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Women and Men at Work
... This situation burdens the individual, and consequently stress Lewis, 2009), and workfamily conflict generates (Sheikh et al. 2018). The situation becomes hypercritical for married people (Delle & Arkoful, 2014;Herman & Gyllstrom, 1977), especially for those people who have to take care of their families (Ahmad, 2008;Hays, 1996;Mjoli et al., 2013;Reskin & Padavic, 1994;Reskin & Ross, 1992) and have young children (Beutell & Greenhaus, 1980;Mjoli et al., 2013;Pleck, 1977). Several factors were identified by researchers which can lower the WLB and flourish conflict. ...
... But extended and joint family system have its own cons, especially when financial dependency is higher than one's capacity. Higher number of dependents has always been associated with higher work-family conflict (Ahmad, 2008;Hays, 1996;Mjoli et al., 2013;Reskin & Padavic, 1994;Reskin & Ross, 1992). ...
... In last days of accounts closing, in the end of June and end of December, employees usually work late at night. This situation becomes difficult to manage especially for those employees who have to take care of their families (Ahmad, 2008;Hays, 1996;Mjoli et al., 2013;Reskin & Padavic, 1994;Reskin & Ross, 1992). Because, such pressure inducing and time demanding work environment can cause work stress in the employees (Thompson, 2001). ...
The purpose of this research was to identify the relationship of personality, high
performance work practices, work stress, and work-family conflict with work-life
balance, along with considering the work-family conflict as a mediator. Other than
work-life balance, all variables were divided into their sub constructs for a comprehensive statistical analysis. 1050 Self-administered structured questionnaires were distributed to those bank employees who were either: married, divorced, or separated; had children; and work experience of at least one year in that bank. Final data set was based on 726 employees of 277 banks in South Punjab. Results revealed that work-life balance is not just the absence of conflict, it is a separate construct. Results further revealed that personality Type B behavioral patterns, performance management and evaluation practices, and family to work conflict enhance work-life balance, and work to family conflict reduce work-life balance. Moreover, personality Type A behavioral patterns, and work related stress increase work to family conflict, and personality type B behavioral patterns, and career management practices reduce work to family conflict. However, Personality Type B behavioral patterns, and career management practices, and work environment related stress increase family to work conflict, and team working and communication practices reduce family to work conflict. Results further revealed that work to family conflict mediates the relationships of personality Type A and Type B behavioral patterns, career management practices, and work related stress with work-life balance. However, Family to work conflict mediates the relationships of personality Type B behavioral patterns, team working and communication practices, career management practices, and work environment related stress with work-life balance. These results have various pivotal organizational and social implications. If government and banks will consider these implications, they cannot only enhance banks’ performance, but can also improve personal lives of bank employees through enhanced work-life balance.
... This aligns with previous research showing that employees with higher family demands or fewer resources have greater work-family strain and thus a greater need for flexibility policies, including remote work (Kelly et al. 2014;Moen et al. 2016). Additionally, given explicit and implicit workplace racial bias, discrimination, and microaggressions in conventional office environments (Ray 2019;Sue, Lin, and Rivera 2009;Wingfield and Alston 2014), returning to in-person work may come with greater psychological costs for minority and less educated workers, especially in intersection with gender, given women's generally lower occupational status and gendered scripts rendering women more susceptible to the dual demands of work and home (Moen and Roehling 2005;Padavic and Reskin 2002;Williams 2000), made even more acute during COVID-19 (Dunatchik et al. 2021;Igielnik 2021). ...
... Relative to fully remote employees, those in a hybrid arrangement may enjoy the benefits of both worlds-more autonomy in determining where, when, and how work is done; more in-person support from coworkers and managers; and less perceived need to be always on. An intersectional lens further suggests "some of each" may reduce the stress of fully remote work the most for women with family care needs and minority or less educated women, given the possibly close monitoring that comes with fully remote work-a risk disproportionately borne by disadvantaged women performing lower status jobs (Zickuhr 2021), the less-than-optimal work spaces on the home front for these workers, and women's generally lower status at work (Padavic and Reskin 2002) combined with social expectations of women performing housework and childcare (Moen and Roehling 2005;Williams 2000). ...
... In contrast, White women stand out as the subgroup who are the most vulnerable to hybrid work in terms of well-being. Women may be involuntarily moving to hybrid arrangements given their generally lower status (Padavic and Reskin 2002), what Kossek and colleagues (2021) refer to as "inflexible flexibility, whereby employees have little choice about schedules and which days they may work remotely." The fact that only White women experience declines in well-being concomitant with the move to hybrid suggests some other processes are at work. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic precipitated a massive turn to remote work, followed by subsequent shifts for many into hybrid or fully returning to the office. To understand the patterned dynamics of subjective well-being associated with shifting places of work, we conducted a nationally representative panel survey (October 2020 and April 2021) of U.S. employees who worked remotely at some point since the pandemic (N = 1,817). Cluster analysis identified four patterned constellations of well-being based on burnout, work–life conflict, and job and life satisfaction. A total return to office is generally more stressful, leading to significantly lower probabilities of being in the optimal low stress/high satisfaction constellation by Wave 2, especially for men and women without care obligations. Remote and hybrid arrangements have salutary effects; moving to hybrid is especially positive for minority men and less educated men, although it disadvantages White women’s well-being.
... The gender binary is reflected strongly in the nearly ubiquitous survey practice of asking respondents or interviewers (e.g., the General Social Survey) to report respondent sex using only two categories, male or female, as a single demographic measure of sex/gender. The binary sex measure has allowed researchers to identify differences between men and women in types of paid and unpaid labor (Bianchi et al. 2000;Padavic and Reskin 2002); pay rates (Padavic and Reskin 2002); propensities and pathways to commit different types of crimes (Kruttschnitt 2013); health behaviors and outcomes (Verbrugge 1985); and in many other important domains, but fails to reflect current, more complex sociological understandings of sex and gender. Binary sex measures conflate sex and gender, as illustrated by the common interchange of the terms "sex" and "gender" in these questions, and obscure the variation in gender within and across sex categories that sociologists find of central importance. ...
... The gender binary is reflected strongly in the nearly ubiquitous survey practice of asking respondents or interviewers (e.g., the General Social Survey) to report respondent sex using only two categories, male or female, as a single demographic measure of sex/gender. The binary sex measure has allowed researchers to identify differences between men and women in types of paid and unpaid labor (Bianchi et al. 2000;Padavic and Reskin 2002); pay rates (Padavic and Reskin 2002); propensities and pathways to commit different types of crimes (Kruttschnitt 2013); health behaviors and outcomes (Verbrugge 1985); and in many other important domains, but fails to reflect current, more complex sociological understandings of sex and gender. Binary sex measures conflate sex and gender, as illustrated by the common interchange of the terms "sex" and "gender" in these questions, and obscure the variation in gender within and across sex categories that sociologists find of central importance. ...
... Thus, we expect men and those who report more masculine gender identification to report more hours working for pay than women and those reporting feminine gender identifications. Performing sextyped work (i.e., driving a truck or teaching school) is another means for doing gender (England 1992;Padavic and Reskin 2002). Doing farm work, for example, leads women to be perceived by others and to perceive themselves as more masculine (Brandth 2006;Smyth et al. 2018). ...
Survey research and sociological theory each provide insights into how and why people and groups act, think, and feel. Sociological theories identify what concepts are important for understanding and representing the social world. That is, sociological theories inform what to measure in surveys, and, to a certain extent, how to measure it. Survey research permits sociologists to carefully specify what is to be measured vis a vis sociological theory, setting surveys apart as a social research tool. It is this level of specification of concepts and measures that allow surveys to provide continued value at a time when “big data” proliferate. High quality survey measurement and estimation is necessary for sociologists to evaluate sociological theory among generalizable samples with well-developed questions, leading to further refinement and improvement of the theory and improved understanding of the social world. High quality surveys also provide insights into where sociological theories fail and where they must be adjusted for different subgroups, as well as basic insights into the prevalence of outcomes of interest. Together, sociological theory and survey methods produce insights about society that can inform decision-making and social policy. This mutually reinforcing relationship between sociological theory and survey methods requires sociological theory to evolve from insights obtained using survey methods and survey measurement to evolve with advances in in sociological theory. The measurement of sex and gender in surveys is one area where the development of survey measures has not kept pace with sociological theory and empirical, largely qualitative, findings. Contemporary gender theory sees sex and gender as separate concepts, both of which are important for understanding behaviors and outcomes. Yet, virtually all contemporary surveys measure sex as a binary “male” versus “female” categorization and fail to measure gender, ignoring important heterogeneity in gender identification that may exist within sex categories and any overlap that may occur across categories. Both gender scholars and survey researchers are potentially affected by this shortcoming of modern survey measurement. Gender scholars lose an important tool for assessing gender theories, especially on generalizable samples, risking conclusions that are specific to a small group of individuals rather than the population at large. Survey researchers risk producing theoretically obsolete data, limiting the utility of the data or potentially generating misleading conclusions. Survey data that fail to capture and reflect modern and complex understandings of our social realities also face increased risk of being replaced by “big data” such as administrative and social media data. Survey data that do reflect modern and complex understandings can bring value not available in administrative or other data and are therefore unlikely to be replaced. This paper is part of a growing chorus advocating for updates to how modern surveys measure sex and gender. We argue that the reliance on a single binary measure of sex (male or female) is out of step with current sociological understandings of sex and gender. In response, we propose and test a new theoretically-informed gradational measure of gender identification in a nationally representative mail survey. We evaluate whether respondents answer the gender measure and examine the reliability and predictive validity of the measure. In particular, we examine whether measuring gender gradationally adds explanatory value beyond sex on important social outcomes such as sexuality, childcare, grocery shopping, housework, working for pay, and military service. We also examine whether sex moderates the effect of gender identification in the ways that sociological theory would suggest on these outcomes.
... The gender binary is reflected strongly in the nearly ubiquitous survey practice of asking respondents or interviewers (e.g., the General Social Survey) to report respondent sex using only two categories, male or female, as a single demographic measure of sex/gender. The binary sex measure has allowed researchers to identify differences between men and women in types of paid and unpaid labor (Bianchi et al. 2000;Padavic and Reskin 2002); pay rates (Padavic and Reskin 2002); propensities and pathways to commit different types of crimes (Kruttschnitt 2013); health behaviors and outcomes (Verbrugge 1985); and in many other important domains, but fails to reflect current, more complex sociological understandings of sex and gender. Binary sex measures conflate sex and gender, as illustrated by the common interchange of the terms "sex" and "gender" in these questions, and obscure the variation in gender within and across sex categories that sociologists find of central importance. ...
... The gender binary is reflected strongly in the nearly ubiquitous survey practice of asking respondents or interviewers (e.g., the General Social Survey) to report respondent sex using only two categories, male or female, as a single demographic measure of sex/gender. The binary sex measure has allowed researchers to identify differences between men and women in types of paid and unpaid labor (Bianchi et al. 2000;Padavic and Reskin 2002); pay rates (Padavic and Reskin 2002); propensities and pathways to commit different types of crimes (Kruttschnitt 2013); health behaviors and outcomes (Verbrugge 1985); and in many other important domains, but fails to reflect current, more complex sociological understandings of sex and gender. Binary sex measures conflate sex and gender, as illustrated by the common interchange of the terms "sex" and "gender" in these questions, and obscure the variation in gender within and across sex categories that sociologists find of central importance. ...
... Thus, we expect men and those who report more masculine gender identification to report more hours working for pay than women and those reporting feminine gender identifications. Performing sextyped work (i.e., driving a truck or teaching school) is another means for doing gender (England 1992;Padavic and Reskin 2002). Doing farm work, for example, leads women to be perceived by others and to perceive themselves as more masculine (Brandth 2006;Smyth et al. 2018). ...
Survey research’s sole reliance on binary measures of sex is out of line with contemporary sociological gender theory. By measuring only sex, surveys conflate sex with gender, ignoring variability in gender identification within sex categories and overlap in gender identification between sex categories. As a result, quantitative analyses may lead to statistical misrepresentations about how sex and gender organize social life. In this paper, we examine a gradational gender identification measure administered in a national probability sample mail survey. We assess item nonresponse and reliability, evaluating how gender identification is associated with a binary sex measure and with other demographic measures as well as whether it is subject to context effects due to question order. We also examine predictive validity for a number of outcomes that sociological gender theory and previous literature suggest should be related to gender beyond sex or in different ways for men and women. We find that respondents are able to answer the gender identification measure, that the item nonresponse rate is similar to that for the binary sex measure, and that the measure exhibits reasonable reliability and validity. Importantly, the measure adds explanatory value beyond sex when predicting several outcomes.
... But as demonstrated in the participants' excerpts, disruption in remittance flows due to the global economic impacts of COVID compounded the burden and distress that farm women experienced especially because of their gender role as caregivers (Padavic & Reskin, 2002). One farm woman who lived at Fumbisi (Builsa South) as a widow with four children shared her experience: ...
... The men send for both farming and family upkeep whereas the women usually send for family upkeep. Farmer 2: The women (my sisters) send more than the men send This is interesting, as some scholars have already established that women are more responsible caregivers of their households while men care more about production work (Padavic & Reskin, 2002;Smith, 2020). Such unequal division of responsibilities often influences men and women to make choices that lead them to alternative livelihoods with substantially different conditions. ...
The COVID-19 lockdown measures exacerbated the struggles of societies with existing inequalities. Given that women are generally the most vulnerable in times of pandemics and associated economic downturns, the study seeks to understand the struggles that female farmers experienced during the COVID 19 crisis and their survival responses and livelihood enhancement. To do this, we organized six women’s focus group discussions and interviewed 145 women farmers in communities within Builsa South and Ada (in Ghana) where farming is one of the major occupations for women. The findings reveal that the pandemic severely disrupted women’s access to farm inputs, markets, and farming activities amidst the absence of COVID-19 relief funds. Consequently, female farmers had to adopt multiple alternative livelihood strategies to meet their basic needs. But, the nature of the adaptation strategy adopted depended on the intersections of gender, household characteristics and remittance flows. Female farmers from migrant households with larger household sizes temporarily migrated as an alternative livelihood strategy compared to those from non-migrant households and with smaller family sizes. This distributional consequence of COVID-19 is important for government agencies to carefully consider when forming future response policies to pandemics in general and the rural agricultural sector specifically since it has implications for food security.
... In the particular case of the migrant population, joining the labor market presents more difficulties and restrictions for migrant groups whose employment options are concentrated in the secondary sector, which is notable for poor working conditions and precariousness. Moreover, disadvantages when joining the workforce are greater for women given the generalized job sexual segregation and the wage gap (England 1984;Padavic and Reskin 2002). The pervasive effects of negative economic cycles on fertility might be exacerbated based on how gender egalitarian roles are played within the household. ...
... This analysis contemplates not only the situation of women but also that of their male partners because reproductive decisions within the context of relationships tend to be jointly made decisions. It is well known that women are more disadvantaged than men when it comes to accessing and remaining in the labor market (Padavic and Reskin 2002). Even so, the proportion of employed women increased in the periods of economic expansion and recovery in Spain, while it stalled or declined during the period of recession, with a concomitant rise of the unemployed population. ...
The African population is among those with the largest migratory tradition in Spain. During the period of economic growth, migratory flows from Africa were mostly men and of an economic nature, while the majority of women embarked on their migratory projects for family reunification. However, the ensuing socioeconomic circumstances led to variations in these trends. The aim of this study is to explore how changes in the economic cycle during the last two decades have affected the reproductive behavior of African migrant women, with particular attention to their relationship with the Spanish labor market from a couple-level perspective. We analyze longitudinal data from the Spanish Labor Force Survey from 2000 to 2020. The results show how the Great Recession had the effect of lowering fertility throughout the sample. Notably, unlike other origins, for African-born women, the negative effect on fertility endures during the recovery period, even when controlling for other factors. Results also suggest that when African women transition from inactivity to unemployment, the probability of having a child is lower compared with the traditional gender-role model. However, the fertility of African couples with a favorable education and employment position for both partners is not significantly different from that of couples representing the traditional model. Our results might be pointing toward changes in gender roles among couples of African origin in Spain, at least in the domain of the labor market. Future research should explore whether these changes extend to the private sphere within families.
... The importance of gender, gender socialization, occupational choice, and organizational culture are shaped by social and legal history. Women were limited and prohibited from a variety of job duties and professions (Reskin and Padavic 1994). The idea behind protective labor laws was to protect women and children, but they also protected men's jobs. ...
... First, people's social networks tend to include others of the same sex, ethnicity, and race. Second, sex stereotypes, fear of competition, and concern with coworkers' and bosses' reactions prevent workers from recommending someone of the "wrong" sex or race (Reskin and Padavic 1994). Many of the managers in Kanter's study reported that they preferred to work with others like themselves, those who would fit in and follow the program, when a position was available, they would look for employees who had similar backgrounds and interests (1977). ...
... Understanding the drivers of gender differences in labor market outcomes is an important topic of study among labor economists (Coffman, Exley, & Niederle, 2020). Researchers investigated discrimination typically draw theoretical frameworks from economic, sociological, and psychological perspectives (see a review, Truman & Baroudi, 1994) and proposed variety of explanations for systematic gender inequity in the workplace, including cultural beliefs, men's actions, employers' actions, and workers' own preferences (Reskin & Padavic, 1994). The relationship between gender discrimination and job-related attitude and behavior could be explicated by equity theory and expectancy theory. ...
... They would most likely attribute the disadvantageous treatment which they meet to the gender discrimination therefore they would be more sensitive to gender discrimination in the workplace. Besides, female workers who are long tenure would experience more unfair treatments which unequally distribute opportunities, resources, and rewards on the basis of sex (Reskin & Padavic, 1994) in the organizations so they would be more responsive to gender discrimination. ...
Although many studies have pointed to the fact that women directly experience gender discrimination, relatively little has been explored about which individual and organizational variables of women in the workplace are more sensitive to gender discrimination. This article has been conducted in an attempt to investigate the individual and organizational characteristics of female workers who are sensitive to gender discrimination. A total of 415 participants were included in this study. The results indicate that while participants' age, salary, and position are significantly and negatively related to gender discrimination; tenure years is significantly and positively related to gender discrimination. Besides, participants' education is not significantly relative to gender discrimination. Furthermore, while participants who have no spouses perceive greater gender discrimination than those who have spouses; participants whose careers are ever intermittent perceive greater gender discrimination than those whose careers are never intermittent. In addition, according to the organizational variables, firm size is significantly and negatively related to gender discrimination. While participants who work in production or administrative department perceive greater gender discrimination than those who work in sales department; participants who work in manufacture industry perceive greater gender discrimination than those who work in service industry. The results can serve as a basis for understanding women's cognition of gender discrimination in the workplace.
... Research on occupational gender segregation provides extensive evidence that men and women are clustered in different jobs which is causing gender inequalities in employment outcomes (Card, Cardoso & Kline 2016;Leuze & Strauß 2016). Labor-market research attributes occupational gender segregation to supply-and demand-side factors derived from economic (Becker 1964;Polachek 1981) as well as social psychological and sociological theories (Padavic & Reskin 2002;Ridgeway & Correll 2004; for an overview: Achatz 2018). ...
... Additionally, the compensating differentials argument states that women, based on their role as homemaker, trade off working in occupations that allow for flexible working-time arrangements against lower economic rewards (Filer 1985). Sociological approaches emphasize the internalization of traditional gender roles during socialization that form men's and women's gender identity and cause gendered career goals to develop (Padavic & Reskin 2002). In alignment with gender identities, women are likely to work in occupations where female characteristics, such as being caring and communal, are valued (e.g., nurses and teachers), whereas men sort into occupations where the perception of being ambitious is valued (Gmür 2004). ...
Objective: This study investigates whether sorting into occupations and work organizations contributes to gender differences in parents’ likelihood to reduce their working hours.
Background: While mothers reduce their work hours to reconcile their work and personal lives, fathers increasingly wish to reduce their hours but face obstacles to doing so. Mismatches between parents' desired and actual work hours prompt the question of whether fathers' realization of working-time reductions is constrained due to their sorting into more time-intensive occupations and/or work organizations.
Method: Cross-classified multilevel models were applied to German linked employer-employee data analyzing gender differences in parents' likelihood of reducing work hours. Including sorting indicators, the question of whether differences in full-time employed mothers' and fathers' working-time reductions were driven by sorting into different work contexts (occupations/work organizations) was explored.
Results: The results confirmed that full-time employed mothers are more likely to reduce their work hours than full-time employed fathers. While occupations play almost no role in determining working-time adjustments, work context does at least partly contribute to parents’ variation in working-time reductions. However, neither gendered sorting into occupations nor gendered sorting into work organizations explained gender differences in parents’ likelihood of scaling back their work hours.
Conclusion: It is concluded that gender differences in German parents' reduction of working hours rather respond to traditional gender norms than being influenced by the different occupations or work organizations mothers and fathers sort themselves into.
... In both World War I and II, men were demanded on the forefront of combat and many jobs were left to women. Women began taking on men's jobs such as; building and flying cargo planes, driving busses, managing offices, maintaining railways etc. (Bradley, 1989;Reskin and Padavic, 1994). When the war(s) ended women were laid off and transferred back to low-paying jobs such as assemblers and clerk-typists and it was not until the 1970s that women took up what were regarded as traditionally male occupations (Reskin and Padavic, 1994). ...
... Women began taking on men's jobs such as; building and flying cargo planes, driving busses, managing offices, maintaining railways etc. (Bradley, 1989;Reskin and Padavic, 1994). When the war(s) ended women were laid off and transferred back to low-paying jobs such as assemblers and clerk-typists and it was not until the 1970s that women took up what were regarded as traditionally male occupations (Reskin and Padavic, 1994). ...
There has been a retreat from the “conventional” work organization to new forms of contemporary organizations. Parallel to this shift in organizational forms, the composition of the workforce also changed. Greater numbers of women entered the labour market and began occupying managerial positions. Despite the increase of women in the workforce, progress towards equality lagged behind. The intention of this chapter is to provide an overall picture of the representation of women in organizations and to acquaint the readers with some of the major issues that play role in women's career advancement. The chapter begins by introducing macro and micro level barriers that hinder representation of women in the contemporary workplace. Some of these major barriers, such as stereotypes attached to women, occupational segregation, the gender pay gap, and discrimination are then detailed and theoretical and practical implications are provided. The chapter also covers studies on the leadership of women in organizations and outlines the need to unravel the potential of women.
... Within a community, individuals may express an array of different attitudes toward gender and gender roles. Such attitudes are learned through a process of socialization that occurs within families, between peers, at workplaces, and through interactions with individuals and institutions at every level of one's social ecological environment [13,14]. Exposure to armed conflict and the widespread use of physical and sexual violence against both women and men is a critical life event that can profoundly impact both individuals' gender attitudes and the psychological health of whole communities [15]. ...
... Families seem to be acting on these beliefs. Female enrollment in secondary school (ages [12][13][14][15][16][17] in the DRC has also steadily increased, with most recent figures indicating a female secondary enrollment rate increase from approximately 30% in 2010 to nearly 36% in 2015 [68]. Ongoing inquiry is needed to inform the development of future gender transformative programs designed to help communities confront the damaging consequences of gender inequality and IPV by discovering how to more effectively engage men and boys as agents of change [69]. ...
Gender role attitudes, views held by individuals regarding the roles men and women should play in society, are a powerful social determinant of health. However, work remains in elucidating the associations between gender attitudes and intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration or victimization and mental health problems. We used latent class analysis to classify patterns of responses on survey items on gender attitudes by male and female adults in households that participated in an economic empowerment intervention and evaluation in rural villages in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Attitudes about IPV and gender equality were two subdomains to emerge from analysis and a 3-class model solution was found to best fit response patterns. Results indicated that, as compared to the least gender equitable class, individuals in the moderately gender equitable and fully gender equitable classes had lower odds of having experienced or perpetrated psychological abuse. Individuals within the moderately gender equitable class were at lower odds of having experienced or perpetrated physical or sexual violence. Further, individuals in the moderately gender equitable and fully gender equitable classes had significantly lower mean scores on symptoms associated with PTSD than individuals in the least gender equitable class. Future research should explore the relationships between gender attitudes, partner violence and mental health to build resilient families.
... Gender discrimination, defined as the unequal distribution of opportunities, resources, and rewards based on gender (Charles et al., 1996;Ngo et al., 2003), deprives women of fundamental freedoms (Miletzki & Broten, 2017). Prior studies (Branisa et al., 2013;Miletzki & Broten, 2017) reveal that these inequalities are closely linked to institutional and societal gender roles (Solesvik et al., 2019). ...
Entrepreneurship in Croatia is predominantly male-dominated, with only 18.6% of companies owned by women. Cultural, social norms and business policies either support or hinder women’s participation in business. This paper explores the reasons behind the low engagement of women in entrepreneurship and examines the characteristics of female-led companies in the small and mediumsized enterprise sector. Key obstacles to female entrepreneurship are identified, with a focus on whether women experience discrimination compared to men and the most common forms of such discrimination. The research, based on a semi-structured questionnaire, surveyed 271 female entrepreneurs. Results show that 52% have encountered gender-based discrimination, primarily through traditional social stereotypes, limited opportunities for advancement, and difficulties in achieving work-life balance. Alarmingly, only 21.8% of companies have established procedures to address discrimination. These findings highlight the need for empowering women in entrepreneurship and strengthening protection against gender-based discrimination. The paper contributes to the academic literature on entrepreneurship by offering exploratory insights into the challenges faced by women entrepreneurs. However, the study’s limitations include the relatively small sample size in comparison to the overall population.
... Women's job commitment has been found to equal men's and to increase due to the same factors. However, women's progression is negatively impacted by statistical discrimination: a cultural assumption that women are less productive or more costly to employ, due to motherhood and family obligations (Reskin and Padavic 2002). Budig, Misra, and Böckmann found that the "motherhood penalty", or the economic impact of motherhood on women, is smaller in countries where there is stronger cultural support for maternal employment (Budig et al. 2010). ...
Efforts have been made to improve gender diversity in the built environment professions. This sector continues to experience growth restrictions due to skill shortages. Some progress has been made at the entry level; however, the retention of women in professional roles within this sector continues to present a challenge. Support for women during maternity, upon return to work and while working with family has been identified as a barrier to women’s progression in this sector. Professional bodies are uniquely placed to support their female members. Therefore, this study had two aims: to examine current professional body support for members during and after maternity leave and to examine the experiences of female professionals, who have taken maternity leave whilst holding membership in a built environment professional body. This study adopted an embedded, mixed-method design, using a secondary, qualitative data set to augment the primary, quantitative data set, within one phase. Surveys were distributed directly to professional bodies and to professionals via social media (LinkedIn). The survey of the professional bodies identified a varied approach to maternity support. The professional member survey identified a lack of awareness of available support, and generally the need for more support during maternity and on return to work. In summary, professional bodies in the built environment could improve maternity support for members by improving communication and achieving parity in support across the various disciplines.
... Occupations heavy in female participation often promise better opportunities for social interaction and generally entail less physical strain. Yet, it's crucial to acknowledge that these roles typically come with lower remuneration and scarce chances for career progression (Levanon et al., 2009;Padavic and Reskin, 2002;Reskin and Roos, 1990). Extensive research has delved into the delicate balancing act women perform between their professional aspirations and caregiving duties, a balancing act fraught with challenges. ...
This research project aimed to explore the issue of gender and racial inequality within the London Ambulance Service through the lens of Pierre Bourdieu’s concepts, such as field, capital, habitus, and symbolic violence. The findings of the study highlighted how existing structures, gendered practices, and racial biases shaped the career experiences of women and employees from Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic (BAME) backgrounds.
By conducting in-depth interviews with 23 individuals working at the London Ambulance Service, this research revealed dynamics across different aspects of the organisation. The competitive nature of the ambulance service created an environment where certain cultural capital was highly valued but predominantly held by men. Consequently, those lacking capital faced disadvantages in their advancement. Furthermore, leadership practices reinforced norms that hindered efforts towards equality while subjecting minorities to heightened scrutiny and penalising behaviour among women.
The study also found that the recruitment and promotion process perpetuated biases favouring traits traditionally associated with masculinity and leadership styles. Additionally, these processes framed women and BAME employees' capabilities as deficiencies. Exclusionary social networks concentrate decision-making power within dominant groups sharing privileged backgrounds and conforming to normative values.
However, it is important to note that this study also sheds light on how women and BAME employees employ approaches to gain leadership capital by regulating their identity performance and leveraging support networks among peers who share experiences. These strategies help counterbalance their exclusion from privileges typically associated with proximity to identities. However, managing one’s identity constantly takes a toll on well-being. This highlights the necessity for reforms rather than relying solely on individual negotiations. The research illustrates how Bourdieu’s theoretical concepts can help us better understand the dynamics of inequality within public service organisations. It suggests that by disrupting barriers and going beyond surface-level diversity initiatives, we can bring about cultural change. Conducting research could provide valuable insights into how complex identities contribute to the experiences of minority women facing compounded symbolic violence. Ultimately, this study emphasises the significance of approaches that challenge structures by acknowledging diverse capabilities and promoting inclusive cultures.
... The concept of statistical discrimination, as introduced by Phelps (1972), proposes that employers may rely on gender stereotypes and generalizations to inform decisions, resulting in unequal treatment and reduced wages for women. Furthermore, the theory of institutional discrimination posits that structural inequities inherent in organisations and institutions contribute to gender-based wage discrepancies (Reskin and Padavic, 1994). ...
This paper investigates gender wage discrimination in India using data from the nationally representative Indian Human Development Survey round I (IHDS 2005) as well as round II (IHDS 2011). We examine the gender wage gap in the country across rural and urban areas separately as well as at an aggregate level. Controlling for financial and household characteristics, we employ a modified Mincer regression for men and women. We then breakdown the wage differential into explainable and unexplainable components using the Blinder–Oaxaca methodology. We find that education and experience significantly influence wages across genders in both rural and urban areas, while their affect is more prominent in urban areas. Through the decomposition analysis, we find that although the log wage differential decreased between 2005 and 2011, this reduction is overshadowed by a larger portion of the differential being attributed to different treatment of the same skills, indicative of potential discrimination.
... The impact path of gender role socialization can be summarized as follows. On the one hand, it will affect individuals' social roleplaying expectations and further affect their concepts of work and making money (Betz & O'Connell, 1989;Granrose, 2005;Reskin & Padavic, 1994). On the other hand, it will drive men and women to seek employment based on their respective role positions and career preferences. ...
The reform and opening-up of China have greatly improved the scale and quality of doctoral education for women. However, female doctors still face the “leaky pipeline” and the “unbreakable glass ceiling” in their development of academic careers. In this study, gender differences are investigated in doctoral graduates’ career choices, the level of educational institutions they attend, and their scientific research productivity after joining the institution. We analyzed the administrative data and scientific research publication information from ten years of doctoral graduates at a top research university in China. Results suggest that compared to their male counterparts, female doctors are more likely to pursue an academic career upon graduation, but they are also more likely to be employed in lower-level institutions as well as to publish Chinese scientific studies with lower influence and poorer quality. Moreover, gender differences in academic disciplines are heterogeneous. While academic career development for doctors in natural sciences is not gender-biased, female doctors in social sciences face the most significant challenges, and these results persist even after controlling for their scientific publications during graduate school. In other words, gender differences in academic career development are likely to result from gender symbols rather than differences in academic ability.
... Studies to date have primarily focused on measuring the effects of sex and gender using a binary variable (women versus men). To gain a better understanding of the role of gender in work and health, it may be important to account for differences in jobs and work tasks, particularly when considering how the segregation of men and women that has traditionally existed in some occupations [38]. To date, Glauber [39] found genderneutral occupations offered greater opportunities for flexible work compared to male-dominant or female-dominant occupations. ...
Workplace support needs for women and men living with mental health conditions are not well understood. This study examined workplace accommodation and support needs among women and men with and without mental health or cognitive conditions and individual and workplace factors associated with having unmet needs.
A cross-sectional survey of 3068 Canadian workers collected information on disability, gender, gendered occupations, job conditions, work contexts, and workplace accommodations. Multivariable logistic regression analyses examined gender- and disability-based differences in unmet needs for workplace flexibility, work modifications, and health benefits, and the association of work context (i.e., work schedule, job sector) and job conditions (i.e., precarious work) on the likelihood of unmet accommodation needs. The additive (i.e., super- or sub-additive) and multiplicative effects of disability, gender, and occupational gender distribution on the probability of unmet accommodation needs were also assessed.
The most common unmet workplace accommodation was work modifications reported by 35.9% of respondents with mental/cognitive disability and workplace flexibility reported by 19.6% of individuals without a mental/cognitive disability. Women, employees in female dominant occupations, and participants with mental/cognitive disabilities were more likely to report unmet needs compared with men, employees in non-female dominant occupations, and participants without disabilities but these findings were largely explained by differences in job conditions and work contexts. No interacting effects on the likelihood of reporting unmet needs for workplace accommodations were observed.
To support employee mental health, attention is needed to address work contexts and job conditions, especially for people working with mental/cognitive disabilities, women, and workers in female-dominated occupations where unmet accommodation needs are greatest.
... One answer comes from community gender norms around oxen use. Internationally, gendered social norms and assumptions have discouraged-or outright excluded-women from jobs that are perceived as relatively dangerous due to 'benevolent sexism' (Cuddy et al., 2015;Glick et al., 2000;Padavic and Reskin, 2002). 1 Tending to traction oxen is considered a 1 risky task due to their large size and potentially erratic behavior. According to Alesina, Giuliano and Nunn (2013), the plow requires significant upper body strength, and bursts of power, both to pull the plow and control the animal that pulls it. ...
... [22,25,29,34] Moreover, the literature indicated that the distinction in the prevalence of male patients could be attributed to male domination of unsafe lines of work and social activities. [33,35] For this reason, avoidance programs for men in the age mentioned above group, as the most at-risk people, should be highlighted. [29] Throughout the study, 64.9% of trauma patients were transferred by emergency medical services (EMS) ambulances which suggested the availability and coverage of EMS to some extent. ...
Background and Objectives: Trauma is a prominent reason for morbidity and death in Iran. The objective of this study was to provide epidemiological and clinical features of the injured patients admitted to one of the collaborating centers of the national trauma registry of Iran (NTRI).
Materials and Methods: The study was carried out at the one NTRI center from March 25, 2017, to November 20, 2020. Patients who had the NTRI criteria were included in the study. Data comprised demographics, injury information, prehospital and in‑hospital information, procedures, International Classification of Diseases 10 codes, diagnoses, injury severity, and outcomes.
Results: Overall, 4043 trauma patients were included in the trauma. Of whom, 3036 (75.0%) were men. There was a statistically significant association between the cause of trauma and the severity of the injury. The post hoc test results demonstrated that the percentage of the injury severity score (ISS) ≥9 in patients with falls was higher than in patients with road traffic injuries (RTI) (26.9% vs. 16.8%, P = 0.01). The univariable and multiple logistic regression analyses showed statistically significant associations between age ≥65, cause of trauma, years of school, and ISS ≥9 with intensive care units (ICU) admission. After adjusting for age and cause of trauma, the odds of ICU admission in patients with ISS ≥9 were 6.23 times more than in patients with ISS <9 (odds ratio = 6.23, 95% confidence interval [4.92–7.88]).
Conclusion: The odds of ICU admission were higher in older patients (age ≥65), lower educated patients, patients with falling, and severe injuries.
... Many supply-and-demand-side factors like human capital and employer preferences leading to occupational clustering of racialized and gendered groups in low-wage work also likely influence employment in jobs paying subminimum wages (Browne et al. 2001;Charles and Grusky 2004;Padavic and Reskin 2002;Unger 2002;Weeden 2005). A disproportionate number of workers who rely on "unpredictable gratuities" are women and women of color. ...
The Fair Labor Standards Act's minimum wage laws provide important protections for workers. However, it still permits employers to pay subminimum wages to youth under age 20, student-vocational learners, full-time students, individuals with disabilities, and tipped workers. This has important economic consequences, especially for economically vulnerable workers in the low-wage sector. Using 2009-2019 Current Population Survey-Merged Outgoing Rotation Group (CPS-MORG) data (n = 502,976), we find that 3.7 percent (about 1,565,805) of hourly workers were paid subminimum wages based on state minimum wage laws, and subminimum wages were associated with increases in family poverty by 1.4 percentage points. Importantly, the relationship between subminimum wages and poverty differed across workers with particularly telling results for disability. Unlike for youth and students for whom access to subminimum wage labor was associated with decreased family poverty, subminimum wage work compounded already high poverty rates for hourly workers with disabilities. Within a broader context of low-wage work, this research speaks to the impacts of subminimum pay on economic insecurity and poverty-an ongoing social problem disproportionately affecting people with disabilities.
... Although there have been big changes in family structure and women"s labour force participation, there have only been minor changes in responsibility for domestic chores. Women continue to be responsible for the majority of domestic chores and are therefore experiencing the stress of coping with a double day (Reskin & Padavic, 1994). Women are also more likely to take on other family-related roles such as caring for elderly parents, and finding appropriate childcare. ...
This study was carried out to examine the impact of job stress on family integration. The study adopted a descriptive research design. The information was collected through the use of questionnaire. One hundred and twenty participants whose ages ranged from 20 to 65 were used for the study. The participants were drawn from the educational, health, and banking sectors using purposive sampling procedure. The data collected were subjected to appropriate statistics of paired sample test, ANOVA, and Chi-square. All the four hypotheses postulated for the study were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The results revealed that job stress differed from one job to another. It also showed that job stress has a significant impact on the integration of one"s family and that families differ in their expectations concerning stress present at work. It showed that there is a significant difference in the perception of job stress by male and female employees. The study recommended that provision for employee training in the area of stress management periodically so that employees can personally be conscious of what they need to do to stay healthy and to stay productive.
... Importantly, labour market segmentation is not a gender-neutral phenomenon. Rather, it intersects with gender-based occupational segregation (Dwyer, 2013;Grimshaw et al., 2017), with women more likely than men to occupy low-wage and precarious jobs than high-wage and secure jobs (Charles and Grusky, 2004;Foley and Cooper, 2021;Padavic and Reskin, 2002). This labour market segmentation not only means that 'emergent digital systems are both differentially deployed and differentially experienced by workers, depending on the sector and employment conditions' (Terry et al., 2021: 3), but also that these experiences may be different for women, compared with men. ...
This study addresses the dearth of gender analysis within debates about technological innovation and workplace change. Qualitative analysis of 12 focus groups conducted with women in ‘frontline’ and ‘professional’ roles discussing their use and engagement with digital technologies at work reveals contrasting narratives of ‘digital frustration’ and ‘digital invigoration’. To explain these distinct narratives, we synthesise insights from science and technology studies with findings from scholarship on gendered work and labour market inequality to show that these differences are not driven solely by a technology’s form or the degree of automation it ostensibly represents. Instead, women’s narratives reflect an interplay between technological design, employment context and workers’ own voice and agency. These findings challenge assumptions about the totalising and transformative power of work-related technologies, redirecting attention to how social and political contestations over digital technologies inform worker experiences and shape the future of work.
... Gender role theory posits that observed behavioral gender differences manifest themselves from men and women's differential social roles and are reflected in societal hierarchies and labor divisions (Eagly, Wood, & Diekman, 2000). Historical labor divisions in industrial societies have often resulted in men performing jobs that require physical strength and the ability to be away from home, like farming and factory work, whereas women were primarily responsible for caretaking and reproductive tasks within the home (Reskin & Padavic, 1994;Shelton & John, 1996). These types of labor divisions have resulted in certain role expectations for men and women, because specific characteristics are required to fulfill this gender-specific labor. ...
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/107738/1/annkeane.pdf
... However, much has changed since the beginning of the industrial revolution, when men and women were sometimes strictly separated from each other at work. Reskin and Padavic (1994) describe how in the second half of the 19th century, the British Foreign Office had female employees work in the attic to prevent contact with male colleagues. When women had to pick up their wages downstairs, male colleagues had to stay out of the way. ...
Work has always played a central role in the lives of many people. Quite some hours are spent at the workplace each week, ‘and the type of work is a main aspect of someone’s social status’. The workplace is a place where people cooperate, either to establish a common goal or out of some self-interest, but it is also where people compete for scarce resources such as career openings, promotions, bonuses, and even for better offices or equipment or other types of privileges. Thus, organisations require continual political behaviour from their employees.
Over the past decades, this behaviour has gained an interesting new dimension. Due to the increased participation of women as well as due to immigration, the workforce in the
Netherlands has become more diversified, which is a trend that is likely to continue. It is not farfetched to assume that the diversity of an employee’s working environment, in terms of gender and ethnicity, influences their preferences and corresponding choices in situations where workplace cooperation and competition are involved. These influences regarding gender and ethnicity are the main focus of this dissertation.
This dissertation investigates how so-called contact theory and threat theory can be used to quantify gender and ethnic influences on ingroup preferences.
Contact and threat theory have been tested against each other many times in the context of someone’s social circles, but until now they have not been tested at the workplace nor with respect to gender. This dissertation thus fills a research gap by combining two empirical aims: first, to verify whether and to what extent these theories hold in a context that is different but of considerable importance to many people: the work place; and second, to verify whether these theories are applicable to explain gender ingroup preferences in addition to ethnicity.
... Several research studies have investigated why there are so few women in upper-level management (Fagenson, 1993;Simpson & Holley, 2001). Such studies have been responsible for the introduction of terms like the "sticky floor" (Reskin & Padavic, 1994Tesch et al., 1995) and, for Black women, in particular, the "concrete ceiling" (Ogilvie & Jones, 1996). Morrison and Von Glinow's (1990) iconic work, "Women and Minorities in Management," introduced the term "glass ceiling," though the empirical evaluation of the "glass ceiling effect" was and continues to be in contestation. ...
Afro-Caribbean women initially construct their science identity outside of the U.S. in unique sociocultural contexts where Black is dominant and British-styled instruction remains intact. Afro-Caribbean women often experience the “triple threat” minoritizing effects of being Black, female, and international/non-immigrant when they pursue STEM education and careers in the United States. Using grounded theory methods, I gathered the narratives of eight Afro-Caribbean women in STEM education or careers in the United States to examine how citizenship/immigration status influenced their STEM trajectories. Participants described how their educational and career aspirations were either supported or constrained by citizenship. Immigration status, therefore, operated as a figurative glass ceiling for some of the Afro- Caribbean women in this study limiting degree and career choice.
... The Bhagwati-Dehejia hypothesis predicts increased employment turnover in highly open countries; and empirically, policies resulting in trade liberalization appear linked with short-term employment adjustments and long-term increased volatility of employment (Beaulieu and Dehejia 2007). Because of historical and current employment practices, where women and minorities face disadvantages in recruitment processes (Padavic, Reskin et al. 2002) and retention practices (Diebold, Neumark, and Polsky 1997;Hall, Gordon, and Holt 1972;Ureta 1992) in the USA, Canada, and other similar developed countries, these employment adjustments disproportionately affect women (Diebold, Neumark, and Polsky 1997;Hall, Gordon, and Holt 1972;Sheeran 1975;Ureta 1992). Recent studies (Kushi and McManus 2018;Women's Budget Group 2018) have shown that in countries with greater gender discrimination, women are more likely than men to be exposed to the downside risks associated with trade liberalization and other economic shocks. ...
What explains divides in the public’s support for trade protection? Traditional economic arguments primarily focus on individuals’ expectations for increased or decreased wages in the face of greater economic openness, yet studies testing such wage-based concerns identify a different divide as well: even after accounting for wage effects, women are typically more supportive of trade protection. We argue that trade-induced employment volatility and the resulting concerns for employment stability are overlooked factors that help explain the gender divide in attitudes. Due to both structural discrimination and societal norms, we theorize that working women are more responsive to the threat of trade-related employment instability than male counterparts. Using an experiment fielded on national samples in the USA and Canada, we find that most respondents have weak reactions to volatility, but volatility has a significant effect on women who are the most vulnerable to trade’s disruptive effects – those working in import-competing industries and those with limited education.
... Gender is a concept that expresses the socially created and learned behaviors and expectations for men and women. It expresses the social expectations regarding which behaviors and activities are appropriate for women and men, and what rights, resources and power both genders have or should have (Reskin & Padavic, 1994). In summary, gender refers to the socially determined roles and responsibilities of men and women, and is a concept related to how society expects us to behave rather than biological differences (Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989). ...
... Gender discrimination is the unequal distribution of opportunities, resources, and rewards according to gender (Charles et al., 1996), and it is usually based on the perception and/or belief that there is a lack of equality because of gender rather than other personal characteristics (Ngo et al., 2003). Also, as a consequence of depriving women of fundamental freedoms (Miletzki & Broten, 2017), several studies argue that gender discrimination affects social development outcomes, causing poor governance and lower economic growth (Knowles, 2002;Swamy et al., 2001). ...
Perceptions and institutional frameworks can be barriers or facilitators to the development of female entrepreneurship policies. Institutions rely on factual data on the gender gap to evaluate their policies. However, the literature shows that the research and institutions should also analyze the impact of social beliefs on the success of these policies and initiatives. This study focuses on the impact of these perceptions in promoting female entrepreneurship. Data was collected from 287 responses to a questionnaire from Spanish women and men and was analyzed using multivariate regression analysis. The results show that the perception of lack of equality increases the gender gap even if there are specific and effective policies in a society that attempt to eliminate the gender gap in terms of the role of women in the home or positions of power. The main result is that these perceptions ultimately affect women's entrepreneurial intentions. The results have policy implications for companies and public institutions willing to change the gender narrative about entrepreneurship and design policies and initiatives that help women overcome cultural barriers and effectively promote female entrepreneurship.
... Their study found that in the United States, women have made identifiable and significant progress in term of their presence in the leadership position and this is especially located within the bureaucracy-from only six percent in the 1970s to 22% in the 1990s. Organization in Denmark host 14.5% female managers but only 5% of this population were top managers; Japan has 7.5% female managers but only 0.3% occupied positions in top management in the private sector (Reskin & Padavic, 1994). ...
This study seeks to examine and to compare the patterns of women’s and men’s career advancement in a municipal government located within traditional area of the biggest matrilineal society in the world, the Minangkabau. This research employed a qualitative approach through a case study and suggests that the higher the position, the less the number of women occupying it. Further, this study also aims to explore thebarriers that impede career advancement of the female employees. Women face barriers that become more significant as they climb the hierarchical structure, including lack of experience, job segregation, work-family conflicts, and stereotypes. Applying newpolicies such as a quota system and flexible work arrangements can be implemented to address these issues. This research only studied one municipal region within the Minangkabau. Future and more extensive research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the situation by observing more local governments
... As more women, particularly in Iceland, attain more leadership positions in both the private and public sector, an empirical question arises whether gender differences influence workplace attitudes and variables (Padavic & Reskin, 2002), including work-stress issues. The European Agency for Safety and Health (2014) has even questioned whether institutions should adjust their work environments to better manage gender-based workstress. ...
Research Question: This study examines the attitudes of 106 of Iceland’s highest-level public officials towards their current work conditions and the constraints around them. Motivation: Rapidly changing internal and external environments create pressure on organizations to perform, which in turn place heightened demands and expectations on individuals who lead them. This situation demands to continuously revisit empirical evidence on perceived working conditions and work-related stress of top management. Furthermore, specific contexts, e.g., organization or country, might provide new insights and contribute to the existing body of knowledge. Idea: The aim of this study was to assess work conditions that could potentially contribute to work-related stress among top leaders in public agencies. In addition, gender differences regarding perceptions of workload, work-stress, and work-family conflict were examined. Data: A 10-item questionnaire was sent electronically to all 154 leaders of the highest government institutions in Iceland. The response rate was 69.2% (n=107). Tools: The items were selected and adapted from the QPS Nordic Questionnaire. All items were in five-point Likert-type format (1=very rarely to 5=very often/always), where participants indicated the extent to which they experienced a variety of work-related stressors. Findings: Results indicated that these leaders are potentially at risk of elevated work stress due to insufficient budgets and flexibility to control workflows. Likewise, there are strong patterns that indicate that, despite often feeling overworked and stressed, these leaders are given little feedback on their performance. Compared to men, women appear to feel that their workloads are more burdensome, and statistically significant findings support this. There were no significant gender effects for overall work-family conflict or overall work stress, although patterns suggest that in women they are slightly higher on both. Contribution: This paper provides information about public leaders’ attitudes in Iceland towards stress-inducing work conditions, giving future researchers and practitioners a platform to better pinpoint how to provide necessary support.
... Indeed, women have not entered the labour market on equal footing with men. The existing sex segregation and gender wage gap in the labour market limit women's career paths (England, 1984;Padavic and Reskin, 2002). At the same time, it is plausible that partners' genderegalitarian attitudes and behaviours may be trumped by financial impositions in a context of economic uncertainty (Bueno and Brinton, 2019). ...
Fertility decisions among Spanish couples have been strongly driven by economic uncertainty in a context in which dual-earner couples have become the norm and in which the gender gap in education has reversed. However, the partners’ respective jobs do not carry the same weight in such decisions. We explore how homogamous or heterogamous education, employment, and job stability between partners can provide insights into couples’ fertility decisions using data from 2002 to 2018 Spanish Labor Force Survey. The results reveal that among heterogamic couples, the woman’s job stability more than the man’s is key for childbearing decisions, while no differences are found in fertility levels for educationally heterogamous partners. In homogamous couples, the results suggest a reversal of the negative education-fertility gradient and show that highly educated couples have a higher likelihood of having a child than less-educated couples. Dual-earner couples are more likely to be parents than couples affected by unemployment and as likely as those meeting the declining male breadwinner, female caregiver model. We conclude that the role played by female employment in fertility trumps the role played by gender essentialism, highlighting the nonexclusive importance of gender egalitarianism, female employment, and economic uncertainty to fertility.
... Across Europe and the United States, the feminization of the labour force is significantly reshaping family dynamics and gender roles. The increasing proportion of working women, especially those with male partners, challenges the traditional gender roles of male breadwinner and female homemaker proposed by the separate spheres ideology (Cherlin, 2006;Padavic & Reskin, 2002). The separate spheres ideology is a belief system about the suitable social roles for men and women (Miller & Borgida, 2016), that essentially promotes gender inequality by asserting that men should have more rights to jobs than women. ...
This paper presents a comparative study that examines attitudes towards female and male breadwinners in Western societies. Data from Wave 6 of the World Values Study are used to analyse attitudes in three countries with historically different gender contracts: Germany (male breadwinner), Sweden (dual-breadwinner), and the United States (male breadwinner and female breadwinner). The findings indicate that although women are more likely than their male counterparts to believe men should not be entitled to jobs over women, they also view female breadwinners as problematic. Men are largely supportive of both men and women being a family’s financial breadwinner. Cross-national comparisons show that women and men in Germany have the most conservative views and that those in Sweden have more liberal beliefs. Accounting for differences in education and employment status did not explain the gender differences in attitudes. The impact of our findings for promoting greater gender equity is discussed.
... Structural discrimination, embedded in sociohistorical heterosexist structures such as marriage and parenthood, provides another explanation. Based on heterosexist and classist gender values of breadwinning men and homemaking women (Padavic & Reskin, 2002), parenthood either increases men's wages or has no effect (Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2004;Fuegen, Biernat, Haines, & Kay, 2004), while decreasing women's wages (Anderson, Binder, & Krause, 2003;Budig & England, 2001). Heterosexual marriage is structurally embedded in class structures, as it conveys wage premiums over cohabitation (Dougherty, 2005;Light, 2004), and (presumably heterosexual) middle-class people are more likely to get married and stay married than working-class or poor people (Cherlin, 2004). ...
... Blair-Loy (2003) also observed that many women experience the pull of the work devotion schema, which "demands that one give an immense time commitment and strong emotional allegiance to one's firm or career" (p. 7). Working mothers navigate both family and work devotion schemas, recognizing the potential penalties for reducing workload or signaling deficits in work commitment in order to attend to family-related obligations (Cech and O'Connor 2017;O'Connor and Cech 2018;Padavic and Reskin 2002;Williams, Blair-Loy, and Berdahl 2013). To avoid or minimize such penalties, working mothers may integrate roles in ways that allow greater role permeability to complete unfinished work tasks or to get ahead in one's job (Blair-Loy 2003;Sayer 2007). ...
The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic upended work, family, and social life. These massive changes may have created shifts in exposure to work-life conflict. Using a national survey that followed Canadian workers from September 2019 into April and June 2020, the authors find that work-life conflict decreased among those with no children at home. In contrast, for those with children at home, the patterns depended on age of youngest child. Among individuals with children younger than 6 or between 6 and 12, no decreases in work-life conflict were observed. In contrast, those with teenagers did not differ from the child-free. Although these patterns did not significantly differ by gender, they were amplified among individuals with high work-home integration. These findings suggest an overall pattern of reduced work-life conflict during the pandemic—but also that these shifts were circumscribed by age of youngest child at home and the degree of work-home integration.
... The process of gender division in the labor market is the main process of gendering work, which includes assigning tasks on the basis of sex assigned at birth. This gender order that reifies and perpetuates sexual stratification makes work a gendered institution and practice (Padavic & Reskin, 2002). The division of labor in cultural industries (such as media industry) by gender continues to be prominent (Hesmondhalgh & Baker, 2015). ...
I report the results of in-depth interviews with 30 Muslim women working in the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting Organization (IRIB), illuminating the challenges that women negotiate and their aspirations in a male-dominant work environment. Two main challenges were identified: (a) the gender-unequal stratification of work positions and opportunities, and (b) the complexity of work-required physical proximity and observance of religious codes of conduct. Although some participants seemed resigned to the power of the gender order that privileged men and focused on performing their professional duties, others actively struggled with gender discrimination to prove themselves as equally competent as men and transform the work culture. Overall, the results highlight these women's agency in accepting and contesting dominant gendered norms, structures, and practices. The enactment of such agency also shows that the gender order is not immutable, but is relational and dynamic, and thus open to change. © 2020 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
The paper aims to assess gender discrimination in private educational institution in Nepal. This study argues that female teachers are discriminated in institutional structure in multiple ways. It applies descriptive and exploratory research design. Both primary and secondary data have been collected and qualitative and quantitative nature of data are employed. Interview schedule has been selected to collect the data from the field. Women are discriminated in the process of recruitment, training and development, and remuneration. The paper contributes to the study of gender discrimination from sociological vantage point because this emphasizes that gender is socially and historically constructed and the social structure and institutions are responsible to exercise gender discrimination. It, however, does not incorporate the broad spectrum in regards with theory and methods.
This chapter begins by exploring the current literature surrounding parental gender stereotyping, offering explanations as to why mothers are often considered as the primary caregiving parent. It discusses gendered stereotypes in a general sense, their influence on norms of behaviour and then how this impacts on behavioural expectations within the workplace for parents, emphasising the differing expectations of mothers and fathers.The chapter then moves on to present the qualitative data from the ‘Fatherhood Forfeit Study’ which comprised vignette-based manager focus groups and semi-structured interviews with working parents and managers. The emphasis in this chapter is on the overarching theme of ‘Think-Child-Think-Mum’. Illustrative quotes are employed to explore the ways in which parent and manager participants make automatic assumptions regarding primary caregiving status through the sub-themes of ‘Where is Mum?’ and ‘Unconventionality’. Throughout the chapter, the study data are linked to existing academic literature, outlining the ways in which the findings of the qualitative element of the ‘Fatherhood Forfeit Study’ both corresponds with and contradicts existing work.KeywordsFathersDiscriminationGender StereotypesBreadwinner/BreadwinningUnconventionalityFlexible working
In the United States, work is a central institution that reflects and reproduces gender hierarchies that organize social institutions, interactions, and ideologies across social life. Through an ethnographic study of New Orleans‐area bartenders, this paper analyzes the everyday/every‐night experiences of women bartenders to understand how gender relations map onto women’s identity construction projects through their occupational role. I argue that women’s identity negotiation is constructed in relationship to gender hegemonies that produce female bartenders as pariah femininities outside the protections of respectable femininity. Sexual harassment, fetishization, and double standards are systematic forms of heteronormative punishment that ensure women bartenders remain feminized workers in masculinized workplaces. While women actively refashion retaliatory punishment into an affirmative self‐identity: the rebel barmaid, this study finds that through gender essentialist and individualist frames, the rebel barmaid falls short of revolutionary potential.
Die Teilhabe am Erwerbsleben ist eine wesentliche Voraussetzung für die Verwirklichung des Anspruchs auf ein Stück eigenes Leben, von dem Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim in ihrem Beitrag gesprochen hat. Eine bezahlte Erwerbsarbeit ermöglicht Frauen die Partizipation an einem zentralen Teilbereich des öffentlichen Lebens und eröffnet einen eigenständigen Zugang zu finanziellen Ressourcen. Die Integration in den Arbeitsmarkt stellt Frauen und Männer in sozioökonomischer Hinsicht jedoch nicht gleich.
In this article, we examine vocabularies of motive concerning the possibility of transgender partners and children. Data from 20 in‐depth interviews with (mostly white) cisgender college‐aged women in the southeastern United States were analyzed to determine how they construct familial ideals predicated upon cisgender norms and assumptions. Participants respond to the possibility of transgender family members by mobilizing vocabularies of (1) claiming exemptions and (2) emphasizing difficulty. We draw out implications for understanding vocabularies of cisgendering family that create the conditions for transgender marginalization within families, and the consequences cisgendering family has for the reproduction of inequality.
Industry 4.0 is a vital activity as of late presented on the planet. The objective of the activity is change of modern assembling through digitalization and abuse of possibilities of new advances. Industry 4.0 includes a wide arrangement of advancements that gives a decent stage to development and inventive arrangements. So as to actualize such condition, it requires the usage of cutting edge expectation instruments that includes the
transformation of information into data in an orderly procedure to clarify vulnerabilities. This innovation is a chance to change the monetary principles of the business. The Industry 4.0 generation framework is in this way adaptable and empowers individualized and redid items. The point of this investigation is to introduce and encourage a
comprehension of Industry 4.0 ideas, its drivers, empowering influences, difficulties and openings. The examination is likewise featuring the job of the Government on the side of Industry 4.0. Every one of the informations and data utilized in this examination has been acquired from secondary sources
We use the 2015 Canadian time diary data to examine the gender income gap in relation to time spent doing domestic (household and childcare) and market work. Specifically, we highlight the impact of relationship and parenting status by comparatively examining three groups: single without children, married without children, and married with children (N = 10,573). After controlling for household labour and market work hours, we find that the gender income gap is negligible for those who are single without children. The gender income gap for married couples without children is much larger. The largest gender income gap exists for married couples with children. When we examine married couples with children, accounting for hours spent on market and domestic work reduces the gap substantially. There is a mediating relationship of market work to the domestic work–income relationship. Domestic work is the largest contributor in the models predicting market work hours. We contribute to the understanding of gender-based income inequality by going beyond the conventional study of market work. Implications for reducing structural gender inequality in income by addressing both family and work spheres are discussed.
This collection of contributions deals with different aspects of women condition and of women’s relationship with the labour market. It focuses the attention on the process of feminization of the educational system and of the labour market, but also on the persistence of strong inequalities based on gender. It clarifies why enterprises and organizations can be described as “gendered institutions” that assign different roles and opportunities to men and women, notwithstanding a widespread rhetoric about women’s quality. Finally, a special attention is devoted to the feminization of international migrations, and to the new international division of reproductive work.
This presentation focuses the attention on the relationships among gender roles’ transformation, international migrations, welfare systems and the labour market, emphasising the various forms of discriminations that migrant female workers have to face. The text reproduced the essay already published with the same title in a book edited by the Author.
Women tend to be segregated into different subspecialties than men within male-dominated occupations, but the mechanisms contributing to such intra-occupational gender segregation remain obscure. In this study, I use data from an online recruiting platform and a survey to examine the hiring mechanisms leading to gender segregation within software engineering and development. I find that women are much more prevalent among workers hired in software quality assurance than in other software subspecialties. Importantly, jobs in software quality assurance are lower-paying and perceived as lower status than jobs in other software subspecialties. In examining the origins of this pattern, I find that it stems largely from women being more likely than men to apply for jobs in software quality assurance. Further, such gender differences in job applications are attenuated among candidates with stronger educational credentials, consistent with the idea that relevant accomplishments help mitigate gender differences in self-assessments of competence and belonging in these fields. Demand-side selection processes further contribute to gender segregation, as employers penalize candidates with quality assurance backgrounds, a subspecialty where women are overrepresented, when they apply for jobs in other, higher-status software subspecialties.
Emotion can result from interpreting group actions as reflecting on the self due to an association between the two. This volume considers the nature of collective guilt, the antecedent conditions necessary for it to be experienced, how it can be measured, as well as how collective guilt differs from other group based emotions. Research from Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, and the USA addresses critical questions concerning the who, when, and why of the experience of collective guilt. The political implications of collective guilt and forgiveness for the past are considered, and how those might depend on the national context. How collective guilt can be harnessed and used to create a more peaceful future for groups with a history of violence between then is emphasized.
The primary aim of this paper is to examine the links between young women’s schematic configurations about work and family with their educational attainment at critical transitions of early adulthood. More specifically, as opposed to assessing the effect of educational expectations and personal background factors on educational outcomes separately or independently, the present research examines the significance of young women’s schematic profiles, that is, work-family orientations, highlighting the interconnectedness of how young women combine various attitudes and expectations about family, education, and work. Thus, this paper investigates the extent to which belonging to certain latent classes of work-family orientations are associated with the amount of education women are obtaining in early adulthood. Using data from the Relationship Dynamics and Social Life study, I examine how combinations of work-family schemas are associated with young women’s levels of education, and the role of personal background variables in shaping these work-family orientations.
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