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Observations and Preliminary Testing of Jaguar Depredation Reduction Techniques in and Between Core Jaguar Populations

March 2015
PARKS 21(1):63-72

DOI:10.2305/IUCN.CH.2014.PARKS-21-1HQ.en

Authors:

Howard Quigley

Panthera

Rebecca Jacqueline Foster

Panthera

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Due largely to their success in undisturbed areas, the conservation of large carnivores is tied to protected areas. However, because of their large area requirements, large carnivores – and their conservation – will also always be linked to areas outside of protected areas. Retaliatory killing of jaguars near reserves and in corridors between reserves threatens to severely decrease jaguar populations in protected areas and their corridors, thus decreasing the ecological viability of protected areas for the species. Resolving this conflict will allow jaguars to utilize the human-dominated landscape, provide opportunities for corridor conservation, and enhance the effectiveness of protected areas. We review methods to reduce depredation of livestock and prevent lethal control of jaguars. Approaches to mitigate conflict include insurance schemes, management of wild prey, and above all, improving livestock husbandry and management. Improvements that are recommended for specific problem farms and ranches might include electric fencing, night enclosures, designs for newborn holding pens, the use of guard animals, and partial herd immersion of creole cattle races or water buffalo. We describe multiple testing scenarios and results from throughout Latin America for reducing livestock depredation across protected areas and agricultural landscapes.

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PARKS VOL 21.1 MARCH 2015

INTRODUCTION

The management and conservation of large carnivores is

one of the most challenging wildlife conservation issues

of our time. The global decline of large carnivores is tied

to the direct hunting of carnivores and their prey, along

with the loss and degradation of their habitat (Nowell &

Jackson, 1996; Hilty et al., 2006; Foster et al., 2010;

Estes et al., 2011; Ripple et al., 2014; Rabinowitz, 2015).

Whether the loss of large carnivores is direct or indirect,

and whether their loss is intentional or unintentional, the

effect on the communities in which they were resident

can have both immediate and long-term impacts (Estes

et al., 2011).

Protected areas play an important role in the

conservation of large carnivore populations by

supporting a wild prey base and often providing refuge

from direct persecution by people. However, large

carnivores range widely, often beyond the boundaries of

protected areas, where they may threaten livestock and

thus face increased risk of lethal control (Mills, 1991;

Woodroffe & Ginsberg, 1998; Payan et al., 2013). The

backlash from human residents near the protected areas

in such situations can be harmful to the conservation of

the carnivore population in the protected area, and it can

threaten the acceptance and purpose of the protected

area by local communities, who are mostly engaged in

www.iucn.org/parks www.iucn.org/parks

ABSTRACT

Due largely to their success in undisturbed areas, the conservation of large carnivores is tied to protected

areas. However, because of their large area requirements, large carnivores – and their conservation – will

also always be linked to areas outside of protected areas. Retaliatory killing of jaguars near reserves and in

corridors between reserves threatens to severely decrease jaguar populations in protected areas and their

corridors, thus decreasing the ecological viability of protected areas for the species. Resolving this conflict

will allow jaguars to utilize the human-dominated landscape, provide opportunities for corridor

conservation, and enhance the effectiveness of protected areas. We review methods to reduce depredation

of livestock and prevent lethal control of jaguars. Approaches to mitigate conflict include insurance

schemes, management of wild prey, and above all, improving livestock husbandry and management.

Improvements that are recommended for specific problem farms and ranches might include electric

fencing, night enclosures, designs for newborn holding pens, the use of guard animals, and partial herd

immersion of creole cattle races or water buffalo. We describe multiple testing scenarios and results from

throughout Latin America for reducing livestock depredation across protected areas and agricultural

landscapes.

Key words: Jaguar, carnivore conflict, livestock conflict, Latin America

OBSERVATIONS AND PRELIMINARY TESTING OF

JAGUAR DEPREDATION REDUCTION

TECHNIQUES IN AND BETWEEN CORE JAGUAR

POPULATIONS

Howard Quigley*1, Rafael Hoogesteijn1, Almira Hoogesteijn2, Rebecca

Foster1, Esteban Payan1, Daniel Corrales1, Roberto Salom-Perez1 and

Yahaira Urbina1,3

*Corresponding author: hquigley@panthera.org

1Panthera, New York, USA

2Cinvestav, Merida Unit, Human Ecology Department, Mexico

3ERI University of Belize, Belmopan, Belize and Panthera, New York, USA

PARKS 2015 Vol 21.1

10.2305/IUCN.CH.2014.PARKS-21-1HQ.en

Quigley et al

economic production unrelated to conservation (Treves,

2008). The resolution of this human-wildlife conflict

issue is dependent on the development of strategies to

decrease the conflict that carnivores create in the

landscapes surrounding protected areas. In Latin

America, there is a pressing need for solutions to

conflicts created by jaguars (Panthera onca) in the

landscapes surrounding protected areas.

Jaguars are the largest felid in Latin America. They

currently exist over more than 40 per cent of their

historic range (Rabinowitz & Zeller, 2010), much of

which is encompassed within protected areas, or near

them. In fact, our analysis, using the new IUCN range

map for jaguars1 and World Database on Protected Areas

(UNEP-WCMC, 2014) indicates that just over 50 per cent

of jaguar range is in protected areas or within 10 km of a

protected area (Petracca et al., unpublished data). Thus,

for both jaguars and humans, the mutually beneficial

results of reducing jaguar–human conflict in and around

protected areas can affect a large portion of Latin

America. The most prevalent and direct source of conflict

is between jaguars and livestock producers; most jaguars

are killed in retaliation for livestock depredation, or the

perceived threat of it (Rabinowitz, 1984; Marchini &

Macdonald, 2012; Zarco-Gonzalez et al., 2013). The

losses of these jaguars – particularly those that are

resident in both the protected area and the surrounding

multi-use lands – threaten the integrity of the natural

communities of flora and fauna the protected areas are

designed to protect. Other primary reasons for jaguar

loss are habitat loss and opportunistic hunting (Nowell &

Jackson, 1996).

In this paper, we address the questions surrounding

jaguar survival in and around protected areas,

particularly those landscapes in which livestock

production is an important human activity. Using

preliminary data from farms currently being monitored,

plus a literature review, we attempt to offer solutions to

jaguar depredation questions, especially as they relate to

areas near protected areas. We also address two

questions: what actions can be taken to reduce jaguar-

livestock conflict, and how can these actions be

facilitated by protected area managers?

METHODS

This paper is a summary of depredation solutions

observed by the authors on more than 120 ranch sites,

ongoing research on 30 ranches (in Belize, Costa Rica,

Colombia and Brazil), and supporting data from

additional publications (Rosas-Rosas et al., 2008; Salom

PARKS VOL 21.1 MARCH 2015

Jaguars still occur over more than 40 per cent of their historic range, and more than 50 per cent of that range is in or within 10

km of protected areas. Retaliatory killing of jaguars, due to their killing of livestock, is one of the most important threats to

jaguar existence in Latin American ecosystems © S. Winter, Panthera

parksjournal.com

-Perez, unpublished; Foster, 2008; Hoogesteijn &

Hoogesteijn, 20142). Geographic variation was not

considered to be an important influence in the

assessment of solution effectiveness in the depredation

solution observations; however, for the current

assessment of the ongoing research on 30 pilot ranches,

data on rainfall, vegetation composition, and additional

physical and biological characteristics are recorded.

Data were compiled through two approaches. First,

observations were made on ranches with and without

jaguar depredation issues; some ranches were visited due

to depredation activity; other ranches were visited

because they were in important jaguar areas. Second,

ranches with depredation histories were selected for

application of livestock management modifications.

Depredation activity after these modifications was

monitored. In nearly all cases specific information on

ranch operations were collected (e.g. number of

livestock, water sources, forested area, fencing design,

etc.) and this information was related to depredation

incidents and observations of the area. Prior to 2008, a

large amount of the data collected was collected

opportunistically. For instance, a depredation increase or

decrease was associated with some aspect of livestock

husbandry; additional applications of that method

produced similar results, and the method was termed

successful. Since 2008, 30 ranches have been assessed

and monitoring of depredation has taken place in a

regular and systematic fashion. At the 30 ranches

experimental applications include: electrical fencing on

12 ranches, night enclosures on 22 ranches, eight

separate new-born enclosures, two ranches with creole

cattle and two with water buffalo. Camera traps are

deployed to detect the presence of jaguars and other

predators.

RESULTS

To compile observations of depredation solutions, the

findings of more than 120 ranch visits over a period of

nearly twenty years were combined with monitoring data

from the 30 ranches. From this compilation more than a

dozen ranch modifications were tested and found

effective in reducing jaguar depredation or were highly

correlated with reduced jaguar depredation (see

discussion). Preliminary results are supported of

previous works of the authors (e.g. Hoogesteijn &

Hoogesteijn, 2014) and others (Rosas-Rosas et al.,

2008). Although data are still being collected, the 15

farms in Costa Rica, with electric fencing and night pens,

experienced no depredation during the first two years of

monitoring; six farms in Belize experienced no

depredation over 15 months of monitoring, with guard

animals and improved fencing; night pens in 14 Brazil

farms took depredation from six events to one over a

period of 18 months; and four farms using water buffalo

or creole breeds (Costa Rica, Colombia, and Brazil)

experienced no predation from herds monitored from six

months to four years. All of the above farms had

experience some level of jaguar attacks prior to the

application of depredation remedies.

DISCUSSION

Results from currently monitored farms display high

potential for reducing jaguar depredation. Although the

list of activities that help reduce depredation is an

extensive one, and the list is expected to become more

extensive and more detailed, below a reduced set of

activities that have been found to be particularly

successful is presented. These individual activities still

require further testing in a variety of conditions. What

works in one environment, might not work in another

(for instance, in our research, guard donkeys were

inexpensive and very effective in preventing jaguar

depredation in Belize, but in Costa Rica they were

prohibitively expensive even for testing). However, the

following were tested and found effective not only in the

current research, but in previous work (e.g. Salom-Perez,

unpublished; Foster, 2008; Hoogesteijn & Hoogesteijn,

2014).

 Electric fences

One of the most important and effective tools available to

prevent predation by wild felids on cattle, sheep, pigs,

goats and fowl, is the use of electric fencing specifically

designed to repel predator attacks; we are currently

monitoring seven farms that have had no depredation

over two years; all of these farms had experienced

depredation losses prior to the implementation of electric

fencing. The specific designs of electric fencing

applications appear to effect results. Scognamillo et al.

(2002) used three strands at 30, 60 and 90 cm high

charged with 3,000 volts as being less effective than

when the system was charged with 4,500 to 5,000 volts;

eight attacks occurred in the former design and no

attacks occurred in the latter design.

Until now, the use of electric fencing has not been widely

used as a predator deterrent in Latin America. More

often, it has been used to keep domestic animals in

rather than keeping wild animals out. It is very important

to note that electric fences for livestock control, with one

or two strands of electrified wire, prevents cattle from

moving from one pasture to another, but is not effective

in preventing predator attacks. Fences must be

specifically designed to prevent the entry of jaguars. They

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Quigley et al

are therefore particularly useful when used in smaller

areas, such as corrals used as night enclosures, or smaller

pastures such as those used for late-stage pregnant cows

or newborn calves and their dams. Electric fences have

also been used to surround all the pastures of a farm,

especially when small, or around areas known to be at

high predation risk.

In the Venezuelan Llanos, Scognamillo et al. (2002)

initially tested a design with three strands of electric

wire. An 18 ha calving paddock with a 1,697 m perimeter

was surrounded with strands arranged at 30, 60 and 90

cm from the ground. Strands were charged with 2,500 to

3,000 volts. Felines were however not deterred by this

design. Subsequently, an additional negative strand was

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Electric fencing, even in very rudimentary forms, can be an effective deterrent to jaguar predation on livestock © Hoogesteijn

& Corrales, Panthera

parksjournal.com

added at 85 cm from the ground, and voltage was

increased to 4,500-5,000 volts. With these modifications

the attacks ceased.

Another trial was conducted in the Brazilian Pantanal

(Cavalcanti et al., 2011). The fence consisted of two

electrified wires at 25 and 50 cm in height with a

5,000 to 7,000 volts charge. The perimeter was

approximately 14 km, enclosing several pastures. The

fence was regularly checked to prevent leakages of

energy or faulty wiring. Additionally, the fence and

sleeping areas of the herds were monitored during the

night by a ranch employee equipped with a powerful

spotlight and explosive deterrents. This system was

shown to be effective and decreased predation losses

over several years. However, the results suggested that

enclosing smaller pastures might have been even more

effective.

 Night enclosures

A very effective action in areas with intense predation is

to enclose domestic animals in corrals, pens or small

pastures near human habitation during night time. If the

night enclosure has lights or is located near human

habitation with dogs, it is even more effective. These

night enclosures can also be provided with electric

fencing. The animals (whether cattle, pigs, sheep or

goats) are easily habituated to enter the corrals. The

action reduces predation impacts significantly but

necessitates a slight increase in farm labour and

operating costs. This action can also enhance animal

nutrition because concentrated feed and supplements

can be supplied within the enclosure.

These night enclosures have been tried in different sized

farms and various ecological settings. For example, in

Costa Rica, in the Nairi Awari Indigenous Reservation on

the Talamanca Mountains, jaguars and pumas (Puma

concolor) attacked and consumed domestic pigs that

freely foraged in the forests. When enclosed at night,

there was initially a significant decrease in attacks (from

several in previous years plus a jaguar killed in

retaliation), to zero attacks in the final year of the project

(Salom-Pérez, unpublished data). Along with the pens

bio-digesters were built to produce biogas from the

faeces of the animals locked-in at night. The use of

biogas eliminated the need to collect firewood, thus

minimizing ‘wood collection time’ in exchange for ‘pig

collection time’ and can reduce forest destruction in and

around protected areas. Additionally this practice had

the positive side effect of reducing harmful smoke

exposure from the wood stoves (Salom-Pérez,

unpublished data).

 Control of breeding and protection of young

One critical element that can be integrated with all of the

solutions presented here is the control of breeding within

livestock herds. The control of breeding is an essential

starting point in the reduction of jaguar depredation.

Despite the fact that jaguars can kill prey much larger

than themselves (including adult cattle) smaller, younger

individuals are particularly vulnerable. Controlling the

time in which these individuals are present in the

landscape helps managers improve their safety.

Conversely, if breeding takes place year round, farmers

are constantly attempting to secure and care for newly-

born young. With the young, vulnerable individuals

presenting themselves during one particular period of

the year farmers can provide more easily for their safety

in a more efficient and focused manner.

The most effective management strategy is to keep

calves, calves and mothers and late-pregnancy livestock

in special holding pens. Holding pens should not be

pastures containing forested areas or be adjacent to

forested areas (Cavalcanti et al., 2011). Cows should be

placed in open pasture areas, and preferably close to

human dwellings. This countermeasure is easily applied

in small and medium-sized ranches, especially those that

are well organized and have a 3-4 months breeding

season, which limits the calving season to 4-5 months in

the year. Added protection can be afforded through the

use of electric fencing.

In Costa Rica, a combination of night enclosures and

electric fences for birthing areas eliminated predation on

young calves. This work was performed in twelve small

experimental farms located at the Barbilla-Destierro

Biological Sub-corridor and the San Juan–La Selva

Biological Corridor (D. Corrales and Panthera Costa Rica

Team, unpublished data).

 Guard animals

Guard animals can take several forms. They can be older

animals within a herd, or they can be other species that

are placed in the herd to prevent attack. Preliminary data

from field experiments indicates that experienced older

animals (bulls, steers or older cows with horns) will often

confront predators, as evidenced by marks from injuries

on these animals, sustained by felids. Therefore, a certain

percentage of these animals should be retained in the

herd. These animals teach defensive grouping behaviour

to the younger animals thus reducing predation. Tortato

et al., (in press) documented this on a ranch in the

Brazilian Pantanal. The ranch had high frequency jaguar

and puma predation. A larger proportion of older

animals in the herds diminished losses. Between January

2006 and September 2010, 73 per cent of the deaths

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caused by jaguars and pumas happened when the

proportion of adults in the herd was lower than 60 per

cent. The authors (Tortato et al., in press) point out that

this is a less aggressive alternative to predator removal or

relocation that produces economic benefits in herd

production.

Additional protection can be provided with guard

animals. Guard donkeys (Equus asinus), grazing with

herds of cattle, have been effective in reducing jaguar

predation in Belize (S. Juan, pers. comm.) due to their

aggressive braying and their tendency to confront

threats. This experience is being tested experimentally,

with promising preliminary results in Belize (R. Foster &

Panthera Belize Team, unpublished data).

 Creole cattle

The majority of cattle in tropical America are zebu (Bos

indicus) pure- or cross-bred with varying admixtures of

European breeds (B. taurus) introduced into the

Americas by Europeans in the 17th Century. Although

high proportions of adults, especially males, in a herd of

zebu can reduce predation (see above; due to size,

awareness and defensiveness), the original European

breeds (e.g. Nelore breed) retained a stronger, innate

defensive response to threats. For example, cows have

highly defensive reactions against predators and protect

their newborn from attacks while zebu breeds stampede

in the presence of a predator, leaving small calves alone,

disoriented and prone to attack.

Several hardy breeds of B. taurus are however notable

for their adaptation to New World wildlife, plants,

parasites, etc. and in particular to the harsh conditions of

the flooded savannahs of the Neotropics. Two of these

are the Creole/Criollo Llanero and the Pantaneiro

breeds, in the Colombian and Venezuelan Llanos and the

Brazilian Pantanal, respectively. Most of these breeds

have an inherent ability to defend themselves from

predator attacks (Calzadilla Valdés, 2007), and

demonstrate a gregarious herd behaviour similar to the

one exhibited by the Asian water buffalo (described

below). Most of these breeds however do not have the

good carcass conformation for meat production

demanded by modern markets. Consequently, they

almost disappeared.

Experimental use of these breeds is currently underway

to scientifically document their predation-deterring

capabilities, along with their rescue and recovery for

potential use in areas of high jaguar predation.

Preliminary results indicate the Creole breed effectively

reduced jaguar predation in herds totally made up of

Creole cattle (San Martiniero breed, Colombia; no

predation over a two-year period), in herds with only a

percentage of Creole cattle (San Mariniero breed mixed

herds, Colombia, no predation over two-year period;

Pantaneiro breed mixed herds, Brazil, no predation over

one-year period), and potentially in herds of first

generation crosses (F1 offspring) of Creole cattle with

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A young boy leads goats into an enclosure for the night. These enclosures, if used properly, can reduce jaguar predation on a

wide variety of domestic livestock © Hoogesteijn & Payan, Panthera

parksjournal.com

zebu cattle, thus enhancing carcass and meat quality and

conserving the defensive traits. This latter experiment is

still underway, attempting to produce increased meat

production while observing if anti-predation behaviours

are retained. First-generation offspring are displaying

defensive behaviours when approached; depredation on

these individuals, in paired comparisons with zebu

breeds, will measure differences in field conditions.

 Water buffalo

The Asian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) originates

from Southeast Asia and was domesticated nearly 5,000

years ago. Having evolved in the presence of a large

predator, the tiger (P. tigris), they exhibit gregarious

behaviour. When under a perceived threat, females form

a circle around their calves, while the bulls walk around

this circle, actively looking for predators. Buffaloes tend

to graze in closed groups never straying far away from

each other and aiding any member of the herd that calls

in distress.

A study conducted in four Venezuelan ranches which

held cattle and buffaloes together (Hoogesteijn &

Hoogesteijn, 2008) compared predation mortality

between the two species held in equal conditions. The

results found that the likelihood of cattle being preyed

upon by jaguars or pumas was 25 times higher than for

buffaloes. Buffalo had the same protective reaction

toward predator attacks, regardless of circumstances or

management systems in which the herds were kept.

The use of water buffalo is expanding in the Llanos of

Colombia and Venezuela. It is a more efficient and

profitable species than cattle in flooded savannahs, or

very moist environments, containing poor quality forage.

Buffalo are highly desired for their gentleness when

properly managed, plus their productivity, disease

resistance, and defensive behaviour are all qualities

which make them desirable over cattle. Their growth

curve, fertility and longevity are also better than those of

cattle under similar conditions. Although some

management requirements of the species must be strictly

adhered to (e.g. managing at or below pasture carrying

capacity, providing regular contact so as to maintain

docile temperament, etc.), dramatic reductions in jaguar

predation can be obtained with both full and mixed herds

of water buffalo. In Costa Rica, a group of six water

buffalo were introduced to a ranch that had recently

suffered attacks on livestock. In six months, no attacks

have occurred in the mixed group of cattle and buffalo,

while there have been two attacks in neighbouring

ranches (D. Corrales, unpublished data).

 Hunting management

Human hunting of both jaguars and their prey can

influence jaguar depredation. First, the indiscriminate

and opportunistic hunting of jaguars can produce

crippled individuals that are not able to hunt their

natural prey, and thus they turn to the killing of livestock

(Rabinowitz, 1986). Second, and more importantly,

studies in several different environments have found a

positive correlation between the overhunting of game

species by humans and elevated levels of jaguar

depredation (see Polisar et al., 2003). In areas where

hunting is legal, strict enforcement of sustainable harvest

is essential. Especially in areas of South America in

which subsistence harvesting of wildlife is present, it

might be necessary to prohibit hunting if the

enforcement of harvesting quotas is not effective. Most

importantly for jaguars, these restrictions should also be

in place for such species as spectacled caiman (Caiman

crocodilus), capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris),

peccaries (Tayassu tajacu and T. peccary) and pacas

(Agouti paca).

CONCLUSIONS

The seven actions suggested above are those we (the

authors) felt are most easily applied and most effective in

reducing jaguar depredation, supported by the literature

and on-going data collection. However, given the loss of

jaguars due to retaliatory killing, and the effects of that

killing on the integrity of protected areas, additional

resources must be brought to bear to enhance known

solutions, and new solutions. One critical element that

integrates with all of the above is the control of breeding

within the livestock herds, and is thus an essential

starting point in the reduction of jaguar depredation.

Despite the fact that jaguars can kill prey much larger

than themselves, including adult cattle, smaller, young

individuals are particularly vulnerable. Lastly, the

application of the above findings will require outreach

and education in the communities surrounding protected

areas if human wildlife conflict related to jaguars is to be

reduced and the acceptance of protected areas by

communities enhanced (see Wells & Brandon, 1992). In

all jaguar range countries, governments have the legal

oversight of wildlife and natural resources, including

jaguars. Likewise, the establishment and oversight of

protected areas is also directed by government.

Commonly, these two government responsibilities are

under one government agency or institution. In addition,

in most jaguar range countries, agricultural ministries

oversee the health and production of livestock, especially

herds that are supplying livestock products (e.g. meat,

milk, etc.) to the general public. Involving all these

government entities, and integrating their policies in anti

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-predation activities is an important – if not essential –

part of the long-term reduction of jaguar depredation in

and near protected areas. Governments are becoming

more aware of the pervasiveness of the jaguar-livestock

conflict issue. At the same time, they are also becoming

aware that the problem is not solved by the constant

killing of depredating individuals. In addition, the

growing ecotourism industry in Latin America (Wallace,

1993; Stonza & Durham, 2008) provides added economic

incentives for maintaining complete assemblages of

native vertebrates, including large predators. Foster

(2008) analyzed the survival potential of jaguars in a

Belizean landscape and found that the current two

protected areas had the potential of supporting isolated

jaguar populations, but the probability of all populations

persisting for 100 years was approximately 50 per cent

unless dispersers from the core protected areas exceeded

12 percent per year. Thus, these landscapes and the

jaguar populations they support are dependent on the

interactions between protected areas and the more

human dominated landscape around them.

FOOTNOTES

1 http://maps.iucnredlist.org/map.html?id=15953

2 http://www.panthera.org/species/jaguar

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful for the support of many individuals and

organizations too numerous to recognize here. We thank

all of you. We especially want to recognize the assistance

of the Environmental Research Institute at the University

of Belize, the Forestry Department within the Ministry of

Forestry, Fisheries and Sustainable Development in

Belize, the efforts of the UACFel response team officers

of Ministry of the Environment and Energy (MINAE-

SINAC) in Costa Rica, and the efforts of San Francisco

Ranch in the Brazilian Pantanal.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Howard Quigley obtained his Ph.D. from the

University of Idaho and has been involved with large

carnivore research and conservation for more than 30

years. He is currently the Executive Director of the

Jaguar Program at Panthera.

Rafael Hoogesteijn obtained his veterinary degree

from the College of Veterinary Medicine at the Central

University of Venezuela, and his Master’s Degree from

the University of Florida. He has worked for nearly 30

years in beef cattle/water buffalo production, and wildlife

conservation. He is currently the Director of the Jaguar

Conflict Program at Panthera.

Almira Hoogesteijn obtained her veterinary degree

from the College of Veterinary Medicine at the Central

University of Venezuela, and her Ph.D. from Cornell

University. She currently works at the Center for

Research and Advanced Studies at the National

Polytechnic Institute in Mexico. Her interests focus on

the impact of pesticides and heavy metals on human and

wildlife health, and she also conducts field research and

conservation activities on jaguars in Mexico.

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Asian water buffalo are an important alternative to domestic cattle in some areas of Latin America due to their ability to use

marginal and wetland pastures, their productivity of meat and young, and their anti-predator defence behaviours that make

them less vulnerable to jaguar predation than cattle © Hoogesteijn, Panthera

parksjournal.com

Rebecca Foster obtained a Ph.D. from the University

of Southampton researching jaguar ecology across the

border of protected areas in Belize. She has studied the

jaguars of Belize for 12 years, and has particular interest

in solving issues of human-wildlife conflict. Rebecca

currently directs the Belize Jaguar Program for Panthera,

working in partnership with the Environmental Research

Institute at the University of Belize.

Esteban Payan obtained his Ph.D. from University

College London examining human use of wildlife in the

Colombian Amazon and the associated wild population

densities, including jaguars. He has a wide variety of

interests, from natural history of vertebrates, to genetic

health, to conservation policy. He currently serves as the

Director of Panthera’s Northern South America Program,

based in Bogota.

Daniel Corrales obtained his Bachelor’s Degree in

Biology in the Latin University of Costa Rica. He has led

the jaguar conflict programme in Costa Rica for Panthera

for over four years and is leading the creation and

training of the “Wild Cat Conflict Response Unit”,

UACFel, within the Costa Rican government.

Roberto Salom-Perez obtained his Master’s Degree

from the University of Cost Rica and continues to be

involved in a variety of research and conservation

activities throughout Costa Rica. He has been the

Director of Panthera Costa Rica for the past five years

and is currently pursuing his doctorate in a cooperative

program operated by the University of Idaho in the U.S.

and the Center for Tropical Agricultural Research and

Higher Education (CATIE) in Costa Rica.

Yahaira Urbina obtained her Bachelor of Science

Degree from the University of Belize, and a post-graduate

diploma from the University of Oxford. She is currently

employed as a Wildlife Biologist by the Environmental

Research Institute at the University of Belize. Yahaira is

especially interested in the human-wildlife interface,

including wildlife law, livestock predation and game

hunting.

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PARKS VOL 21.1 MARCH 2015

RESUMEN

Debido en gran parte a su éxito en áreas no perturbadas, la conservación de los grandes carnívoros está

ligada a las áreas protegidas. Sin embargo, debido a su necesidad de superficies extensas, los grandes

carnívoros –y su conservación– siempre estarán vinculados a zonas fuera de las áreas protegidas. La

matanza en represalia de jaguares cerca de las reservas y en los corredores entre reservas amenaza con

disminuir severamente las poblaciones de jaguares en las áreas protegidas y en sus corredores, con la

consiguiente reducción de la viabilidad ecológica de las áreas protegidas para la especie. La resolución de

este conflicto permitirá a los jaguares utilizar el paisaje dominado por humanos, deparará oportunidades

para la conservación de los corredores, y mejorará la eficacia de las áreas protegidas. Examinamos los

métodos para reducir la depredación de ganado y evitar el control letal de jaguares. Entre los enfoques para

mitigar los conflictos cabe señalar los planes de seguros, la gestión de presas silvestres, y –sobre todo– la

mejora de la cría y la gestión ganadera. Las mejoras que se recomiendan para problemas específicos en

granjas agrícolas y ganaderas pueden incluir cercas eléctricas, recintos nocturnos, diseños de corrales para

recién nacidos, el uso de animales de guardia, y la sumersión parcial de razas criollas de ganado o búfalos de

agua. Describimos múltiples escenarios de prueba y los resultados de toda América Latina para reducir la

depredación de ganado en áreas protegidas y paisajes agrícolas.

RÉSUMÉ

Due en grande partie aux succès remportés dans les zones non perturbées, la conservation de grands

carnivores est associée aux aires protégées. Toutefois, en raison de leurs exigences de matière d’espace, la

conservation de grands carnivores sera toujours liée aux régions à l'extérieur des aires protégées. L’abattage

de jaguars, en tant que mesure de représailles, se passe à proximité des réserves et dans les couloirs entre

les réserves et constitue une grave menace pour les populations de jaguar dans les aires protégées et leurs

couloirs, diminuant ainsi la viabilité écologique des aires protégées pour l’espèce. Seule une résolution de ce

conflit permettra aux jaguars de se déplacer à travers les territoires dominés par l'homme, ouvrira la

possibilité de mesures de conservation dans les couloirs et renforcera l'efficacité des aires protégées. Nous

examinons les méthodes permettant de réduire la déprédation du bétail et empêcher le contrôle létal de

jaguars. Les conflits humains-faune peuvent être gérés grâce à des approches variées tels des systèmes

d'assurance, la gestion des proies sauvages et surtout l’amélioration des techniques d'élevage. Certaines

améliorations recommandées pour les fermes et les ranches sont, par exemple, des clôtures électriques, des

enclos de nuit, des enclos d'hébergement pour nouveau-nés, la présence d'animaux de garde, et

l’incorporation partielle du bétail créole ou des buffles d'eau à l’intérieur de troupeaux. Nous présentons les

résultats de plusieurs tests en situation réelle à travers l’Amérique Latine destinés à réduire la déprédation

du bétail dans les aires protégées et les terrains agricoles.

Predator-friendly ranching, use of electric fences, and creole cattle in the Colombian savannas

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2023
EUR J WILDLIFE RES

Livestock ranching overlaps extensively with jaguar and puma distribution in the Casanare Department of east-central Colombia. Conservation programs prioritize large carnivores in the region. Ranchers retaliate by killing them in response to economic losses or fear related to their presence. Reducing retaliatory hunting is a top priority in the conservation of feline species. Predation mitigation methods (PMMs) are necessary to reduce depredation and increase tolerance for large felines. In a prospective cohort study, 16 ranches between 2017 and 2019 used electric fences (n = 14) and introduced creole cattle (n = 2) as PMMs. There was a significant difference in the risk and odds ratios between the control and treatment groups. Livestock depredation was 14.78 times higher outside PMM areas (OR, 14.78; RR, 0.069; p < 0.001) than inside such areas. The losses caused by depredation were much higher than the investments made in PMMs.

Drivers of large carnivore density in non‐hunted, multi‐use landscapes

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Protected areas serve as population strongholds for many large carnivores, with multi‐use landscapes along their borders forming the front‐lines of wildlife conservation. Understanding large carnivore population dynamics within working landscapes is difficult where anthropogenic mortality is high and unregulated. This study focused on working ranches, where killing jaguars (Panthera onca) and their prey was prohibited, to gain insight into jaguar population potential across multi‐use landscapes. Faced with forest fragmentation, presence of domestic livestock, and dynamic land‐use practices, we expected jaguar populations in working landscapes to be predominantly male and transient, with low cub production, and inflated population densities in remnant forest patches, versus protected areas where we expected native forest habitat and stable jaguar territories. Using camera traps and spatial‐capture recapture analyses, we observed that male jaguars demonstrated larger‐scale movements and were more detectable than females (0.07 ± 0.01 SE vs. 0.02 ± 0.01 SE) in both working and protected landscapes. Female jaguars in ranches traveled farther than females in parks. Carnivore density increased with forest cover and wild prey activity, decreased with domestic prey activity, and was marginally higher in ranches (4.08 individuals/100 km2 ± 0.73 SE) than in parks (3.59 individuals/100 km2 ± 0.64 SE). Females outnumbered males in both landscapes (2.20–2.60 females/100 km2 vs. ~1.60 males/100 km2), although local male density reached up to 11.00 males/100 km2 in ranches (vs. 3.50 males/100 km2 in parks). While overall jaguar density was patchier in protected areas (x̿ = 0.69 parks, 0.54 ranches), inter‐annual patchiness was higher within ranches (Moran's I = 0.49–0.60 ranches, 0.69–0.70 parks), reflecting changes in cattle management. Despite major habitat alterations, working landscapes can support carnivore densities equivalent to (or exceeding that of) unmodified forest habitat, provided that wildlife‐tolerant ranching practices are maintained.

Livestock–Carnivore Coexistence: Moving beyond Preventive Killing

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022

Simple Summary Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 indicate that zero hunger (SDG 2) and halting biodiversity loss (SDG 15) are key priorities. Livestock management practices that allow coexistence with top predators are necessary to achieve both objectives in Latin America. This article addresses the situation in local indigenous communities near key biodiversity hotspots that protect top predators in Mesoamerica. Results show that livestock predation is related to landscape variables and human influence. Jaguar and puma conservation requires measures that facilitate human–carnivore coexistence and comply with SDG 2 and SDG 15. This study serves as a baseline to provide livestock management recommendations that mitigate the prevalent conflict with jaguars and pumas to reconcile SDG 2 with SDG 15. Abstract Livestock predation is a global problem and constitutes the main source of conflict between large carnivores and human interests. In Latin America, both jaguar and puma are known to prey on livestock, yet studies in Mesoamerica have been scattered and few have been carried out in Honduras. We interviewed ranchers in a biosphere reserve where jaguars and pumas are present. Local indigenous communities reported livestock predation (average annual loss of 7% from 2010–2019), with preventive and retaliatory killing as their main actions against predation by the jaguar and puma. Other sources of cattle loss included diseases and theft. The extensive management system (free grazing) lets cattle access forests where predators are more common. We found that livestock predation is not random, but rather, related to landscape variables and human influence. Sites farther from human influence and closer to forest cover were more susceptible to predation. Jaguar and puma persistence in the biosphere reserve will require measures that facilitate human–carnivore coexistence and comply with Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 2 and 15 (zero hunger and biodiversity conservation). We propose management practices to mitigate livestock predation in the presence of large carnivores based on examples of proven human–carnivore coexistence in Venezuela, Brazil, Paraguay, and Nicaragua, such as improving the spatial arrangement of livestock (maintaining a distance from forest areas) and the incorporation of confinement pens for young calves (at least the first three months of life) and their mothers. If the pens are built close to the property’s house and have constant surveillance and/or dogs, the results are likely to be more effective. Deploying these proven tools may help change the current negative perception of ranchers towards large carnivores that is essential to conservation under the aims of SDG 15. We recommend government policies and support aimed to strengthen livestock health to increase productivity and to reduce their vulnerability to predation. Finally, this study represents a baseline to understand the magnitude of the human–carnivore conflict over cattle in one of the largest biosphere reserves in Mesoamerica.

EVALUATION OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH PREDATORS IN CAMPECHE, MEXICO

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2025

p> Background: The management of negative interactions between livestock farming and predators is complex because of the multifactorial and dynamic nature of the underlying causes, which include human elements that complicate their management. Previous studies have shown that modifications in livestock management practices can significantly reduce these interactions. Therefore, it is crucial to identify the factors that promote these negative interactions to develop effective management strategies. Objective: To diagnose livestock management practices and their relationship with predators, exploring how these practices influence predation events and farmers' capacity to manage them. Methodology: Interviews and surveys were conducted with livestock farmers to gather information on their socioeconomic characteristics, livestock management practices, and perceived losses. The qualitative approach captured farmers' perceptions and their relationship with predators on their farms, Results: The results suggest that the interactions between livestock farming and predators are influenced by management practices that increase predation events and by farmers' limited capacity to manage them. The location of farms in fragmented landscapes exacerbates this situation, indicating the need to strengthen farmers' capacities. The meaning of the livestock and dependence of ranchers on diverse activities hinder the implementation of new livestock management practices. Implications: The study identifies possible key strategies, such as forage banks, electric fences, and vaccination programs, to reduce predation risks and improve livestock farming sustainability. These strategies should consider the economic and cultural contexts of ranching communities for effective implementation. Conclusion: Ranchers' management decisions are strongly shaped by cultural and traditional factors. Including ranchers in the codesigning of conservation strategies, together with education and capacity-building, is essential for align conservation efforts with their values and needs to ensure long-term success.</p

Insights into the human-jaguar Panthera onca (Carnivora: Felidae) interactions in Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2024

Human-wildlife interactions are on the rise due to anthropogenic pressures. Understanding these interactions is crucial for preventing conflict and promoting coexistence, ultimately benefitting humans and wildlife. In this study, we analysed the interactions between humans and jaguars Panthera onca in Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica. We examined data concerning jaguar sightings within Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica compiled from 2000 to 2022. A total of 381 jaguar sightings were recorded, of which 75% occurred in the coastal habitat; 81% occurred during the leatherback sea turtle Dermochelys coriacea (March-May) and the green sea turtle Chelonia mydas (June-October) nesting seasons. From photographic records, 26 individual jaguars were identified (14 females, 12 males). Furthermore, 9% of the sightings were reported within the boundaries of Tortuguero village, where at least 48 domestic dogs Canis lupus familiaris were attacked by jaguars. Despite the jaguar's cryptic nature, the data show an increase in the frequency and duration of jaguar sightings over the years. This trend is likely due to an increase in the local jaguar population and possibly an increase in jaguars' tolerance towards humans, possibly triggered by people's inappropriate behaviour (e.g. approaching jaguars while feeding, mating or with their cubs) during the sightings. Our study also highlights the potential for conflict due to jaguar predation of domestic dogs, which is increasing within the study area. Therefore, there is a need for management action to promote coexistence between humans and the local jaguar population in Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica.

Legal status, utilisation, management and conservation of the jaguar in South America

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2023

The jaguar Panthera onca is widely distributed throughout South America with its stronghold in the Amazon. It is protected by law in all countries, but some countries have legal loopholes and all lack a strict enforcement of the laws in place. Jaguar killing is common, even in strictly protected areas, but detailed records are lacking. Jaguars have been historically hunted for their pelts, however, inclusion of the species in the CITES Appendix I proved effective to curtail the spotted cat trade in the 1960s and 70s. Over the last few decades, there exists little information on jaguar hunting for trade, but recently reports have surfaced showing increased illegal trafficking of body parts with evidence of domestic and Asiatic demand. Conservation of jaguars in South America has been relatively well-informed by research data. National parks and indigenous lands have been and still are the cornerstones for jaguar conservation throughout the continent, but are hampered, with a few exceptions, by underfunding, understaffing and a lack of governance and political will. Financing the operation of national parks and protected areas, while securing rights of indigenous lands should be a priority for funding agencies, especially in areas where most jaguar populations are restricted to protected areas like Argentina and south-eastern Brazil. In countries where jaguars are still widespread efforts should also be directed toward unprotected areas where threats like habitat loss and killing are higher. There the biggest management challenge is upscaling conflict prevention and mitigation measures. The Jaguar 2030 Roadmap marks a milestone for the species, aiming to join range governments, NGOs and private partners to advance conservation action for jaguars, but getting the initiative off the ground is the current challenge. It is noteworthy to highlight the importance and need for transboundary cooperation and action, especially among the trans-frontier population hotspots. The new, or emerging threats like jaguar part smuggling and man-made fires need extra attention and action to be curtailed. If jaguar conservation is to be effective despite increasing threats, it needs to be streamlined from high level agreements through scalable effects on the ground, combining protected areas, corridors, and local people buy-in.

Impending anthropogenic threats and protected area prioritization for jaguars in the Brazilian Amazon

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

Jaguars (Panthera onca) exert critical top-down control over large vertebrates across the Neotropics. Yet, this iconic species have been declining due to multiple threats, such as habitat loss and hunting, which are rapidly increasing across the New World tropics. Based on geospatial layers, we extracted socio-environmental variables for 447 protected areas across the Brazilian Amazon to identify those that merit short-term high-priority efforts to maximize jaguar persistence. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and comparisons of measures of central tendency. Our results reveal that areas containing the largest jaguar densities and the largest estimated population sizes are precisely among those confronting most anthropogenic threats. Jaguars are threatened in the world’s largest tropical forest biome by deforestation associated with anthropogenic fires, and the subsequent establishment of pastures. By contrasting the highest threats with the highest jaguar population sizes in a bivariate plot, we provide a shortlist of the top-10 protected areas that should be prioritized for immediate jaguar conservation efforts and 74 for short-term action. Many of these are located at the deforestation frontier or in important boundaries with neighboring countries (e.g., Peruvian, Colombian and Venezuelan Amazon). The predicament of a safe future for jaguars can only be ensured if protected areas persist and resist downgrading and downsizing due to both external anthropogenic threats and geopolitical pressures (e.g., infrastructure development and frail law enforcement).

Predación de jaguares y pumas sobre animales domésticos en el sur del departamento de Córdoba, Colombia

Article

Full-text available

May 2024

La prevención y mitigación de los conflictos con el hombre son prioritarias para la conservación de los grandes carnívoros. La caza por venganza tras la depredación del ganado es una de las principales amenazas para el jaguar (Panthera onca) y el puma (Puma concolor) en América. Se consultaron registros de informes gubernamentales, agencias de recursos naturales, medios de comunicación y observaciones de campo para caracterizar el conflicto entre humanos y grandes felinos en el Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo de Colombia. Entre 2007 y 2022, se reportaron 37 eventos de depredación de grandes felinos sobre perros domésticos y ganado, de los cuales el 84 % correspondió a ataques de jaguares. Se encontró que los animales más depredados, en orden de ataques, fueron cerdos, perros, ovejas y vacas. Los excesos de matanza (es decir, > 1 animal atacado en un evento de depredación) representaron el 61 % de todos los eventos de depredación. Los principales obstáculos para el manejo son la insuficiencia de personal para verificar la depredación y la falta de protocolos operativos claros. Finalmente, se identifican estrategias para reducir el riesgo de depredación y mejorar la gestión actual.

Jaguar conservation status in north-western South America

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2023

We analysed the current conservation status of the jaguar Panthera onca in north- western South America (7.14 million km2 in total). The area is composed of habitats belonging to three eco-regions: the Andes, the Llanos, and the Amazon. Based on a large set of jaguar presence-absence data and a species distribution model, we estimated the current jaguar range at 4.98 million km2, which represents 78.6% of the historical jaguar range in this region. The countries where jaguar range has shrunk most are north-western Venezuela, Ecuador and Colombia. Across the region, protected areas cover 27% of the jaguar range and indigenous territories 25%, with Ecuador having the highest and north-west Venezuela the lowest percentage of jaguar range under protection. Jaguar densities vary across the region, from 0.3 jaguars/100 km2 in the driest or most degraded parts to 4.0–7.3 jaguars/100 km2 in humid, productive, and best- preserved habitats of the Amazon Basin and Venezuelan Llanos. Based on combined density and updated distribution models we estimate a total jaguar population at 105,000 jaguars (95% CRI: 81,200–128,800) for the region, with mean density of 2.1 jaguars/100 km2. Jaguar diet varies by habitat, from arboreal mammals and aquatic reptiles (mainly caimans) in the ‘varzea’ floodplain forests of Central Amazon, to large and medium- sized mammals in upland tropical forests and in the Llanos, with peccaries, capybaras, and occasionally livestock being the most important prey species. The main threats for jaguars in the region are deforestation and fragmentation of habitats, human-jaguar conflict, poaching (increasing due to the growing demand for jaguar parts from the Asian market), infrastructure expansion, and mining. The most important conservation goals are to halt deforestation, reduce the killing of jaguars for retaliation and trade, increase the number of protected areas, protect ecological connectivity, improve law enforcement, and implement a better system of environmental education.

Human-wildlife conflict in indigenous communities of the Nairi Awari Indigenous Territory of East Central Costa Rica

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Sáenz-Bolaños C, Fuller TK, Sievert L, Carrillo E. 2022. Human-wildlife conflict in indigenous communities of the Nairi Awari Indigenous Territory of East Central Costa Rica. Biodiversitas 23: 2238-2244. Human-wildlife conflict is essential for conservation because it is necessary to maintain the balance of requirements needed by humans and wildlife. Indigenous territories are not exempt from interactions with wildlife, and in this study, we focus on one indigenous territory of the Cabécar Indigenous Group of Costa Rica called Nairi Awari. We wanted to know which are the most common wildlife species, which interactions with these species the Nairi Awari consider negative, and what are the possible solutions to these interactions. To do this, we administered 24 semi-structured questionnaires to indigenous people from March-August 2019. The results showed 16 species as “problematic animals”, the jaguar (Panthera onca) being the most common, followed by hawks. Of the six problem categories identified, predation on poultry was the most cited category, but it raised fewer negative feelings among respondents than some other problems. Possible solutions to pig or cow predation, problems which most maddened respondents, included improved management (48%), scaring animals (12%), and killing big cats (16%). It is important to understand these perceptions in order to address future management to benefit conservation and human welfare. In particular, there is potential to work in the long term to improve the management of domestic animals.

People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management With Local Communities.

Book

Full-text available

Jan 1992

Where will Jaguars roam? The importance of survival in unprotected lands

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2013

As large predators, jaguars (Panthera onca) require vast expanses of well conservedland, abundant prey and few people. This study reviews three different ecological studieson jaguars living in unprotected lands. The first study focuses on Colombian jaguarsliving with indigenous peoples in Amazonia, while the second study examines aColombian jaguar population living in cattle ranches persecuted for depredation. Thethird study concerns jaguars surviving in the Rupununi savannahs of Guyana, wherecattle ranching is withering and tourism is gaining ground. All examples have five maincommon factors that enable jaguars to survive in unprotected lands: low human density,poor soils, inaccessibility, wild prey availability and closeness to large protected areas (>3,000 km2). We propose that the long-term conservation of jaguars will depend onconserving populations in unprotected lands as a complement to protected areas.

The impact of herd composition and foraging area on livestock predation by big cats in the Pantanal of Brazil: Livestock predation by big cats in the Pantanal

Article

Full-text available

May 2015
ANIM CONSERV

The conflict caused by large carnivore attacks on livestock constitutes a major threat to the conservation of carnivore species worldwide. The objective of this study was to determine what factors influence jaguar Panthera onca and puma Puma concolor attacks on cattle at a ranch in the Brazilian Pantanal. Cattle herds were monitored for 57 months, and data were collected for each recorded mortality event. The economic impact of predation was calculated. We parameterize a generalized linear model with negative binomial error distribution to model the influence of water levels of the Paraguay River, size of cattle herd and the age structure of the herd on the monthly number of cattle killed by big cats. Over half of all recorded herd mortality events were caused by large cat predation, resulting in a maximum 2.83% of the average annual herd size and representing an annual financial loss of US$22 400.00. A positive relationship was found between the frequency of monthly attacks and the water level of the Paraguay River, whereas a negative relationship was found between monthly attacks and proportion of adult cattle in the herd. Juveniles were taken more frequently than adults. Increased water levels caused the herd to concentrate on higher ground usually near forested areas, suggesting an increase in cattle vulnerability to predation. A greater proportion of adults in the herd may also increase the possibility for defensive behavior, likely resulting in greater protection of younger cattle. Understanding the factors that predispose cattle to predation by big cats contributes to the establishment of management strategies that may reduce losses and, ultimately, conflict.

Wildlands and Ecotourism in Latin America: Investing in Protected Areas

Article

Feb 1993

George N. Wallace

Ecotourism and conservation in the Americas

Book

Aug 2008

Using detailed case studies and regional overviews, Ecotourism and Conservation in the Americas presents the views and experiences of scholars, practitioners, tour operators, and policy makers involved in ecotourism programs in the U.S. and Latin America. The pros and cons of ecotourism for communities and ecosystems are explored, with particular attention paid to the ability of ecotourism to support sustainable development and conservation. The synthesis is inter-disciplinary, cross-cultural, and multi-scale and presents ecotourism as it is currently being practiced.

An indomitable beast: The remarkable journey of the Jaguar

Article

Dec 2013

Alan Rabinowitz

The jaguar is one of the most mysterious and least-known big cats of the world. The largest cat in the Americas, it has survived an onslaught of environmental and human threats partly because of an evolutionary history unique among wild felines, but also because of a power and indomitable spirit so strong, the jaguar has shaped indigenous cultures and the beliefs of early civilizations on two continents. In An Indomitable Beast: The Remarkable Journey of the Jaguar, big-cat expert Alan Rabinowitz shares his own personal journey to conserve a species that, despite its past resilience, is now on a slide toward extinction if something is not done to preserve the pathways it prowls through an ever-changing, ever-shifting landscape dominated by humans. Rabinowitz reveals how he learned from newly available genetic data that the jaguar was a single species connected genetically throughout its entire range from Mexico to Argentina, making it unique among all other large carnivores in the world. In a mix of personal discovery and scientific inquiry, he sweeps his readers deep into the realm of the jaguar, offering fascinating accounts from the field. Enhanced with maps, tables, and color plates, An Indomitable Beast brings important new research to life for scientists, anthropologists, and animal lovers alike. This book is not only about jaguars, but also about tenacity and survival. From the jaguar we can learn better strategies for saving other species and also how to save ourselves when faced with immediate and long-term catastrophic changes to our environment.

Jaguar predation on domestic livestock in Belize

Article

Jan 1986

Alan Rabinowitz

Healthy adult male Panthera onca can range close to livestock without causing problems. Prior injuries sustained by problems jaguars and poor management of livestock may influence jaguar predation on livestock. Translocation of problem jaguars is probably not feasible. -from Author

Jaguar: One Man's Struggle to Establish the World's First Jaguar Preserve

Article

Apr 2001

Predicting ranchers' intention to kill jaguars: case studies in Amazonia and Pantanal. 2012. Marchini, S. and D.W.Macdonald. Biological Conservation.

Article

Jan 2008
BIOL CONSERV

Silvio Marchini

The killing of jaguars by ranchers in Amazonia and the Pantanal is a major threat to the species. We used the Theory of Planned Behavior to examine the role of ranchers' perceptions, norms, attitudes and intentions concerning jaguar killing, in determining their jaguar-killing behavior. We also investigated the influence of: (1) descriptive norm and social identity on ranchers' intention to kill jaguars on their properties ; and (2) the effect of perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihoods (livestock and human safety), and of property size, on the variables that influence intention to kill. Results based on interviews with 268 cattle ranchers indicated that the impact of jaguars on livestock is not the only predictor of a rancher's intention to kill jaguars. Fear, personal and social motivations, and internal and external barriers (e.g. lack of skills and force of law, respectively) to killing jaguars can also influence jaguar killing. The relative importance of these factors in determining intention to kill varies with region and affluence. We recommend ways of deterring jaguar killing behavior through communication interventions. In addition to the economic and legal incentives that have already been considered by conservationists, effective strategies to protect jaguars on privately owned land will need to address the social and psychological factors that determine the killing of jaguars by ranchers. Conservationists need to find and support ways to make jaguar killing not only unprofitable and illegal, but also socially and personally unacceptable.

Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan

Article