The experience of the hidden curriculum for autistic girls at mainstream primary schools
European Journal of Special Needs Education
Abstract
This article presents the findings of ethnographic case studies of three girls on the autistic spectrum attending mainstream primary schools and illustrates the difficulties they experience and the ways in which these are often unrecognised. The observations of the girls and subsequent individual interviews with their mothers, class teachers, SENCO’s and ultimately themselves, reveal the personal adjustments the girls make in response to the hidden curriculum and the ways in which these go unnoticed, effectively masking their need for support, and contributing to their underachievement in school. The research also identifies a misunderstanding of autism in girls by some teachers that contributes to a lack of support for their needs, despite their diagnosis. Teachers need to understand how autistic girls present, and how they learn, if they are to recognise the need to illuminate the hidden curriculum. The implications of these findings are that without this awareness autistic girls in mainstream settings are also at risk of limited access to the known curriculum and of social isolation.
... As is to be expected from such a heterogenous sample, participants 1 shared a range of individual experiences of their time at primary school. This was reflected in simple preferences, such as whether maths (Cunningham, 2022) or science (Moyse & Porter, 2015) was their favourite subject, as well as their feelings towards school. ...
... Many accounts were underscored by acute and extreme difficulties that impacted the well-being of pupils. Two children shared how they spent a lot of time crying (Cunningham, 2022;Moyse & Porter, 2015), and others used terms such as 'scared' (Cunningham, 2022, p. 8), 'worry' (Stack et al., 2020, p. 7) and 'panic mode' (Howard et al., 2019, p. 15) to describe their feelings. Retrospective accounts from adults and young people offered more insight into the detrimental impact of the primary school environment on the mental health of some I'm often alone I found that I had no close friends and no one to talk to. ...
... Other children felt ignored by their peers (Howard et al., 2019) and not 'believed' by school staff which meant they were reluctant to share their difficulties (Stack et al., 2020, p. 9). It was common for participants to hold in or hide their true feelings (Cunningham, 2022;Sciutto et al., 2012;Stack et al., 2020;Yi & Siu, 2021), need for support (Cunningham, 2022;Moyse & Porter, 2015), and even autistic diagnosis (Brownlow et al., 2021) during their time at primary school: 'I just muscled through it and acted like I was neurotypical' (Brownlow et al., 2021, p. 5). In Gray and Donnelly (2013, p. 21), Elle (aged 7) wrote a poem about her experiences, which included the line 'I am seen, but I am not me', when further questioned, she stated 'I would like to be Elle all the time' but felt that people did not know her. ...
Autistic students are more likely to experience mental health difficulties and have poorer academic outcomes than their non-autistic peers. However, most research into school experiences has focussed on secondary-aged students, or parents and school staff's perceptions of the primary school experiences of autistic students. The current systematic literature review explores the experiences of autistic students in primary school. Databases (PsycInfo, ERIC, SCOPUS and CINAHL) and hand searching were utilised to identify qualitative research. The research was included if it explored current and retrospective accounts of autistic people, internationally. Studies were excluded if they did not include the voice of at least one autistic person. Twenty-two studies met the inclusion criteria and were analysed using thematic synthesis. Four analytical themes (‘We all have different experiences of school’, ‘We don’t do things wrong we do them differently, and I need you to understand’, ‘Good relationships make it better’ and ‘Success matters but the environment is key’) were generated. There were both positive and negative accounts, with some students detailing the long-term negative effects of primary schooling on their mental health. Overall, students in the review felt everybody needed to learn more about autism, as well as provide specific and subtle support based on individual needs. Strengths, limitations and implications for practice are discussed.
Lay abstract
The school environment can be a difficult place for autistic children which impacts their well-being and academic performance. Most research into school experiences has looked at the experiences of students at secondary schools or at adults who support autistic students. In this research we used a set of keywords to search for studies that included the voices of autistic students (both current and past) about what primary school was like for them. After a detailed search process, 22 studies from a range of countries were located. The results from each of these studies were analysed and sorted into themes: ‘We all have different experiences of school’, ‘We don’t do things wrong we do them differently, and I need you to understand, ‘Good relationships make it better’, and ‘Success matters but the environment is key’. The results highlighted that although primary school was a positive for some students, for many it was a time of stress, with the negative impact lasting a long time. The participants felt that everybody needs to learn more about autism and that school staff should provide support that is based on their needs but does not make them stand out as different.
... Autistic youth reported feeling less need to camouflage with trusted individuals (Bernardin et al., 2021a(Bernardin et al., , 2021bJedrzejewska & Dewey, 2022;Tierney et al., 2016) and when interacting with other neurodiverse individuals (Cook et al., 2021a;Halsall et al., 2021). Moreover, youth reported more SC behavior at school rather than at home (Anderson et al., 2020;Cook et al., 2018;Halsall et al., 2021;Moyse & Porter, 2014). Halsall et al. (2021) found that participants reported less SC in their school's resource center or special education classrooms within a school (Halsall et al., 2021). ...
... Similarly to the results of Zhuang et al. (2023) both adults and youth reported less SC behavior with trusted individuals or conversation partners who are also neurodiverse (Bernardin et al., 2021a(Bernardin et al., , 2021bCook et al., 2018;Cook et al., 2021aCook et al., , 2021bCorbett et al., 2020;Halsall et al., 2021;Hull et al., 2017;Livingston et al., 2019aLivingston et al., , 2019bJedrzejewska & Dewey, 2022). By comparing youth and adults, the current review expands on these results by finding that specific location for SC behavior differed between age groups; youth reported more SC in their classrooms (as opposed to in their home or school resource centers) (Anderson et al., 2020;Cook et al., 2018;Halsall et al., 2021;Moyse & Porter, 2014;Tierney et al., 2016), whereas adults indicated they camouflage more frequently in professional environments (Hull et al., 2017;Sullivan, 2021). Only one study found that youth reported decreased SC during online interactions (Jedrzejewska & Dewey, 2022), and further empirical exploration is necessary to ascertain whether this applies to adults as well. ...
Social camouflaging (SC) is a set of behaviors used by autistic people to assimilate with their social environment. Using SC behaviours may put autistic people at risk for poor mental health outcomes. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, the goal of this systematic review was to investigate the development of SC and inform theory in this area by outlining the predictors, phenotype, and consequences of SC. This review fills a gap in existing literature by integrating quantitative and qualitative methodologies, including all gender identities/age groups of autistic individuals, incorporating a large scope of associated factors with SC, and expanding on theory/implications. Papers were sourced using Medline, PsycInfo, and ERIC. Results indicate that self-protection and desire for social connection motivate SC. Camouflaging behaviors include compensation, masking, and assimilation. Female individuals were found to be more likely to SC. Additionally, this review yielded novel insights including contextual factors of SC, interpersonal relational and identity-related consequences of SC, and possible bidirectional associations between SC and mental health, cognition, and age of diagnosis. Autistic youth and adults have similar SC motivations, outward expression of SC behavior, and experience similar consequences post-camouflaging. Further empirical exploration is needed to investigate the directionality between predictors and consequences of SC, and possible mitigating factors such as social stigma and gender identity.
... Few focused on school experiences-transition to college (Essex and Melham, 2019)-while a second focused on parent perspectives on interfacing with schools (Mademtzi et al., 2018). Additionally, two focused on mainstream school experiences for a small sample of adolescent females in Britain (Moyse and Porter, 2015;Miles et al., 2019). Broader experiences in all levels of school and in the United States remain to be explored. ...
... In one article, the author, who is a speech and language pathologist and also has autism, describes the school experiences of 67 autistic women and makes professional recommendations based on the author's expertise, though it does not appear that this was a formal qualitative study (Honeybourne, 2015). Moyse and Porter (2015) explored the experiences of three autistic girls in ethnographic case studies that included observation of these three autistic students as well as conducting interviews with their mothers and class teachers. Findings revealed that these girls and their needs tended to go unnoticed, and they masked social issues and also tended to underachieve academically (Mosye and Porter, 2015). ...
Voices of autistic women and girls have historically been absent from research. Even now, there is limited knowledge about the experiences of autistic girls and women, particularly in the school setting. To address this gap, this phenomenological study explored a broad range of school experiences for autistic women, from kindergarten through college. Interviews of 6 participants were conducted through a pilot study to inform the development of the interview protocol and process. A total of 14 autistic women participated in the full study, which also included the initial 6 from the pilot. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed. Two researchers independently analyzed the data to identify themes using thematic analysis. Six themes were identified: (1) Accuracy of diagnosis matters; (2) Details matter; (3) Meaning of sensory and emotional experiences; (4) Invisibility/Not belonging; (5) Relationship and friendship challenges; (6) Layers of vulnerability. We identify recommendations for educators, administrators, counselors, and school social workers.
... This paper argues that standardized assessment in Chinese primary schools promotes the exacerbating effect of the hidden curriculum on exclusion. While many studies have examined factors that cause and exacerbate exclusion, such as differences in resource allocation and teachers' attitudes [6] [7], few studies have questioned the role of assessment regimes in perpetuating exclusion, at least in China. In the context of exam-oriented education in China [8], this gap is even more pronounced, with students with SEN marginalized through both overt and hidden mechanisms. ...
Chinas inclusive education, while progressive in policy discourse, is undermined in practice by a standardised assessment regime that structurally excludes students with special educational needs (SEN). This article conducts a critical analysis of how standardized assessments exacerbate the exclusion of students with SEN through policy analysis and current research, as well as through the perspective of critical disability theory. The research indicates that while policies advocate equity, standardized assessments marginalize students with SEN by emphasizing limited academic criteria, hence perpetuating stigma and epistemic injustice. The critical analysis highlights the paradox between Chinas inclusive commitment and standardized assessment mechanism rooted in historical keju tradition. In order to bridge the gap, integrate formative assessment and reconstruct teacher training programs to improve the celebration of cognitive diversity. Otherwise, without systematic shifts towards equity-driven evaluation, the advocacy of inclusive education in China would remain a utopian vision. The article underscores the necessity for meaningful and inclusive structural reforms in primary education in China.
Traditionally, research and academic writing associated with autism in education has focused on males. Consequently, a range of complex factors has led to the misdiagnosis or late diagnosis of autistic female learners, rendering their needs unrecognised and inappropriately supported. This ethnographic study, based in a mainstream Welsh‐medium secondary school, drew upon a semi‐structured interview with nine autistic females to explore their academic and social experiences, and the significance they believed that being an autistic female had on their relationships with their teachers and peers. The findings imply that while autistic adolescent girls may continue to encounter challenges relating to sensory differences and peer/teacher relations in secondary education, many of these challenges are also experienced by autistic males. However, the study highlights the impact of socially constructed gender norms on the way in which autistic girls' presentations are understood and received by non‐autistic peers and teachers. Rather than reinforcing female autistic stereotypes, it is advised that further understanding is promoted about the diverse experiences and presentations of autistic girls, and how autism intersects with various aspects of identity. Personalised and relational pedagogical approaches, which give voice to autistic girls and involve them in planning their own learning, are also encouraged.
The intersection of intellectual disability and gender is underrepresented in considerations of in/exclusion in the UK. This chapter confronts this double discrimination and the ways in which exclusionary discourses and practices are embedded in education and society, focusing on intellectual disability as a neglected aspect of the disability literature that receives less recognition than other marginalised identities (Goodley, Disability and Society 28:631–644, 2013; Rizvi, Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs 17:87–97, 2017). Drawing on (Butler, Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity, Routledge, 1990), a feminist poststructuralist analysis of gender and disability will challenge fixed prescribed identities, while honouring a sense of personal ownership that is rooted in a bodily sense. The chapter offers a nuanced approach to inclusion, exploring how women and girls with intellectual disabilities can be excluded from education. It discusses multiple oppressions (Braidotti, Bioethical Inquiry 17:465–469, 2020), lived experiences, and opportunities to improve practice.
This article presents the results of a large-scale study of the characteristics of 156 individuals with Asperger Syndrome (AS) ages 12 to 18. Specifically, cognitive (intellectual, empathizing, systemizing), adaptive behavior, behavior, temperament, and sensory profiles of study participants are overviewed. These characteristics are discussed as they relate to diagnostic criteria and instructional planning for adolescents with AS.
Schools in England (as elsewhere in Europe) have a duty to promote equality for disabled people and make reasonable adjustments for disabled children. There is, however, a degree of uncertainty about how well-placed parents are addressed to use the legislation to ensure their child’s needs. This paper presents data drawn from a national questionnaire designed for schools to use to identify their disabled pupils and examines, in detail, parental responses to a question on the kinds of support their child finds helpful in offsetting any difficulties they experience. It illustrates the complex and varied nature of the ‘reasonable adjustments’ that are required and an overriding sense that need to be underpinned by the values of a responsive child-centred approach, one that recognises that parents’ knowledge and understanding of their child are important. Schools need to have in place the two-way communication process that supports them in ‘knowing’ about the visible and invisible challenges that pupils with difficulties and disabilities face in participating in school life.
The use of arts-based approaches in professional education in health and social care has gathered momentum in the last decade and their effectiveness has been well documented. There are helpful models in the education literature that begin to explain how these creative methods work in learning and practice, and that assert the significance of an emotional or affective level of learning. However, the process remains elusive, almost a 'given'. A more cross-disciplinary analysis of affective learning is needed to guide arts-based methods and more robust evaluation of their use in health and social care education and practice. This paper identifies different roles that can be taken by the practice educator with a review of those theoretical models of affective learning that underpin them to help understand how and why arts-based approaches are effective.
Design of Epidemiological Studies Characteristics of Autistic Samples Rates of Other Pervasive Developmental Disorders Time Trends Immigrant Status, Ethnicity, Social Class, and Other Correlates Conclusion
Asperger syndrome is one of the pervasive developmental disorders, diagnosed behaviorally and characterized by social impairments and rigid and repetitive interests or behaviors paired with relatively preserved cognitive and verbal facilities. This chapter describes the diagnostic concept and the clinical manifestation of the disorder, as well as guidelines for diagnostic assessment and intervention. Existing research is reviewed within the areas of epidemiology, etiology and pathophysiology, treatment and intervention, and outcome. In closing, future directions for treatment and research are discussed.
Preface Part I. Foundations of Research 1. Science, Schooling, and Educational Research Learning About the Educational World The Educational Research Approach Educational Research Philosophies Conclusions 2. The Process and Problems of Educational Research Educational Research Questions Educational Research Basics The Role of Educational Theory Educational Research Goals Educational Research Proposals, Part I Conclusions 3. Ethics in Research Historical Background Ethical Principles Conclusions 4. Conceptualization and Measurement Concepts Measurement Operations Levels of Measurement Evaluating Measures Conclusions 5. Sampling Sample Planning Sampling Methods Sampling Distributions Conclusions Part II. Research Design and Data Collection 6. Causation and Research Design Causal Explanation Criteria for Causal Explanations Types of Research Designs True Experimental Designs Quasi-Experimental Designs Threats to Validity in Experimental Designs Nonexperiments Conclusions 7. Evaluation Research What Is Evaluation Research? What Can an Evaluation Study Focus On? How Can the Program Be Described? Creating a Program Logic Model What Are the Alternatives in Evaluation Design? Ethical Issues in Evaluation Research Conclusions 8. Survey Research Why Is Survey Research So Popular? Errors in Survey Research Questionnaire Design Writing Questions Survey Design Alternatives Combining Methods Survey Research Design in a Diverse Society Ethical Issues in Survey Research Conclusions 9. Qualitative Methods: Observing, Participating, Listening Fundamentals of Qualitative Research Participant Observation Intensive Interviewing Focus Groups Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research Conclusions 10. Single-Subject Design Foundations of Single-Subject Design Measuring Targets of Intervention Types of Single-Subject Designs Analyzing Single-Subject Designs Ethical Issues in Single-Subject Design Conclusions 11. Mixing and Comparing Methods and Studies Mixed Methods Comparing Reserch Designs Performing Meta-Analyses Conclusions 12. Teacher Research and Action Research Teacher Research: Three Case Studies Teacher Research: A Self-Planning Outline for Creating Your Own Project Action Research and How It Differs From Teacher Research Validity and Ethical Issues in Teacher Research and Action Research Conclusions Part III. Analyzing and Reporting Data 13. Quantitative Data Analysis Why We Need Statistics Preparing Data for Analysis Displaying Univariate Distributions Summarizing Univariate Distributions Relationships (Associations) Among Variables Presenting Data Ethically: How Not to Lie With Statistics Conclusions 14. Qualitative Data Analysis Features of Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques of Qualitative Data Analysis Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Ethics in Qualitative Data Analysis Conclusions 15. Proposing and Reporting Research Educational Research Proposals, Part II Reporting Research Ethics, Politics, and Research Reports Conclusions Appendix A: Questions to Ask About a Research Article Appendix B: How to Read a Research Article Appendix C: Finding Information, by Elizabeth Schneider and Russell K. Schutt Appendix D: Table of Random Numbers Glossary References Author Index Subject Index About the Authors