented ones (Fig. 9); and two arrowheads. This
Neolithic equipment was supplemented by a leather leg-
ging (Fig. 10). This item of clothing exhibited obvious
seams stitched with plant bers and repairs in the form
of patches. This large piece of leather measuring 89 cm ×
60 cm—probably one of the largest preserved prehistoric
leather fragments ever found—was analyzed using various
methods. This analysis was possible because from the out-
set the conservators had chosen not to use chemicals to con-
serve the leather fragments. To this day, the leather objects
have remained untreated and are stored in stable and dry
conditions. The mitochondrial DNA analyses carried out by
Angela Schlumbaum from the University of Basel revealed
that the leather had come from a domesticated goat and that
the animal belonged to a genetic group that is no longer pre-
sent in Europe today, but still exists in Southeast Asia. This
archaeogenetic result has far-reaching consequences for our
understanding of the domestication of goats (Schlumbaum
et al., 2010). Several leather samples were analyzed by Jorge

ICE PATCHES IN THE EUROPEAN ALPS • 195
ETH-39616/UZ-5784
ETH-29572/UZ-5172.2
ETH-29572/UZ-5172.1
ETH-34940/UZ-5607
ETH-38874/UZ-5765
ETH-32033/UZ-5334
ETH-32032/UZ-5333
ETH-37758/UZ-5707
ETH-39619/UZ-5787
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Poz-33732
Poz-27148
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ETH-31147/UZ-5258
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ETH-32044/UZ-5345
ETH-29693/UZ-5180
ETH-32039/UZ-5340
ETH-32040/UZ-5341
ETH-30937/UZ-5247
ETH-28346/UZ-5061
ETH-31144/UZ-5255
ETH-31883/UZ-5332
ETH-37925/UZ-5710
ETH-39614/UZ-5782
ETH-31143/UZ-5254
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ETH-31145/UZ-5256
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ETH-40157/UZ-5823
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ETH-40156/UZ-5822
ETH-40155/UZ-5821
ETH-29575/UZ-5175
ETH-41750/UZ-5941
ETH-41749/UZ-5940
ETH-37760/UZ-5709
ETH-39618/UZ-5786
ETH-35569/UZ-5606
ETH-32499/UZ-5344
ETH-32043/UZ-5344
ETH-37756/UZ-5705
ETH-38877/UZ-5768
ETH-37759/UZ-5708
ETH-39475/UZ-5781
ETH-39474/UZ-5780
ETH-37754/UZ-5703
50006000 4000 3000 2000 1000 1000 20001calBC/1calAD
FIG. 5. Schnidejoch. Calibrated radiocarbon dates. Calibration was done with OxCAL 4.1 using the IntCal 09 curve of the programme (Bronk Ramsey, 2009).

196 • A. HAFNER
Spangenberg from the University of Lausanne using molec-
ular and isotope chemistry (δ13C and δ15N of the leather as a
whole and sample-specic δ13C analyses of the fatty acids
extracted using organic solvents). These analyses revealed
that the various archaeological leather samples contained a
mixture of endogenous animal lipids and exogenous plant
lipids (Spangenberg et al., 2010). Considerable amounts of
waxes and phytosterols found in all the samples, as well as
numerous biomarkers of coniferous wood species identied
in the Schnidejoch leather samples, show that the wearers
of these items of clothing had often frequented subalpine
coniferous woodlands and that watery extracts of various
plants had been used as tanning agents. This nding has
provided proof for the rst time that plant tanning agents
were already known and used in the Neolithic period. This
means that complex tanning techniques, previously thought
FIG. 6. Lenk, Schnidejoch. Fragment of a Neolithic wooden bowl, dated
4500 – 4300 BC and made from elm wood. The complete diameter of the bowl
is 19 cm.
FIG. 7. Lenk, Schnidejoch. The Neolithic bow made of yew wood and dating
2900 – 2700 BC was found in 2003 by hikers. The total length of the bow is
162 cm.
to have been unknown until later periods, were already
being used (S. Volken, pers. comm. 2010).
Added together, various artifacts from the third Neo-
lithic time slot (2900 to 2200 BC) would make up a large
part of the equipment of an armed man who was moving

ICE PATCHES IN THE EUROPEAN ALPS • 197
FIG. 8. Lenk, Schnidejoch. Middle section of a Neolithic bow case made
of birch bark and reinforced with pieces of wood and strips of leather,
2900 – 2700 BC.
FIG. 9. Lenk, Schnidejoch. One Early Bronze Age and six Neolithic arrows. The Neolithic ar rows (top six) dated around 2900 – 2700 BC and are all made of
Wayfaring tree (Viburnum lantana), whereas the Bronze Age arrow (bottom) dated around 1800 – 1600 BC and is made of hazel.
across the high mountain ranges. There are striking simi-
larities between the Schnidejoch kit and the equipment that
belonged to the frozen body from the Tisenjoch. It is highly
unlikely that both these items of clothing, which would
have been necessary for survival in the mountains, and also
the weapons, which must have been at least as important,
FIG. 10. Lenk, Schnidejoch. A Neolithic leather legging, 2900 – 2700 BC, in
the context where it was found.
were simply lost. This partial assemblage in a sense mir-
rors the situation on the Tisenjoch, where, as is generally
known, a person had come to a violent end (Egg and Spin-
dler 2009:199 – 209). One may assume that the Schnidejoch
nds also represent a casualty. However, it was not neces-
sarily a murder or manslaughter: it might also have been an
unfortunate accident.
Early Bronze Age Finds
Nineteen objects have been radiocarbon-dated to ca.
2200 to 1500 BC, a period that covers the Early Bronze Age
(Fig. 5). Surprisingly, there is a lack of Middle and Late
Bronze Age dates. Since glaciers retreated several times

198 • A. HAFNER
during this time span, one would expect to nd Late Bronze
Age radiocarbon dates in particular. But as yet, there is a gap
of 1500 years between the latest dates of the Early Bronze
Age “time slot” and the earliest Iron Age radiocarbon dates.
Besides a typologically distinct bronze pin, the Early
Bronze Age objects from the Schnidejoch again consist
mainly of artifacts made of organic materials. The bronze
pin is a richly decorated, disc-headed pin, which is 22.7 cm
long (Fig. 11). The decoration on the disc consists of two
concentric circles enclosing a central cross made up of eight
chevrons. The head of the pin is rolled into a loop, which
served to secure the pin by means of a piece of string. Both
the loop and the shaft of the pin are decorated with lled
triangles. Similar pins were found in burial sites near Con-
they and Ayent in the Rhône Valley below Schnidejoch
(Hafner, 1995:151 – 152, 202; David-Elbiali, 2000:394, 412).
All the discoveries of disc-headed pins in Switzerland have
so far been made in the Rhône Valley. It is not clear whether
the Schnidejoch pin was lost or deliberately deposited at the
site. Since this type of pin has a loop with which to secure
it, one must consider the possibility that it was left there as
an offering.
FIG. 11. Lenk, Schnidejoch. Disc-headed pin from the Early Bronze Age,
dating from 1800 – 1600 BC.
Other nds of particular interest were various fragments
of a wooden vessel, of which only the base was completely
preserved (Fig. 12). The base and the body of the vessel,
fragments of which were also found, were sewn together
by thin twigs. Other Early Bronze Age nds consisted of
leather artifacts and rings made from plaited twigs.
Iron Age, Roman and Medieval Finds
The latest objects found on the Schnidejoch date from
a period which, because of the relative inaccuracy of the
radiocarbon dates, covers not only the Iron Age, but also
the Roman and medieval periods. The actual dates repre-
sent the time span between about 200 BC and AD 1000
(Fig. 5). The nds recovered from the pass include various
Roman metal artifacts: a brooch (Fig. 13), a coin, and more
than 150 hobnails. Besides the coin from the pass itself,
two other coins were found just below it. One of these was
discovered at Lake Ifg, where fragments of Roman tiles,
which suggest the presence of some kind of hostel, have
been found on several occasions (Grütter, 1985). Another
coin was found in the area of the Wildhorn hut in the 1940s,
but has since been lost (Hafner, 2008). Other nds included
leather fragments, remnants of shoes, and a small number
of textiles.
CONCLUSIONS
It is not possible to identify the exact routes that were
chosen in each period to cross the Schnidejoch. The fact
remains, however, that the pass was relatively easy and safe
to traverse from both sides. Because of the topographical
situation, only a few clearly dened routes were possible.
The southern access was always easier because ice cover on
the slopes with south exposure was minor. Access from the
north was also easy at times when the neighbouring Chilchli
Glacier had retreated to a large extent, as is currently the
case. At the height of the Little Ice Age, around 1850, the
glacier extended about 1200 m farther than it does today.
The glacier then clearly reached farther north and was slid-
ing down the valley over a steep drop (Fig. 14). Because
of glacier mechanics, a tensile zone with deep cracks and
crevasses was then formed in the area of the present-day
path. In such periods of advancing glaciers, the route could
have been accomplished only by experienced climbers. The
dangers posed by crevasses and icefall rendered this area
of the glacier a dangerous terrain and required appropri-
ate safety measures. In these conditions, the key location
on the northern access route was not situated at the high-
est point of the route, but almost an hour’s hike below it.
The chronological distribution of archaeological material
from Schnidejoch shows a correlation between the periods
represented by archaeological nds and the periods dur-
ing which the glaciers in the alpine region were retreating.
Crossing the pass safely was probably possible only at times
when the climate was warmer and the glaciers had greatly

ICE PATCHES IN THE EUROPEAN ALPS • 199
FIG. 12. Lenk, Schnidejoch. Early Bronze Age wooden vessel, consisting of a base with remnants of the seam and body fragments. Radiocarbon dating gives an
age of 1800 – 1600 BC. The object is made from various species of wood.
FIG. 13. Lenk, Schnidejoch. Roman hinge bula, dating from the 1st century
AD. The bula is made out of tin-coated bronze (length: 3.9 cm).
retreated. One can postulate a direct link between retreat-
ing glaciers and the use of the Schnidejoch pass (Grosjean
et al., 2007; Nussbaumer et al., 2011). In general, one may
assume that in prehistoric and early historic times, alpine
passes that were considered safer and easier to cross were
generally preferred. The distances and altitudes that had to
be negotiated were probably only of secondary importance.
Hunting would probably have been one of the main
incentives to advance into the rocky and glaciated areas of
the High Alps. The inhabitants of the alpine zones always
relied on visiting different locations depending on the sea-
son—at least with regard to animal herding. It is unlikely
that the Schnidejoch was crossed with cattle: various short
steep inclines in the terrain on both sides of the pass made
the paths too arduous, and certain locations would even
have been completely impassable. Sheep and goats, on the
other hand, would have encountered no difculties in cross-
ing the Schnidejoch. Neolithic farming communities, doc-
umented through settlements and burial sites, are located
south of Schnidejoch in the Rhône Valley, but no Neolithic
settlements have been found in the northern valleys. Most
probably the Schnidejoch pass was used by early farming
communities from the south side in search of hunting areas
and herding places on the north side of the pass. The nds
recovered from the Schnidejoch suggest that high-altitude
passes in the Alps were already used in the 5th millen-
nium BC. Further radiocarbon-dated objects reveal that the
region around Schnidejoch attracted individuals throughout
the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age (4800 – 1600 BC).
The crossing of passes in the Alps was a basic prerequisite

200 • A. HAFNER
for the formation of trade networks and for general com-
munication between different valleys. This situation can be
assumed starting from the Early Bronze Age, for which an
intensive exchange system is conrmed in the archaeologi-
cal record through similar burial rites and grave goods. In
Roman times, the Schnidejoch was not among the crossings
known from written sources. However, one may assume
that only the great long-distance routes were mentioned in
the geographic accounts. The hypothesis of a Roman hostel
at Lake Ifg, at the northern access, conrms the impor-
tance of Schnidejoch as a connecting route between alpine
valleys (Grütter, 1985; Hafner, 2008). The most recent his-
torically interesting nds from the Schnidejoch date from
the 10th century. These medieval artifacts likely repre-
sent the nal phase in the use of the pass, which probably
became difcult and unsafe to cross with the onset of the
Little Ice Age and the associated glacier advance from 1300
onwards. There are no more traces of later crossings of the
pass until the 20th century: modern lost objects bear wit-
ness to the activities of mountaineers and ski-tourists, as
well as military exercises that have taken place in the area
around the summit of the pass.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks Sandy Hämmerle, Galway, Ireland, for the
translation, and three anonymous reviewers for their valuable
comments on an earlier draft.
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