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Understanding Reading
... This brought forth the idea that teachers of literacy are well-served to elicit both focal and global predictions before reading, and also revise and allow for new predictions during reading. Smith (2004) furthers this point, "Predictions are questions that we ask, and comprehension is receiving relevant answers to those questions" (p. 30). ...
... Chapters six through nine are artfully utilized to slowly build a case against a phonics-first or phonic-only approach to reading instruction. Smith (2004) begins by talking about the concept of becoming "perceptually parsimonious" (p. 96). ...
... After explaining this ideology, Understanding Reading turns to the limitations of the memory to assist the author's cause. Smith (2004), in his dialogue regarding the 166 rules of phonics-first/phonics-only instruction, cites the inefficiency of the memory to recall items that do not occur in a logical or timely fashion, "Working memories don't have an infinite capacity, and reading is not a task that can be accomplished at too leisurely a pace" (p.146). This is all punctuated with a very serious nod towards employing the reading strategy of working with context clues as a means for positive word identification as well as for the preservation of a comprehension-based approach to learning and instruction. ...
... linguística do leitor −, que permite amostrar a escrita, apreender algumas palavras e ignorar outras, adivinhando a mensagem a partir do contexto, do conhecimento do mundo, dos usos sociais da escrita e de tudo que permita se livrar da inconveniência de realmente ter de ler o que o escritor escreveu (GOODMAN, 1968(GOODMAN, , 1970(GOODMAN, , 1986SMITH, 1971SMITH, , 1976SMITH, , 1999DOMBEY, 2005;LIBERMAN, 1990;KESSLER, 2005). Goodman (1968) também insistia que há crianças que leem bem palavras individuais, mas não compreendem um texto concatenado. ...
... As autoras argumentam que escrita e fala são processos linguísticos paralelos, que não se encontram na leitura, "são formas variantes ou alternativas da mesma língua [...] contrariamente à suposição generalizada que considera a escrita como a transcrição por escrito da fala" Smith (1971Smith ( , 1973 e Foucambert (1976), que partiram do comportamento do adulto. Em conjunto, os dados dessas pesquisas com crianças e adultos suportaria tanto as noções discutidas acima como a declaração de que o decifrado "é a chave de todos os males da iniciação escolar da leitura" e que "a utilização do decifrado como meio para compreender uma palavra escrita coloca a criança em situação de fracassar" (FOUCAMBERT, 1976, apud FERREIRO;TEBEROSKY, 1984, p. 269-273). ...
... Como vimos em momento anterior, os estudos das últimas décadas apontam para uma visão diferente: a de que as escritas espontâneas são fonologicamente guiadas MORRIS, 2001;TREIMAN, 2004); e que não há um estágio visual puro, porque, na fase pré-silábica, as crianças usam os nomes das letras como pistas para a identificação das palavras desde as primeiras oportunidades; elas aprendem mais facilmente as correspondências letra-som quando conhecem os nomes das letras porque estes possuem o som que elas representam (EHRI, 1986). concLusÃo A publicação do trabalho de Ferreiro e Teberosky (1984) provocou significativas mudanças no entendimento do processo de ensino-aprendizagem da leitura e escrita no Brasil, deslocando o foco de como se ensina para como se aprende, tendo como arcabouço teórico e interpretativo as ideias da Whole Language (GOODMAN, 1967;SMITH, 1971). Ao analisarmos a obra e a literatura nela referenciada, observamos vários aspectos conceituais conflitantes e inconsistentes: as concepções sobre a natureza dos sistemas de escrita, o conceito de leitura e escrita, a compreensão dos sistemas cognitivos envolvidos no processo de leitura, os parâmetros teórico-empíricos da nova psicolinguística e até a interpretação de seus próprios dados, tudo isso levando a implicações educacionais cruciais. ...
OLGA VALÉRIA CAMPANA DOS ANJOS ANDRADE • PAULO SÉRGIO T. DO PRADO RESUMO Em Psicogênese da Língua Escrita, Ferreiro e Teberosky relatam uma pesquisa sobre o desenvolvimento da leitura-escrita. A estrutura teórico-metodológica é fornecida pelo construtivismo de Piaget: a criança ativa constrói seu conhecimento na interação com o meio-neste caso a língua escrita-e se desenvolve ao longo de estágios. De Chomsky, as autoras emprestam a ideia de um dispositivo inato para a aquisição da linguagem, generalizando-a para a aquisição da leitura, que seria aprendida tão naturalmente quanto a fala. Um terceiro marco interpretativo é a abordagem Whole Language, cujo foco principal da leitura deve ser a busca pelo significado. Apresentam-se uma análise de contradições internas do texto e uma confrontação deste com parte da literatura referenciada na própria obra. Linguagem • Leitura • escrita • construtivismo ABSTRACT In Psicogênese da Língua Escrita [Psychogenesis of Written Language], Ferreiro and Teberosky describe a study on the development of reading and writing. The theoretical and methodological framework is provided by the Constructivism of Piaget: the active child builds their knowledge interacting with the environment-in this case the written language-and develops it throughout different stages. From Chomsky, the authors borrow the idea of an innate device for language acquisition, generalizing for the acquisition of reading, which would be learned as naturally as speaking. A third interpretive landmark is the Whole Language approach, whose main focus of reading must be the search for meaning. We present an analysis of internal contradictions of the text and a comparison of this text with some of the literature referenced in the work itself. Language • reading • Writing • constructivism
... These new cognitive and top-down processing approaches revolutionized the conception of the way students learn to read (Smith, 1994). In this view, reading is not just extracting meaning from a text but a process of connecting information in the text with the knowledge the reader brings to the act of reading. ...
... Formal schemata refer to the way that texts differ from one another; for example, a reading text could be a fictional work, a letter to the editor, or a scientific essay, and each genre will have a different structural organization. Knowledge of these genre structures can aid reading comprehension, as it gives readers a basis for predicting what a text will be like (Smith 1994 Content schemata refer to the message of the text. One's familiarity with the content will make more productive and efficient. ...
... Instead, the teacher develops pre-reading questions from the questions that appear at the end of the reading. Smith (1994) criticizes comprehension exercises presented at the end of a reading because they are like memory tests. He argues that using prior knowledge efficiently contributes to fluent readers, and he believes that there is a reciprocal relationship between visual and non-visual (prior knowledge) information; the more the readers have of the latter, the less they need of the former. ...
Opinions and suggestions for the improvement of teaching reading to learners of English as a foreign language, whether based on the results of research and experience, are available in language teaching literature. This paper is a summary of various theories, findings and opinions concerning the teaching of reading. An understanding of these topics, especially the theory of top-down, bottom-up, and meta-cognitive, could be used as the basis for improving the techniques of teaching reading. By doing so, the reading proficiency of learners of English as a foreign language could be significantly enhanced
... These new cognitive and top-down processing approaches revolutionized the conception of the way students learn to read (Goodman 1967;Smith 1994). In this view, reading is not just extracting meaning from a text but a process of connecting information in the text with the knowledge the reader brings to the act of reading. ...
... According to Nunan (1999, 201), "schema theory is based on the notion that past experiences lead to the creation of mental frameworks that help us make sense of new experiences." Smith (1994) calls schemes the "extensive representations of more general patterns or regularities that occur in our experience" (14). As an example, he uses our generic scheme for a classroom, which allows us to make sense of classrooms we have not previously been in. ...
... Formal schemata refers to the way that texts differ from one another; for example, a reading text could be a letter to the editor, a scientific essay, or a work of fiction, and each genre will have a different structural organization. Knowledge of these genre structures can aid reading comprehension, as it gives readers a basis for predicting what a text will be like (Smith 1994). For example, if readers know that the typical format of a research article consists of sections subtitled Introduction, Theory, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion, that knowledge will facilitate their interaction with the article and boost comprehension. ...
This article discusses different approaches to reading instruction for EFL learners based on theoretical frameworks. The author starts with the bottom-up approach to reading instruction, and briefly explains phonics and behaviorist ideas that inform this instructional approach. The author then explains the top-down approach and the new cognitive perspective. The author also explains schema theory and how to apply it to help students before, during, and after reading. The interactive model is then discussed.
... According to Smith 1994, theorists differentiate formal schemata from content schemata. Formal schemata as mentioned by Smith (1994) are knowledge about the structure of a text that refers to the way the texts are different from one another. A reading text could be a formal letter, a fictional work, or a scientific essay. ...
... A reading text could be a formal letter, a fictional work, or a scientific essay. Knowledge of this genre structure can aid reading comprehensions, as it gives readers a basis for predicting what texts will be like (Smith, 1994). Content schemata however, refers to the knowledge about a subject matter of a text or the message of the text (Smith, 1994). ...
... Knowledge of this genre structure can aid reading comprehensions, as it gives readers a basis for predicting what texts will be like (Smith, 1994). Content schemata however, refers to the knowledge about a subject matter of a text or the message of the text (Smith, 1994). Anderson (1994) explained that readers comprehend messages when they are able to bring to mind a schema that gives account of the objects and events that are described in the messages. ...
Malaysian intercultural society is typified by three major ethnic groups mainly Malays, Chinese and Indians. Although education system is the best tool for these three major ethnic groups to work together, contemporary research reveals that there is still lack of intercultural embedding education context and national schools are seen as breeding grounds of racial polarisation. In Malaysian context, there is a gap in research that focuses on the design of a proper intercultural reading framework for national integration and such initiatives are viable through schools. The main objective of this conceptual paper is to introduce the English Language Intercultural Reading Programme (ELIRP) in secondary schools to promote intercultural understanding among secondary school students. The proposed framework will facilitate the acquisition of intercultural inputs without being constrained by ideological, political, or psychological demands. This article will focus on elucidating how ELIRP could affect cognitive (knowledge) and behavioural transformations to intercultural perceptions harboured by selected Form 4 students of 20 national schools in Malaysia.
... The sign systems of written language and art are our primary foci here. Written language texts express meaning in alphabetic symbols organized through language cueing systems: semantic/pragmatic (i.e., meaning cues in social and situational contexts), syntactic (i.e., grammar cues) and graphophonic (i.e., graphic and sound cues; Goodman, 1996;Smith, 2004). Likewise, pictorial texts are organized with comparable cueing systems. ...
... Texts are units of meaning in different forms, including written and pictorial representations (Halliday & Hasan, 1976;Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006). Readers transact with written texts by integrating the language cueing systems (semantic/pragmatic, syntactic, and graphophonic) with knowledge of the world to infer and predict meaning (Goodman, 1996;Smith, 2004). With more knowledge about language, the world, and the text, readers are more efficient and effective at making predictions and reading for meaning (Goodman, 1996;Smith, 2004). ...
... Readers transact with written texts by integrating the language cueing systems (semantic/pragmatic, syntactic, and graphophonic) with knowledge of the world to infer and predict meaning (Goodman, 1996;Smith, 2004). With more knowledge about language, the world, and the text, readers are more efficient and effective at making predictions and reading for meaning (Goodman, 1996;Smith, 2004). Similarly, readers transact with pictorial texts by integrating the elements of art (i.e., graphic cues) with the principles of design (i.e., syntactic cues) to construct meaning (i.e., semantic cues; Piro, 2002;Pumphrey, 1996). ...
This study incorporated eye movement miscue analysis to investigate two second-graders’ oral reading and comprehension of a counterpoint picture book. Findings suggest the second-graders’ strategies when reading the written and pictorial text affected their comprehension as opposed to the number and location of their eye movements. Specifically, the data highlight the contextual nature of the counterpoint picture book and how the readers’ strategies influenced the ways students navigated the text, what they fixated on while reading the written and pictorial texts, and the effects of these eye movement data on their comprehension. These results highlight the importance of young students’ need to be able to distinguish and value the role of written and pictorial sign systems to facilitate success in an ever-expanding multimodal world.
... These definitions emphasize data on the page rather than meaning of the text. Smith (1982) contends that readers bring concepts to written material to understand it. This means that readers utilize their prior knowledge to comprehend sentence structures or words. ...
... This view has been labelled as concept driven. In this perspective, Smith (1982) proposed the idea that reading is not passive but purposeful and rational, dependent on the prior knowledge and expectations of the reader. ...
This paper aims to analyse Form One students’ ability in reading prose. A qualitative research method was carried out involving 6 average ability students. The prose “Fair’s Fair” byNarinder Dhami was used as an instrument to gauge students’ ability in oral reading. The assessment carried out on the reading is miscue analysis, a tool to measure oral reading accuracy at the word level by identifying when and the ways in which the students deviates from the text while reading aloud. Miscues analysed are insertions, hesitation, omission, repetition and substitution. Miscues that maintain the meaning of the sentences are the participants’ strengths while miscues which disrupt the meaning of the sentences are the participants’ weaknesses. The data collected are analysed using descriptive statistics. The findings show that the percentage of strengths outweighed the percentage of weaknesses for all the participants on the occurrences of miscues. The students’ reading behaviour has provided insights into their language cueing system and the strategies they use during the reading process to comprehend a text.
... Fixation is very quick and visual information (acquired by reading) is conveyed to brain to be processed during the pausing time. Saccade is quicker than fixation because no visual information flows from eyes to brain during saccade (Smith, 2004, Rayner & Liversedge, 2004Kucer, 2014). The previous visual information is emptied in the short-term memory in each new fixation. ...
... There is no reading center in brain. Many parts of brain work during reading (Smith, 2004). After information transmitted from eyes to brain via neurons has been subjected to the process of clarification and decomposition, filtering and evaluation are performed in the recognition center. ...
Reading act is performed by connected physiological, psychological and cognitive processes. The operations taking place in these processes are expected to continue for life by being developed with certain strategies. A lot of information is gained with reading skill in education life. Therefore, basic concepts that constitute reading education in teaching and improving reading are important for teachers. The aim of this study is to submit information compiled from the literature about reading education process and which basic concepts are used in reading education. While teaching reading from part to whole, from whole to part and interactional approaches are used. From part to whole approach is at the forefront. Then with interactional approach strategies, both code solving and making sense is improved. Teachers should know the characteristics of bouncing, stopping, turning back, and scanning movements of the eye both in code solving and making sense. The teacher should configure the teaching for the students to gain fluid reading elements by making use of reading out and reading silently. After reading act is acquired; good reader characteristics should be gained by improving asking questions, guessing, summarizing, interpretation skills in integrated readings. Reading skill is improved by studies on the text. Therefore, the students should come across texts that are suitable to their levels, textuality and readability criteria. The vocabulary of children should be improved in a planned way with text-based word and meaning studies. Fluid reading, making sense and interpretation skills of children should be pursued with different evaluation types. In the long term, work should be done to make reading a habit for them.
... Numerous general reading models have been developed since the 1970s to explain what skilled reading entails. Top down models such as Goodman (1976) and Smith (1971) argue that effective reading is conceptually driven, and that a dependence on contextual information leads to more fluent reading (Stanovich, 1984). In contrast, bottom up or data driven models, for example, LaBerge and Samuels (1974) emphasize decoding skills and maintain that lower level processes must take place before higher level processes. ...
Abstract
Reading motivation is a well-researched topic in relation to first language literacy development due to its influence on both reading processes and outcomes. In second language reading, the role of motivation has not been as thoroughly explored. The aim of this review of literature is to highlight established studies as well as recent explorations in some recurring areas of first and second language reading motivation research. Focusing on reading in the English language, it provides an overview of the underlying components of reading motivation, and discusses internal and external factors that relate to students’ motivation to read. The article concludes by suggesting directions for further research in second language reading motivation, including conducting more qualitative studies, and exploring sociocultural influences and instructional practices that motivate or demotivate readers. The review is mainly intended for potential second language reading researchers and practitioners who are relatively new to the topic.
Keywords: ESL, literature review, motivational factors, reading motivation
... Past research has attempted to analyze the nature of comprehension in reading. Some researchers see it as a process by which readers link and utilize what they know about the world to what they already have as information to get things clear with no misunderstanding (Smith, 2004). While reading, they keep making predictions, or questions based on their theories about the world, and if the questions are answered while or after reading, comprehension is achieved (Smith, 1978). ...
This study investigates the effect of brainstorming techniques on EFL learners’ reading comprehension. The experiment in this study involved a treatment group and a control group, both of which were following an English course at a language centre in Vietnam. The treatment group were trained in brainstorming techniques during reading lessons whereas the control group were not. Comparisons between the two groups’ average scores on pre-test and post-test and their comprehension improvement during the course showed that the treatment group outperformed the control group and thus confirmed that brainstorming has a positive impact on EFL reading comprehension.
... Indeed, James Popham of UCLA, one of the original and most ardent proponents of criterion· referenced tests, has become so disenchanted with the quality of some of the tests he so strongly favors that he recently lamented that some of these tests "are less flt tor schools than they are for paper shredders." (6) Educators should not be cynics, skeptics nor " againers" of something new. But they should be knowledgeable, evaluative, cautious and protesslonal. ...
... eading is a complex cognitive task, not just a simple visual activity (Smith 2004). Many high school students in the U.S. continue to struggle to master this complex task even when reading is the focus of many years of schooling. ...
... This definition straightforwardly emphasize that reading involves constructing meaning from written text. Additionally, there are still many more definitions having the same tone such as definition by Koda (2004), Wolf (2007, and Smith (2004). After all, these wide range and varied definitions of reading indicate that reading is a complex and multifaceted process. ...
There are many researches on readability of reading materials conducted by reading material experts, but very few investigating readability of reading materials used in teaching reading at state-owned Islamic secondary schools. This research dealt with readability of texts used in teaching reading for IX grade students of a state-owned Islamic secondary school. This research is a descriptive research which used quantitative method. It aimed at investigating the readability of texts used in teaching reading for IX grade students of MTsN 2 Kota Bengkulu. The subjects of this research were 63 texts used in teaching reading for IX grade students at MTsN 2 Kota Bengkulu. The instrument used to collect data was Fry readability formula (graph). The data were interpreted by using percentage.
The research findings show that 54% out of 63 texts are easy for grade IX students of MTsN 2 Kota Bengkulu; 27% out of 63 texts are difficult; 10 % out of 63 texts are invalid; and 9% out of 63 texts are appropriate. Based on the research findings, there are some suggestions to note; (1) English teachers at MTsN 2 Kota Bengkulu are suggested to apply readability analysis on texts before they are used in teaching reading; (2) Writers of English textbooks which are intended to be used by grade IX students are suggested to be aware of readability of texts they included into the textbooks they wrote; and (3) other researchers are suggested to conduct further researches on the findings of this research by employing other readability formulas, or other methods of readability analysis.
Keywords: Tingkat readibilty, text, MTsN 2 Kota Bengkulu.
... Via curiosity, people construct meaning through a process of connection-making between beliefs, remembered experiences, and environmental interactions (Jonassen, 1991). We see language acquisition as a uniquely experienced (Smith, 2004;Stahl & Hayes, 1997), affective, social process (Au, 1998;Smith, 1994). We draw on implicit literacy and language acquisition theories that forefront comprehensibility, interest, and engagement (Cassidy, Valadez, & Garrett, 2010;Krashen, 2003) while still respecting the role noticing plays in deepening metalinguistic knowledge (Truscott, 1998). ...
In this paper we describe the design of FunWritr (Olmanson, Farchy, & Day, 2010), an online literacy development and language acquisition application. For 7-10 year olds with advanced-beginner to intermediate knowledge of English interacting with the application during classroom center time and computer lab free time in an urban public school in North America. FunWritr is designed to be a multimodal environment (Jewitt, 2005) wherein language learners use their L2 writing capacity to initiate and anchor their exploration of the English language which in turn informs and enriches their writing (Cummins, 2008). Our efforts to create the application were guided by a sextet of design parameters. Garrett (2009) outlines four interrelated components in the design of CALL applications, namely: pedagogy, theory, technology, and context. To these four, we add curriculum, and development. This paper describes our position on each of these parameters and the gestalt effect produced when used in concert with each other in the creation of a CALL application.
... Similar restriction of advance processing of text has been associated in other reading situations with difficulty in understanding text, i.e. with poor or developing comprehenders, and for more difficult reading material (e.g. Henderson & Ferreira, 1990;Patberg & Yonas, 1978;Rayner, 1986;Smith, 1971;White et al., 2005). Furthermore, the opportunity for and ease of making long-range regressions, known to support good understanding of text when reading normally ( Schotter, Tran, & Rayner, 2014), is reduced in reading of scrolling text ( Harvey, Godwin, Fitzsimmons, Downloaded by [ Liversedge, & Walker, 2017). ...
The horizontally scrolling format, where text is presented in a single line drifting right to left, is relatively commonly used to display text on digital screens. This format presents a potentially challenging reading situation, as the text must be followed smoothly to the left (to track individual words) whilst rightward eye-movements are made as usual to progress through the text. This conflict may reduce attention allocated to upcoming text. Returning to previously encountered text is also more difficult with this format. Here, a sustained reading comprehension task was used to compare performance with horizontally scrolling and multiline static text formats. Results showed that literal comprehension can be reasonably well-maintained with scrolling text, although small decrements are seen at faster scrolling rates. However, they indicated that this format makes it more difficult to answer questions requiring an inference to be made. The contribution of working memory capacity and the impact of display speed on these effects was considered. These findings have implications for the application of this format in digital media, and also more widely for the conditions required for successful in-depth reading comprehension with any text format.
... From the cognitive view, reading is regarded as a psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, make new hypotheses, and so forth (Goodman 1967). Background knowledge and schema development are seen as crucial in cognitive inferencing through contextual cues and hypothesis testing (Smith 2004). Without complete background knowledge or appropriate schemata, readers encounter difficulties processing and understanding the text because such knowledge is needed to interpret sensory data, retrieve information from memory, organize reading goals and sub-goals, allocate resources, and guide the flow of the processing system. ...
Second language (L2) reading technologies offer an array of options for teaching and learning; they also mark an exciting area of research. This chapter describes the processes of L2 reading and the skills and strategies involved, as well as the theoretical underpinnings of technology-assisted L2 reading. It introduces technologies that have been applied to the teaching and learning of L2 reading as well as the concepts and pedagogical approaches underlying their developments. The current challenges that language educators face in finding creative ways to leverage students’ intense uses of social media and consumption of a vast and diverse quality of reading materials on the Web for effective teaching and learning of L2 reading will be discussed. Finally, we conclude with thoughts on future directions for applying technologies for L2 learners to engage in ubiquitous, independent, autonomous reading that may help ensure active global participation in the digital age.
... In this model, the power rests in the text and it is the job of the reader to "decode" it much like a puzzle. Alternatively, top-down reading models focused on what readers bring to the process (Goodman, 1967;Smith, 1971). In this model, readers were seen to sample the text and contrast it with their world knowledge to make sense of what was written; therefore power rests with the reader. ...
In the context of what has been called a new sociosemiotic landscape in communications, this article explores how reading multimodal texts demands a change in literacy practices and reflects on the impact of these changes on second language reading. We review the literature that has incorporated multimodal texts in the discussion of second language reading and evaluate it in light of the practices second language readers engage in when comprehending multimodal texts. Implications of this transition from understanding reading as an individual, text-based, and univocal activity to approaching it as literacy practice are included. We finish with reflections and conclusions derived from such explorations.
... It is also a complex process in which competent readers orchestrate a number of knowledge sources using diverse strategies to make sense of what they read. These sources of knowledge are in accordance with what Smith (1994) referred to as "visual information." This concept consists both of an awareness of linguistic and print conventions including ''non-visual information." ...
ABSTRACT
The effects of extensive reading on EFL context have been examined with a variety of studies.
This study examined the impact of extensive reading on reading proficiency while the
participants were taught reading strategies. Furthermore, this study explored whether there
were any differences between intervention and control groups on the reading strategy use after
the treatment. This study adopted a quasi-experimental, pretest-posttest design with two intact
classes (a total of 99 students), which were assigned as control and intervention groups. Both
groups were taught reading strategies. The intervention group conducted an extensive reading
program for one academic year, whereas the control group was not, in this respect. The results
indicated no statistically significant gain in the reading proficiency post-test scores of the
intervention group compared with the control group. This revealed that there was no positive
effect of the extensive reading on reading proficiency. Conversely, the results showed that
extensive reading significantly changed the intervention group’s perceptions on reading strategy
use; that is, the intervention group improved their perceived strategy use more significantly than
the control group.
... We would argue as well that cyclical process models have been widely adopted by many other reading theorists and researchers. Cyclical processing is, for example, the hallmark of interactive theories of reading whether they adopt a neurocognitive (Rumelhart, 2004, Journal of Literacy and Technology Volume 17, Number 3: Fall 2016 ISSN: 1535-0975 Seidenberg, 2007) or a traditional psycholinguistic orientation (Goodman & Goodman, 2004; Smith, 2004 ). More immediately relevant in the present context, Mosenthal's (1996) reading-todo document processing model incorporates a clearly hierarchical cyclical structure that accommodates both local and more global decision making in solving a reading task. ...
We present a framework to account for the ways readers gather, assess, and apply information in
making a simulated purchasing decision in an online store (www.amazon.com). Video of
participants’ screen activity and think-aloud protocols served as the primary data. Analysis began
with open coding of two video files affording synchronous views of both the content readers
viewed and think-aloud protocols generated by study participants. Higher-order codes allowed us
to build on simpler descriptive findings in generating interpretive and explanatory constructs.
Building on these constructs, we have defined a process-state model of this widely practiced and
economically important reading-to-do task that captures many of the findings we have presented
and suggests a number of potentially productive questions to guide future inquiry.
... It was that way then, and it is that way now " (Whitin and Wilde, 1995, p: ix). Smith (1988) cites that the knowledge that we store in the brain as part of our theory of the world is largely in the form of stories, which are far more easily remembered and recalled than sequences of unrelated facts. " …narrative is a natural way in which humans organise information, and storytelling is the most immediate (and fundamental) means by which that narrative is communicated " (Daniel, 2012, p: 3) ...
This study aims to investigate the impact of using stories in pre-school mathematics teaching in Saudi Arabia. An intervention was designed to promote interactive teaching and learning in eight classrooms across three private schools. Integral to the intervention was a series of five stories especially written by the researcher based around the same central characters; reflecting the cultural setting familiar to the children, and with a problem-solving storyline. The stories include a range of mathematical facts, skills and concepts applicable to young learners. Additional resource materials to accompany the stories were also designed and provided for the participating teachers. The researcher adopted a qualitative, constructivist, technical action research approach and three data collection tools were used: a bibliographical questionnaire for the teachers; pre- and post-interventions semi-structured interview schedules, and classroom observations. A thematic analysis of the pre- and post-intervention data was undertaken in order to monitor the impact of using the stories in the pre-school classrooms. The study considers the findings from the data in relation to both the teachers’ and the children's’ experiences pre- and post-intervention. In particular, the impact of the intervention on teachers’ subject knowledge, attitudes, confidence and classroom practice is discussed along with the impact on children’s engagement and enjoyment of mathematics; their mathematical understanding and thinking skills. The study concludes that using stories to teach mathematics had a positive impact on the quality of teaching and learning mathematics. Using the stories prompted a positive change in teacher’s and children’s attitudes and feelings towards mathematics; a greater understanding of key mathematical ideas; and an appreciation of the value and uses of mathematics in everyday life. The implications from the study highlight the importance of providing appropriate training for pre-school teachers (and elsewhere) and the pivotal role that using stories can play in ensuring high quality mathematics teaching and learning.
... T eóricos que estudam o ensino da leitura escrita têm se dividido em dois grupos: de um lado, aqueles que defendem um ensino mais diretivo da alfabetização, com a volta do ensino das correspondências entre letra e som (Capovilla & Capovilla, 1997, 2000, e, do outro lado, encontram-se aqueles que defendem uma menor ênfase na decodificação e a utilização de informações contextuais no ensino da leitura e da escrita (Goodman, 1982a(Goodman, , 1982bJolibert, 1984;Smith, 1971). ...
Estudos que investigam o papel das habilidades metalingüísticas na leitura demonstram que a habilidade de refletir sobre os sons da fala, a consciência fonológica, contribui para leitura de palavras isoladas e compreensão de texto. Considerando a importância do tema, esta pesquisa foi realizada com o objetivo de explorar as relações entre a consciência fonológica e a compreensão em leitura. Participaram 19 crianças da 1ª série e 23 da 2ª série, cujas médias de idade foram respectivamente, 87,5 meses (DP = 3,93) e 98,3 meses (DP = 4,58). Os resultados mostraram que os escores nas tarefas de consciência fonológica se associaram aos escores do teste de Cloze, utilizado como medida da compreensão em leitura. Os resultados são discutidos à luz das teorias sobre aquisição da leitura e sugere-se a realização de novas pesquisas.
... Its applications with respect to the promotion of literacy conform closely to psycholinguistic approaches to reading (e.g. Goodman & Goodman, 1977;Holdaway, 1979;Smith, 1978) and to the recent emphasis on encouraging expressive writing from the earliest grades (e.g. Chomsky, 1981;Giacobbe, 1982;Graves, 1983;Temple, Nathan, & Burris, 1982). ...
This article explores a number of ways in which microcomputers may be used in classrooms, both to enhance academic skills and to provide opportunities for communication with groups of students in other cultural contexts.
... Η επεξεργασία του κειμένου με βάση τις πληροφορίες που παρέχει δεν αρκεί για την πλήρη κατανόησή του. Για την ολοκληρωμένη κατανόηση του κειμένου που διαβάζει ο αναγνώστης πρέπει να συμπληρώσει τα κενά που ηθελημένα ή άθελα αφήνει ο συγγραφέας ( Smith, 1994). H συναγωγή συμπερασμών για την καλύτερη κατανόηση του κειμένου είναι από τις σημαντικότερες διαδικασίες, καθώς επιτρέπουν την κατανόηση των άδηλων πληροφοριών που ο συγγραφέας του κειμένου θέλει να παρουσιάσει, αλλά και της επικοινωνιακής του πρόθεσης ( ). ...
The relationship between oral and reading comprehension has been studied by a number of studies and it has been found, especially in adult research, that there are significant and high correlations between the two types of comprehension. The aim of the present study was to examine oral and reading comprehension skills in relation to text type, either narrative or not. 136 children participated in the study from third and sixth grade of primary school. For different authentic texts were used to measure comprehension, three narrative and three non narrative. On of the narrative and on of the expository texts was given to both third and sixth grade children whereas on narrative and on expository text was given only to third graders and one narrative and one expository text was given only to sixth graders. All the children were examined in two narrative and two expository texts either in oral or reading comprehension. Children had to answer into 8 questions, 2 of them required information that could be found in a part of the text, three of them required bridging inferences and three of them required elaboration inferences. Results showed that differences between oral and reading comprehension are not constant and they depend on text type and question type. Keywords: reading comprehension, oral comprehension, narrative, expository text, inferences.
... It is noteworthy that literacy development is assisted by more literate family members and communities (Vygotsky 1978 ). Joint engagement in literacy practices would apprentice novice HL readers in literacy activities so that children will be introduced into the " literacy club " (Smith 1994Smith , 1998). Koda, Zhang and Yang (2008) investigated biliteracy development among school-age CHL learners and found that CHL literacy development stemmed from two dominant variables—oral language proficiency and print experience. ...
There is a general tendency to treat heritage language (HL) learners as if they formed a single unitary group with shared linguistic and print experiences. In actuality, however, HL learners vary widely in their early oral and print experiences at home or in other social contexts and as a result, they develop vastly different skills in both oral language and literacy skills. The study aimed to investigate the effect of early oral and print input on later reading development among Chinese as heritage language (CHL) learners. Seventy-three college-level CHL learners who participated in this study completed an early language background questionnaire and a series of reading measures inclusive of print vocabulary knowledge, lexical inferencing ability and reading comprehension. The results found that early language input was significantly related to later reading development. Critically, the study identified the significant factors of language experiences predicting later reading skills. Oral language input at home and print input in CHL schools were found to jointly contribute to the later development of word-level abilities while print input at home predicted later reading comprehension skill among CHL learners. The findings suggest that early oral and print language input at home and in CHL schools could have longitudinal effects on later reading skills.
... Top-down approaches assume that a reader understands a text with conceptualisations above the textual level. A reader needs to make a prediction about the incoming information and apply background knowledge to the text to create personally and contextually related meaning (Goodman 1967 ;Smith 1982 ). More recent developments in psycholinguistic theory have suggested effective reading is a combination of both bottom-up and top-down processes, called an interactive approach. ...
This chapter reviews two areas of the relevant research literature. The first area is the research on teacher roles in curriculum reform. Based on the review, I argue for the need to use mediated agency to research the teacher roles in reform, from the perspective of activity theory and the ZPD. The second area of the literature review summarises the impact of the reform on EFL reading instruction, including a review of reading instruction and reading strategy instruction. Overall, based on the implications of the reviewed literature, this study argues for the need for research on teacher-mediated agency from the perspective of sociocultural theory and the need for using activity theory to analyse teachers’ classroom teaching.
It is important to evaluate any research effort in order to see if it is scientifically based research. It is much easier to analyze someone else’s work. As action researchers, the researchers are insiders of their research efforts. On the other hand, self-evaluation of one’s own research effort would strengthen the research process and provide strong basis for the future research efforts. The author has focused on the self-evaluation of the action research directed by herself. Utilizing the evaluation schema offered by Malone (2014) she aims to prompt enhanced understanding about the evaluation of action research project. In conclusion, it could be approved that the schema offered by Malone is comprehensive and valid tool for evaluation action research projects. In the light of this schema the analyzed action research project is considered as scientifically based research. The author recommends the other researchers utilize this schema to evaluate their action research project.
The purpose of this article is to share how the authors supported kindergartners’ and first graders’ developing creativity through stories they composed in writing and art. Over eight years, the authors explored ways to use picturebooks as mentor texts to help students explore how the authors and artists create meaning multimodally. This article shares minilessons and examples of how students creatively and imaginatively told their stories; learned to think, see, and reason; and invented and problem solved their stories, seamlessly weaving their meanings into writing and art.
A framework for conceptualizing the development of individual differences in reading ability is presented that synthesizes a great deal of the research literature. The framework places special emphasis on the effects of reading on cognitive development and on “bootstrapping” relationships involving reading. Of key importance are the concepts of reciprocal relationships—situations where the causal connection between reading ability and the efficiency of a cognitive process is bidirectional-and organism-environment correlation—the fact that differentially advantaged organisms are exposed to nonrandom distributions of environmental quality. Hypotheses are advanced to explain how these mechanisms operate to create rich-get-richer and poor-get-poorer patterns of reading achievement. The framework is used to explicate some persisting problems in the literature on reading disability and to conceptualize remediation efforts in reading.
In 2016, Imagine Learning (an edTech company that serves K-6 students) designed and developed educational dashboards to display student performance, usage, intervention, and assessment data---from high-level district aggregations to individual student metrics---to educators at all administrative levels.
This experience report outlines how a cross-functional team uncovered silent and spoken user contexts and needs, conducted iterative UX design cycles with input from stakeholders and user types, introduced reusable design patterns, optimized data warehousing to accommodate increasing data demands, and layered instruction to the user throughout the interface. It discusses team construction and processes, focusing on the Lean UX and Scrum software development methodologies, and concludes with reflections and implications for other teams.
This report will be of interest to technical communication and UX professionals in both practice and academia as a case study of how companies discover and address shifting contexts through product design research, UX design, software architecture, and user instruction.
Se estima y compara el componente léxico (cantidad de vocabulario que se posee) de 44 sujetos, divididos en cuatro grupos: nativos de español (Ll) con/sin hábito de lectura y no-nativos de español (L2) con/sin hábito de lectura, teniendo en cuenta las variables lectura (hábito o no de lectura) y lengua (Ll o L2). Los resultados son estadísticamente significativos y muestran que la combinación de las variables lectura y lengua predicen el 88% de la varianza en el componente léxico, siendo la variable lectura la que más impacto tiene. Los resultados apoyan la adquisición incidental del vocabulario (el grupo L2 con hábito de lectura tiene un componente léxico de 15.000 palabras más que el grupo Ll sin hábito de lectura) y la urgencia de implementar la lectura extensiva en los programas de lenguas para así ampliar el vocabulario y acelerar el proceso de adquisición de L2. Se discuten implicaciones pedagógicas
The aim of the current research study was to examine the dynamics of foreign language competence as applied in a programme designed for foreign language competence development in an academic environment. The programme, named The Linguistic Intervention Programme, represented a variety of active social learning techniques, self-regulated learning and a set of specific foreign language teaching strategies. One hundred and three university students participated in the research experiment. The research method utilized a foreign language proficiency test to serve as the appropriate tool to study the effects of the LIP techniques on the sample. The findings reveal that the result of the LIP in foreign language competence does not depend on the selection of foreign languages, meaning that the LIP is efficacious no matter what language is used in application of the techniques.
Reading authentic texts, especially those associated with their subject-matter courses, poses continuing difficulty for ESL university students. One way to help these students develop efficient, independent reading skills is to develop their strategic competence. This article outlines a direct teaching approach which aims to teach students to efficiently and effectively apply their knowledge of the English language and of good reading behaviour to the second language reading task. In this approach, students are introduced to procedures that require them to apply language and skill knowledge to solve such second language reading problems as unfamiliar words or an inflexible reading style. Through the experience of using these procedures, it is hypothesized that students will develop their own routines for making effective use of the knowledge sources available.
This chapter focuses on inferential processes and strategies to be taught along with some practical intervention teaching activities that may assist students read and comprehend text more efficiently. When making inferences readers develop thinking processes that consider both conceptually driven and data-driven sources of information in the construction of meaning. The ability to make inferences is dependent upon the relationship to other component skills such as concept integration, comprehension monitoring and knowledge about overall text structure. It is asserted that children with reading comprehension difficulties can be taught to effectively use inference-making strategies to enhance their own meaning making abilities. The critical factor for teachers is knowing when and how to give appropriate support and feedback to enable them to make appropriate and strategic inferences. The QAR method is one example of how children can ask appropriate questions to direct their thinking and to know how and when to apply content-specific or background information. Thus, when children ask appropriate questions it sets a goal orientation that enables the efficient use of inference strategies.
A number of researchers have reported that students with reading difficulties appear to have memory deficits that impact on their ability to effectively comprehend text. For example, it has been observed that many students with reading comprehension difficulties exhibit poor organisational skills and do not spontaneously use effective cognitive strategies to facilitate memory storage and recall. Recent conceptualisations of memory have given impetus to the notion that reading comprehension is an interactive process that requires readers to actively construct meaningful representations of text information. Normally readers are required to perform a range of quite complex cognitive tasks to comprehend written text. What is certain is that the efficiency of reading comprehension is largely shaped by the way in which memory is structured; information is organised; and how information is encoded and linked. For example, information processing normally requires the reader to monitor and use executive functions to apply compensatory comprehension strategies, when necessary, in order to maintain meaning during reading. Although reading is a dynamic thinking process there are a number of functional limitations that can cause difficulties for many readers.
As children move from prereading into reading, they come to understand how the writing system represents speech. Those who read logographic scripts realize that speech is transcribed at the word level; children who learn syllabaries discover that the syllable is the level of representation; readers of alphabets find that it is the phoneme, or sound, that is the unit of transcription. These three levels of print-to-speech representation—word, syllable and sound—provide beginning readers with significantly different options for recognizing and learning written words. Whereas readers of logographic writing systems must put considerable time and energy into remembering a unique written symbol for each spoken word, those who learn to read alphabets can pronounce a great many words with the knowledge of relatively few symbol-to-sound correspondences. Alphabets therefore offer beginning readers an economical, sound-based route to word learning, provided that would-be readers can use the print-to-speech map.
The search for the underlying nature and cause (s) of specific reading disability has proceeded for almost a century. At different times reading-disabled children have been described as suffering from a variety of specific cognitive deficits, from perceptual to attentional to memory problems. However, the explanation of this puzzling disorder has eluded investigators to the point where some are claiming that no satisfactory unitary set of principles can be found to explain the problems of all reading-disabled children (e.g., Applebee, 1971). Implicit in such claims is an admission of the inadequacy of current conceptualizations of the disorder.
Growth in the research studying the cognitive processes operating in fluent reading has been substantial in the last 10 years. A number of powerful models of fluent reading have been developed (e.g., Just & Carpenter, 1980; Lesgold & Perfetti, 1981; Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989; Thibadeau, Just & Carpenter, 1982), and our knowledge of how the fluent reader operates has been extended. In this chapter, we will sketch some of the progress that has been made in using these models to understand reading disability.
Neuropsychological assessment with children is increasingly becoming a desired, if not expected, service to be performed by clinical child psychologists. Unlike traditional psychological assessment with children, neuropsychological assessment encompasses many different techniques and serves a different purpose (Gaddes, 1980; Hynd & Obrzut, 1981; Knights & Stoddart, 1984). Generally, the purpose of neuropsychological assessment with pediatric patients is to differentiate children whose disorders are either functional or organic, to document the extent of neuropsychological involvement, and, in organic conditions, to chart the temporal interactions between ongoing development and recovery or deterioration of function. In response to this increased need for neuropsychological assessment with children, several standardized batteries are available, complemented by a host of ancillary techniques and procedures.
It was whilst working with the so-called “underfunctioning child in the classroom” in the 1950s and 1960s that the writer gradually became aware of certain “profiles of learning” which did not favor the acquisition and development of literacy in ordinary school settings. “A pattern of signs that appear in contiguity (Money, 1962, p. 16) was continually observed. The signs appeared to relate to certain neuropsychological features of motor, perceptual and linguistic functions. These observed phenomena were recognized as having possible links with specialization in the Central Nervous System (CNS), especially hemispheric differential organization for language skills. The deficits and delays observed in these under-functioning children appeared to be especially associated with anomalies in the left, or primarily language, hemisphere of the brain. They could be of developmental delay or difference or following upon traumatic events. Some errors indicated visual con fusions or disordering, reversals and mirror-images in the graphic presentation of ciphers and words; others indicated acute difficulties in sequencing sounds in the appropriate linguistic order required for written words and sentences; and problems in sensoriintegration were common.
When we began to study children’s learning some eight years ago, it was not our intention to design a system that might reduce significantly reading difficulties. From elements of learning theory, we began building a structure for early reading. Because we had no synthesis of these elements, no single grand design for explaining learning behavior, an effort to assemble the parts, to make a functioning design, became our major task. From Montessori (1964), Dewey (1970, 1971), Piaget, (1960, 1969), Piaget and Inhelder (1969), Bruner (1967), Skinner (1957), Gagné (1977), and Bloom (1976) came major hypotheses. From among the reading theorists, we were and remain indebted to Fernald (1943), Chall (1967), Spalding and Spalding (1962), Smith (1971), and Cohen (1969), among others.
It has been claimed that both rule-governed and wholistic encoding processes occur in the visual system during word perception. These claims are based on various effects of orthography and familiarity found in perceptual decision tasks such as same-different matching. It is argued in the present paper that strings of letters which are orthographically regular (i.e., consist of legal sequences of letters) have been shown to be processed more rapidly and accurately in visual tasks than orthographically irregular strings. However, there is no completely convincing demonstration that familiarity of the letter sequence produces any additional processing advantage attributable to visual events. When familiarity effects are found in visual tasks, they seem to involve response biases rather than increases in the efficiency of information accrual. Furthermore, orthographic regularity still speeds processing in situations where letter sequences are in unusual configurations or orientations, and where the characters are somewhat unusual in shape. The absence of perceptual consequences, due to either familiarity of the entire letter sequence or aspects of its spatial arrangement, argues that the visual processing advantage of words over strings of unrelated letters is due almost completely to the fact that the word is a legal or well-structured letter sequence. We therefore conclude from the currently available evidence that orthographic structure operates in the visual system during word perception, but familiarity probably does not. This evidence supports rule-governed encoding operations, but tends to rule out wholistic encoding operations as mediators of visual word processing.
In 1967 both L1 and L2 reading specialists were provided with a particularly influential model of reading, that of reading as ‘a psycholinguistic guessing game’ by Kenneth Goodman. The model not only revolutionized the conceptualization of the reading process by referring to its psycholinguistic background, but also offered a metaphor of reading as a game-like process based on extensive guessing, still found appealing by some practicing L2/FL teachers. The present paper will argue why the definition of reading as a hypothesis-testing process based on prediction, sampling, confirming and verification worked out by Goodman gave such an important impetus for change in understanding the reading process and the development of reading competence. On a more practical side, it will be explained why the view that L2 readers can build the meaning of a text on the basis of contextual redundancy, as well as infer the meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary by sampling selected features of the visual display has proved problematic for second/foreign language instruction. Finally, some current conceptualizations of the reading process and the way they counteracted the influence of the belief in top-down processing of texts with the abundant use of context will be analyzed.
The common assertion that words are perceived “as a whole” is examined. The analysis reveals three independent classes of wholistic theory. These differ in the underlying process that is held to be wholistic. (i) Feature analysis can be characterised as wholistic at either the stage of feature extraction or that offeature interpretation. Both views are united in denying that recognition depends on preliminary letter identification, (ii) The translation of print into sound may be held to be conducted at a lexical rather than an alphabetical level. (iii) A neglected class of theory attributes wholistic effects to preferential recovery in conscious attention of higher levels of code.
This paper seeks to trace the emerging recognition of a special group of children, whose literacy and fluency problems can be appropriately designated by the scientific term “dyslexia”. Implicit in the term’s usage is that the difficulty is most probably primary, constitutional and developmental; but can also in a minority of cases be traumatic in origin. The paper will describe how, over the last fifty years or so, patterns of differential functioning in percepetual, motor and lexical mechanisms have been observed, which do not apparently favor the acquisition of symbolic skills based upon the linear ordering of ciphers; and how, in addition, a related set of epi-phenomena is continuously being observed and reported by scientists and clinicians. These differential functions would appear to yield behavioral markers — or as Dr. Money in 1962 wrote “a pattern of signs which appear in contiguity”. It is the writer’s contention that sufficient evidence of such a learning syndrome is now present; and strong enough to form the basis for early diagnosis, leading to appropriate identification and teaching in the class-room.
There has been considerable research conducted on the effects of meaning, frequency, context, and redundancy on word identification in first language (hereafter L1) reading comprehension. The first part of this paper will review some of the major research that has been presented concerning each of these factors.
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