Content uploaded by Rashid Al-Yahyai
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Rashid Al-Yahyai on Apr 08, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
207© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015
J.M. Al-Khayri et al. (eds.), Date Palm Genetic Resources and Utilization:
Volume 2: Asia and Europe, DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9707-8_6
Chapter 6
Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
Rashid Al-Yahyai and M. Mumtaz Khan
Abstract Date palm is the primary agricultural crop in Oman, and it constitutes
80 % of all fruit crops produced and 50 % of the total agricultural area in the coun-
try. Oman is the eighth largest producer of dates in the world with an average annual
production of 260,000 mt per annum. There are approximately more than over
seven million date palms and 250 cultivars in cultivation, primarily in the northern
governorates of the sultanate. However, around 70 % of the total date production is
harvested from only 10 cultivars, and a small fraction (2.6 %) of the total date pro-
duction is exported. Only half of the dates produced are used for human consump-
tion, with the other half being utilized primarily for animal feed or considered
surplus and wasted. Dates are mainly harvested for fresh fruit consumption; how-
ever, alternative uses such as date syrup, date sugar, and other by-products can also
be found in the local market. Dubas bug and red palm weevil are the dominant biotic
factors that affect date quality and yield in Oman. Traditional methods of cultiva-
tion, small farm size, enough labor available, and poor postharvest handling and
marketing are the main issues that face date palm production in Oman. New plant-
lets are produced from tissue culture with a primary focus on superior cultivars that
are kept, among other cultivars, in the only date palm ex situ gene bank in the inte-
rior of Oman. Enhancing fruit quality by optimizing fruit size and nutritional con-
tent and rapid cultivar selectivity based on molecular techniques for better or
improved commercial cultivars will increase the marketability of Omani dates.
Furthermore, employing modern orchard layouts and mechanization of the labor-
dependent cultural practices such as irrigation, pruning, pollination, and harvesting
is vital for the sustainable and profi table production of dates in Oman.
Keywords Dates • Oman • Phoenix dactylifera • Subtropics • Horticulture •
Postharvest • Food
R. Al-Yahyai (*) • M. M. Khan
Department of Crop Sciences , College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences,
Sultan Qaboos University , 34 , Al-Khod 123 , Oman
e-mail: alyahyai@squ.edu.om; mumtaz@squ.edu.om
208
6.1 Introduction
The date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera L.) is an ancient crop plant that has been culti-
vated for centuries in many arid parts of the world, particularly in West Asia and
North Africa. In Oman, date palm is the most important agricultural crop that con-
tinues to occupy the largest cultivated area today. The nutritious year-round fruits
from hundreds of cultivars, and the multiple benefi ts of the palm by-products to the
growers and the community, have given date palms special status among other crops
with signifi cant economic, cultural, and religious importance in the country. The
large number of cultivars also contributes to the permanence of date palm cultiva-
tion because of the extensive range of climatic adaptation, given that Oman has a
diverse topography and a range of climatic zones (Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari
2008 ). Because of its extensive cultivation in Oman and the multiple uses of the date
palm in a variety of products, date palm has a special social status among Omanis.
Consequently, date palm is the main plant for home garden and landscaping, and it
is widely grown even in areas where the climate does not allow for high-quality
fruits or yield, such as in Salalah in southern Oman or the Hajar mountains.
Nonetheless, in regions suitable for date palm cultivation, dates constitute the major
source of household agricultural income for many farmers.
This chapter presents the status and prospects of date palm cultivation in Oman.
Date palm cultivation in terms of its history, current practices, and the social and
economic aspects of date production as well as ongoing research activities is dis-
cussed. The current challenges and future prospects of date production in Oman are
also addressed.
6.1.1 Historical and Current Agricultural Aspects
Throughout history, growers in Oman have mastered date palm cultivation and the
cultural practices involved during the pre-petroleum era. Many travelers to Oman
reported date palm cultivation. Popenoe ( 1913 ) wrote, “The Fardh date growers of
Oman, who are the cleverest Arab cultivators I have seen.”
This is not surprising since date palm has a long association with religion and
civilizations (Al-Yahyai and Manickavasagan 2012 ). The date palm tree has been in
cultivation since 2,400 BC. Drawings and manuscript writings have indicated the
importance of date palm to various civilizations in and around the Arabian Peninsula.
Date palm reinforced its importance and status following the rise of Islam in Arabia.
Due to its importance to this region in particular, 21 references to date palm are
cited in the Holy Quran and 300 in the writings of the Hadith. These emphasize the
religious and cultural signifi cance, in addition to the nutritious and economic impor-
tance, of date palm in the sultanate.
Given its adaptation to the harsh conditions that dominate the Arabian Peninsula,
such as high temperature and long drought periods, the date palm is the most
appropriate crop plant suitable for cultivation in Oman. This is particularly important
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
209
in this country that is characterized by low rainfall (an average 100 mm per year),
whereas the rate of evapotranspiration is tenfold. Date palm is grown primarily in
the northern part of Oman, where agroclimatic requirements meet the needs of date
production (Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari 2008 ). Date palms occupy half of the culti-
vated area and 82 % of all fruit crops grown in Oman (Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari
2008 ). Date palm is cultivated in various governorates of Oman as illustrated in
Table 6.1 and Fig. 6.1 .
Table 6.1 Regional date palm distribution in the Sultanate of Oman
Governorate
No. of date
palms
Percentage
of total
Production
(mt)
Percentage
of total
Al-Batinah (North and South) 3,263,862 41.87 105,929.14 45.85
Al-Sharqia (North and South) 1,502,525 19.27 37,294.65 16.14
Al-Dhahira (and Buraimi) 1,333,898 17.11 29,515.50 12.78
Al-Dakhlia 1,112,959 14.28 44,006.17 19.05
Muscat 322,222 4.13 10,282.98 4.45
Musandam 234,453 3.01 3,874.09 1.68
Dhofar 23,679 0.30 132.38 0.06
al Wusta 2,188 0.03 – –
Total 7,795,786 231,034.91
Source : MAF (
2005 )
Musandam (3 %)
Al Dhahirah1(17 %)
Al Wusta (0.03 %)
Al Batinah (42 %)
Muscat (4 %)
Al Dakhliah (14 %)
Al Sharqia (19 %)
Dhofar (0.3 %)
Fig. 6.1 Regional distribution and percentage (from a total number of 7,795,786) of date palm
trees in each governorate of the Sultanate of Oman (
1 Includes the Buraimi governorate. Source :
Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari (
2008 ) )
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
210
6.1.2 Importance to Omani Agriculture
Oman exports mainly only two fruit crops, dates and bananas. Date palm is by far
the most signifi cant export commodity, mainly to the United Arab Emirates (UAE),
Saudi Arabia, and India. However, date exports remain very small compared to
what the country produces. In 2011, Oman exported 7,171 mt of dates, which is
only 2.6 % of the total production for that year. The low level of exports was attrib-
uted to the poor handling of dates, poor fruit quality, and the numerous pests and
diseases that affect postharvested dates in Oman (Al-Marshudi
2002 ; Al-Yahyai
2007 ; Manickavasagan et al. 2013 ). Compared to other countries, Omani dates
fetched a lower price in the international market (USD 102 per mt), while countries
of limited production such as Tunisia attained four times the price (USD 418 per mt)
of dates (Mbaga et al. 2011 ). Improvement of fruit quality may lead to greater
exports of dates to various parts of the world where demand for dates is increasing
such as in Oceana, the Americas, and Europe (Al-Yahyai and Manickavasagan
2012 ). In the local market, price per kg for Fardh, the main processed cultivar,
ranges from USD 1.5 to 2.5 compared to USD 4–6 for dates imported from Iran,
Saudi Arabia, and UAE for comparable cultivars.
6.1.3 Production Statistics and Economics
Oman is ranked eighth in the world in date production (Table 6.2 ). The cultivated
date area in 2011 was 31,348 ha which produced 268,011 mt of fruit (FAOSTAT
2013 ). Since 1980, there has been an increase in production reaching nearly
300,000 mt; however, that was followed by a rapid decline in the following years for
unknown reason. The production has picked up since 2004 but continues to fl uctu-
ate from year to year (Fig.
6.2 ). Little of the Oman’s vast production is exported,
averaging 2.6 % in the past 10 years. However, the import of dates has rapidly
Table 6.2 Top 10 date-
producing countries of the
world
Country Date production (mt)
Egypt 1,373,570
Saudi Arabia 1,122,822
Iran 1,016,608
Algeria 724,894
Iraq 619,182
Pakistan 557,279
Sudan (North and South) 432,100
Oman 268,011
United Arab Emirates 239,164
Tunisia 180,000
Source : FAOSTAT (
2013 )
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
211
increased from 2,000 mt in 2007 to 12,000 in 2009 (Fig. 6.3 ). By 2011, imports
have increased by 74 %, whereas exports only increased by 43 %. This indicates
that a portion of the imported dates, mostly from neighboring countries, is reex-
ported. However, no data is available on the volume of reexports, as the fi gure
7,171 mt of dates exported in 2011 includes all types of exports (fresh dates, dry
dates, and processed).
6.1.4 Current Agricultural Problems
Date production in Oman remains traditional (Al-Marshudi 2002 ; Al-Yahyai 2007 ).
Due to the subsistence nature of date production in Oman, farmers face many issues,
namely, the traditional irrigation and fertilizer application methods (Al-Yahyai
2007 ). Suffi cient irrigation water quantity and quality have also been a major con-
cern to date palm growers, limiting fi eld expansion because date-growing regions
are fully dependent on groundwater extraction for irrigation. Biotic issues are also
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Production (mt)
Year
Fig. 6.2 Date production in
the Sultanate of Oman
( Source : FAOSTAT
2013 )
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Exports Imports
Dates (mt)
Year
Fig. 6.3 Oman’s date
exports and imports
( Source : FAOSTAT
2013 )
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
212
of great concern to growers, particularly pests and diseases. Although presently
under chemical control, pests such as the dubas bug ( Ommatissus lybicus Bergevin,
Homoptera: Tropiduchidae) and red palm weevil ( Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
Olivier, Coleoptera: Curculionidae) are a threat to date palm production in the sul-
tanate. Logistical problems include insuffi cient number of skilled laborers and
underdeveloped transport and storage facilities, market outlets, and large-scale pro-
cessing factories. In recent years, extreme weather conditions such as cyclones,
Gonu in 2007 and Phet in 2010, and fl ooding have severely affected date produc-
tion; events associated with climate change may be the next challenge to date palm
cultivation in Oman. The government has subsidized the replacement of date palms
destroyed by cyclones and storms. The issue of climate change is also being studied
for better preparedness in regions that may potentially be impacted by the adverse
effects of climatic catastrophes.
6.2 Cultivation Practices
6.2.1 Research and Development
Published research work is lacking on various aspects of cultivation practices in
Oman. Earlier research carried out at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) focused on
pollination, fertilizer application, irrigation, and utilization of date palm as the most
signifi cant issues (El Mardi 1995 ; El Mardi et al. 1998 ). Recent work has focused
on yield and fruit quality improvement and postharvest technology (Al-Yahyai and
Al-Kharusi 2012a ; El Mardi et al. 2007 ; Manickavasagan and Al-Yahyai 2012 ;
Pillay et al. 2003 ; Williams et al. 2005 ).
6.2.2 Description of Current Cultivation Practices
6.2.2.1 Pollination
Pollination of date palm is carried out by hand in almost all date palm groves in
Oman. There are several male palm cultivars (called fahl ) that are used for pollina-
tion, most notably Khori and Bahlani. Hand pollination is done by placing strands
of the male cultivar in the middle of the female infl orescence (i.e., spadix) (Fig. 6.4 ).
The number of strands varies from 3 to 12 depending on both the male and female
cultivars. Newly introduced mechanical pollen dusters have not gained acceptance
and trust among date palm growers. El Mardi et al. ( 2002 ) pollinated Fardh date
palm by hand, hand duster, and motorized duster with no effect on fruit yield,
despite the larger fruit volumes when dusters were used. They also reported that a
pollen/fl our (1:5) ratio for mechanical pollination produced a lower sucrose and dry
matter and higher yield.
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
213
6.2.2.2 Irrigation
Irrigation water is traditionally delivered to date palm groves through open canals.
The water source is mainly underground aquifers and from wells or via a system of
underground tunnels called falaj. Falaj (aka qanat ) is an ancient system of delivering
water to farms in Oman. There are three types of falaj depending on the source of
water: (1) ghaili falaj , where water is diverted to canals from a fl owing wadi; (2) aini
falaj , spring water; and (3) daudi falaj , where water is sourced from an underground
aquifer (Al-Ghafri 2006 ). Water is distributed to date palm groves in units of time.
Other sources of water have also been explored, such as the utilization of treated sew-
age water (El Mardi et al. 1995 , 1998 ), but with limited use until now. The timing and
frequency of irrigation is largely dependent on the allocated shares of water for each
grove and is not based on empirical methods. Adoption of new methods of irrigation
(such as bubbler irrigation, which is a localized, low pressure, solid permanent instal-
lation drip irrigation system), particularly in well-irrigated groves, is slowly gaining
momentum as the government subsidizes installation of modern irrigation systems.
Al-Yahyai and Al-Kharusi (
2012b ) reported that chemical quality attributes of
date palm (cv. Khalas) grown in northern Oman varied in response to decreased
Fig. 6.4 Hand-pollinated
date palm female
infl orescence with male
strands placed in the middle
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
214
frequency of irrigation water applied during fruit development. Palms irrigated
daily had higher fruit water content, juice volume, and titratable acidity (TA),
whereas total and reducing sugar content, total soluble solid content (TSS), pectin,
and dry matter were high under defi cit irrigation. They concluded that fruit quality
may be enhanced using various defi cit irrigation regimes.
6.2.2.3 Fertilizer Application
Date growers apply fertilizers manually using animal manure twice a year
(Al-Yahyai
2010 ). Chemical fertilizers are not commonly used in date palm groves
in Oman. However, most of date palm trees are intercropped with legumes used as
fodder, thus perhaps making suffi cient nitrogen available to date palm. Al-Kharusi
et al. ( 2009 ) evaluated the effects of mineral and organic fertilizers with and without
the supplementation of micronutrients on the chemical characteristics and quality of
date fruits from two cultivars of date palm (Khalas and Khasab). They found that
dry matter content was highest when mineral fertilizers (NPK, in 4 applications)
were supplemented with organic peat and micronutrients. They also reported that
organic peat application over a 3-year period increased the tannin contents, whereas
the mineral fertilizers reduced it. Dry matter, tannins, and titratable acidity were
affected by cultivar and fertilizer treatment. Overall, the study found that mineral
fertilizers (i.e., NPK) have a signifi cant impact on date fruit quality.
6.2.2.4 Pruning and Thinning
Pruning of date palm involves the removal of old, dead, or damaged leaves. The
leaves are used as by-products for making various handicrafts including crates,
ropes, and baskets, as well as a source of fuel for heating and cooking, and for house
construction. Using two types of tools (i.e., a sharp sickle called makhlab and a
harvest knife called majaz ), pruning is carried out annually following harvest and to
clear up remaining fruit bunches, older leaves, and fi bers. Although it increases fruit
size and quality, bunch and fruit thinning is not commonly practiced, except in rare
cases where the palm has over 20 bunches. Studies by Al-Yahyai (unpublished)
showed that thinning to 10 bunches per Khalas cv. gave the best fruit yield and
quality.
6.2.2.5 Harvest and Postharvest Handling
Dates are consumed at three stages in Oman: at the khalal stage (via cooking, called
tabseel ), fresh at the rutab stage, and as dry fruits harvested at the tamar stage.
Harvesting of date palm in Oman is done following traditional methods of cutting
the date bunch then dropping it or lowering it by rope to the ground (Al-Yahyai
2007 ). This leads to losses in dates due to fruit separation from the bunch, fruit
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
215
bruising and damage, and exposure to insect infestation and pathogen infection.
After harvest, dry fruits are sun dried in the open air (Fig. 6.5 ), which also exposes
dates to insect damage from wasps and ants. Dried dates are stored in plastic or
wood containers. Due to poor conditions, dates are also infested during storage
(Manickavasagan et al. 2013 ). A recent study showed that dates can be frozen at the
khalal stage for up to a year, with little effect on the chemical composition of the
fruit (Al-Yahyai and Al-Kharusi 2012a ). During fruit formation and development of
date palm, khalal stage occurs between 19 and 25 weeks after fruit set. At this stage
sucrose contents are increased, while fruit weight increment, acidity, and moisture
contents are reduced. In some cultivars at this phase, the fruit becomes palatable and
is considered of commercial maturity. Microwave energy and computer vision tech-
nology have shown promising results in identifi cation and elimination of many of
the defective fruits during factory processing (Manickavasagan and Al-Yahyai
2012 ; Manickavasagan et al. 2013 ).
6.2.2.6 Pest and Disease Control
Date palms in Oman are infested with two major pests: the dubas bug ( Ommatissus
lybicus Bergevin, Homoptera: Tropiduchidae) and red palm weevil ( Rhynchophorus
ferrugineus Olivier, Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Chemical control is the method
utilized by the government to combat dubas bug. Several insecticides have been
evaluated for dubas bug control in Oman with SUMI-ALPHA® 5 EC being effec-
tive as a ground spray and KARATE® 2 ULV, TREBON® 30 ULV, and
SUMICOMBI® 50 ULV achieving some measure of success as aerial sprays (MAF
2006a ). Strict quarantine measures and eradication of suspected palms infected by
red palm weevil is the common method of controlling the spread of this pest.
Al-Sadi et al. ( 2012 ) investigated fungal and oomycete pathogens associated with
root diseases of date palms in Oman. Isolated fungi and oomycetes showed that
Fig. 6.5 Traditional sun drying of dates
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
216
they belong to 34 species. They found Fusarium solani (27 %), Ceratocystis
radicicola (25 %), and Lasiodiplodia theobromae (19 %) to be the most common
pathogens associated with root diseases of date palms. Among the 21 pathogenic
species, 13 are reported for the fi rst time in the study as new root pathogens of date
palm on a global basis. These include the following species:
Ceratocystis omanensis Fusarium acuminatum Pythium indigoferae
Cochliobolus hawaiiensis Fusarium redolens Pythium spinosum
Exserohilum rostratum Fusarium thapsinum Pythium ultimum var. ultimum
Corynascus kuwaitiensis Nigrospora sphaerica
Fusarium brachygibbosum Phoma multirostrata
Al-Sadi et al. ( 2012 ) also reported 22 other new fungal and oomycete species
that occur in Oman. However, many of these fungal (as well as viral and bacterial)
infections do not constitute a direct threat to date palm cultivation in Oman, and
little is done to control them.
6.2.3 Agroforestry Utilization and Potential
Agroecological research suggests that date palm is a suitable plant for a range of uses
in Oman, particularly in saline and marginal soil areas. Date palm plantings help com-
bat desertifi cation, if well managed. However, no studies have been conducted to
determine the extent of date palm agroforestry utilization and potential in Oman.
There are several issues related to date palm cultivation practices in Oman
including traditional methods of management and cultural practices, fruit handling,
enhanced fruit quality, and marketing. Application of mineral fertilizers and intro-
duction of modern irrigation systems and mechanical pollination will greatly make
date production more economical and increase grower income. Al-Yahyai ( 2007 )
outlined the areas where date palm cultivation needs further improvement. Other
areas include date processing and by-product utilization, value addition of dates,
and enhancement of marketing and exports and processing in the country.
6.3 Genetic Resources and Conservation
6.3.1 Research in Genetics, Breeding, and Conservation
The Sultanate of Oman is located in the southeastern part of the Arabian Peninsula.
The average annual rainfall in the country is less than 100 mm, which results in
making 75 % of the total area a desert or desert-like with little or no vegetation.
The remaining area varies greatly in topographic and climatic characteristics; this
allows the cultivation of various types of fi eld and fruit crops. Date palm is the
major crop in Oman, as it covers about half of the cultivated area in the country.
Due to the diverse date plan gene pool and variability in the topographic/climatic
conditions in Oman, the date palm production season expands from May to
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
217
November. This long season of date production makes the country distinct from all
other major producing countries. Variability in climatic conditions, topography,
and cultivation practices have also resulted in selections of numerous male and
female cultivars adapted to different regions of the sultanate. Currently there are
about 250 cultivated varieties of date palm in Oman. Thirty out of the 250 varieties
are cultivated on large areas because of their high quality and consumer demand
(Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari 2008 ).
The main objective of conserving date palm genetic material is to protect this
precious heritage from the threat of extinction, which may be caused by deforesta-
tion, environmental pollution, and natural calamities such as cyclones, fl oods,
drought, or fi re. Another prime goal of keeping large date palm genetic resources is
for crop breeding and improvement programs.
To aid in the preservation of the extensive genetic diversity of date palm in Oman,
the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth (MAF) has carried out various trait
analyses, for example, morphological and molecular characterization of various
date palm cultivars. Various molecular techniques are currently being utilized to
determine the genetic diversity of date palm cultivars in Oman. A study on DNA
fi ngerprinting was carried out on six Omani cvs. (Bunaringa, Hilali, Khalas, Khalas
Oman, Khenazi, and Zabad) and three foreign cvs. (Barhi, Deglet Noor, and
Medjool). These cultivars were mapped because of their usage for large-scale prop-
agation through tissue culture. The Random Amplifi ed Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
analysis showed the similarities and the differences between the genotypes tested
(Fig.
6.6 ) (MAF 2006a ). A total of 78 alleles were counted from which 11 were
shared in entire cultivars. The number of alleles differed according to the genotype/
primer combination. The similarities between cultivars were calculated based on the
analysis, which showed the close relationship between Omani cultivars compared to
the foreign date palm genotypes as illustrated in Fig. 6.7 (MAF 2006a ). A microsat-
ellite marker (SSRs) tool was used to identify the genetic diversity in date palm
Hilali
Khalas Oman Khanazy
Bunarenja
Fig. 6.6 Fingerprinting of
four Omani date palm
cultivars using RAPD
technique ( Source : MAF
2006a )
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
218
( Phoenix dactylifera L.) clonal genotypes, which were derived through somatic
embryogenesis in Oman. Twenty-one palm genotypes representing different coun-
tries (14 Omani, 5 Bahraini, 1 Iraqi, and 1 Moroccan) were screened with ten mic-
rosatellite markers. All primer pairs generated an amplifi cation product and a high
level of polymorphism among all the analyzed samples. Results revealed that the
genotypes from Bahrain and Iraq have a close relationship with accessions already
grown in Oman. The Moroccan genotype (Medjool) performed distinct from the
rest of the date palm genotypes (Al-Ruqaishi et al.
2008 ). The value of this work
was to describe and preserve the date palm genetic resources of Oman.
The government of Oman recognizes the signifi cance of plant genetic
resource conservation and people’s involvement in such a principled initiative.
Therefore, the activities are shared and complimented with public awareness
campaigns to highlight the importance of preserving biodiversity of date palm
cultivars in the country.
6.3.2 Preservation of Date Palm Biodiversity
There has been a steady decline in the production of dates in Oman over the past
decade. This decline is mainly attributed to a combination of various factors includ-
ing increased soil salinity in major date palm-growing regions (Al-Batinah and
Al-Sharqia), desertifi cation in areas adjacent to the desert in central Oman, heavy
insect pest infestation such as dubas bug and red palm weevil, and urbanization of
rural areas. These biotic and abiotic factors have led to a decrease in area of planta-
tions and depletion of the gene pool of some existing cultivars.
Keeping plant biodiversity intact through conservation of the existing plant mate-
rial, in particular, endangered old cultivars and introduction of new gene pool, is a
prerequisite for sustainability of any crop. However, since the sustainability of in situ
gene banks of perennial fruit crops, such as date palm, has been questioned, newer
approaches for preserving local varieties should be investigated apart from the use of
gene banks and tissue culture laboratories. These approaches may include in vitro
Hilali
Zabad
Bunaringa
Khenazi
Khalas
Khalas Oman
Barhi
Deglet Noor
Medjool
Fig. 6.7 The relationship
among different cultivars
based on RAPD analysis
( Source : MAF
2006a )
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
219
preservation using cryopreservation (Bagniol et al. 1992 ; Engelmann et al. 1995 ;
Finkle et al. 1979 ; Mater 1987 ; Ulrich et al. 1979 ) and ex situ gene banks based on
farmer involvement (Aaouine 2000 ; Arunachalam 2000 ; Jarvis et al 2004 ; Sawadogo
et al. 2005 ). This can be achieved through certain economic incentives to farming
communities for preserving traditional agricultural practices (Siebert 2004 ).
At present, to assist in the preservation of the extensive genetic diversity of date
palm in Oman, detailed studies on morphological and phenological description,
chemical /biochemical analyses, and molecular identifi cation and characterization
of various cultivars are under way.
At the Date Palm Horticulture Research Laboratory, molecular markers have
been established to map date palm genetic diversity (MAF
2006b ). In 1996, conven-
tional breeding in date palm was initiated where KL96-13 accession was used as
male parent in the two different crosses (El-Kharbotly et al. 1998 ). This male was
used to develop a backcross population (BC1) suitable for the construction of a
genetic map by crossing it to its mother (Khalas). Khalas is known to produce high-
quality date fruits. More offsprings of the male were developed by crossing the
same male with Um-Sella cv. to produce an F1 population. Amplifi ed fragment
length polymorphism (AFLP) technique was used to analyze BC1 population
(57 palms) from the Khalas cv. and of their parents. In collaboration with the College
of Medicine at SQU, the polymorphism studies were conducted on a DNA analyzer.
The primary analysis showed a genetic linkage between two molecular markers and
the maleness character on a distance between 9 and 29 map units. The research is in
progress to increase the number of reactions and the analysis of genetic relation-
ships. The most common cultivar in the Al-Batinah region is Um-Sella but it bears
low-quality fruit. This cultivar was also incorporated in the program of genetic
improvement of date palm. It was crossed with the male KL96-13 (originated from
cv. Khalas) to produce an F1 population. The female from this cross is being evalu-
ated for the fruit quality. The results showed improvement in shape, color, and size
of the produced fruits (MAF 2006b ).
To study the effect of pollen grains’ source on Khalas fruit quality, fruit set, and
ripening, research was conducted in two locations: Al-Barka Nursery Farm
(Al-Batinah) and Nizwa Al-Rafa’Farm (interior) in the 2007 season. Seven male
cvs. (Khori, Alnaseeb, Medgahdel, Abosaaba, Bahlani, Ghareef, and Naghayli)
were used to pollinate Khalas A’Dhahirah date palm trees. There were signifi cant
differences in fruit set and fruit characteristics in both locations (MAF
2007 ). A
similar study was conducted on Zabad cv. to overcome the low percentage of fruit
set and yield. Pollen of fi ve male cvs. was used to pollinate the fl owers of Zabad cv.
The results showed that there were no signifi cant effects of pollen grains on the fruit
set and the quality of Zabad cv. (MAF 2007 ).
In 2009, microsatellite or simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were used
to fingerprint some Omani date palms cvs. (Bahlani, Buhabisha, Bunaringa,
Khinizi, Thameed, and Zabad female; Bahlani and Khori male). All samples
were analyzed using 20 SSR primer pairs which were designed for date palm
genetic mapping (Fig.
6.8 ). To identify genetic linkage between Khalas cv.
from Gulf Coast countries, 15 different microsatellite primers were used
(Fig. 6.9 ) (MAF 2009 ). Date palm genetic diversity was further explained on
basis of physical attributes. The physical phenotypic diversity index results
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
220
showed large biodiversity among the selected date palm cultivars. Likely, the
similarity matrix also exhibited high similarity among date palm cultivars
ranging from 74 to 90 %. Another study by Al-Ruqaishi et al. (
2008 ) used mic-
rosatellite markers (SSRs) to screen and analyze the genetic diversity among
clonal genotypes of date palm derived by somatic embryogenesis. The study
detected high levels of polymorphism among 21 cultivars, 14 of which were
from Oman. These studies emphasized that further studies are needed on chem-
ical and molecular evaluations to discover the genetic linkages among cultivars
(Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari 2008 ).
6.3.3 Quarantine Regulations
Quarantine regulations have been established and implemented by the MAF in
Oman. Keeping in view the trans-boundary or inland invasion of insect pests and
diseases, unwanted plant material movement is strictly prohibited. Therefore, strin-
gent plant material quarantine rules are in place which ensures a safeguard against
any plant-related catastrophic breakout. Plant quarantine principles are followed
strictly, and if any threatening disease is discovered, the site is monitored and
Bhlm
Bhlm-2
Bhlm-3
Bhlm-4
Bhlm-5
Bohb
Bohb-2
Bohb-3
Bohb-4
Bohb-5
Zab
Zab-2
Zab-3
Zab-4
Zab-5
Buna
Buna-2
Buna-3
Buna-4
Buna-5
Khen
Khen-2
Khen-3
Khen-4
Khen-5
Bhlf
Bhlf-3
Bhlf-5
Bhlf-4
Bhlf-2
Tham
Tham-2
Tham-3
Tham-4
Tham-5
Khom
Khom-4
Khom-3
Khom-2
Khom-5
0.09
Cluster V
Cluster IV
Cluster III
Cluster II
Cluster I
Zabad
Bahlani male
Buhabasha
Bunaringa
Khinizi
Bahlani female
Khori male
Thameed
0.32
0.54
0.77 1.00
Coefficient
Fig. 6.8 UPGMA cluster analysis of SSR data generated by 20 primer combinations for 40 of
Omani date palm cultivars showing patterns of genetic similarity using Jaccard’s coeffi cient
( Source : MAF
2009 ). Abbreviations are samples of the corresponding cultivars
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
221
movement of plant material is restricted until the problem has been resolved.
Importation of all palm types is prohibited without appropriate phytosanitary
certifi cation.
6.4 Plant Tissue Culture
In Oman, the fi rst tissue culture and biotechnology laboratory for date palm mass
propagation and research was established at Jimmah Agricultural Research
Station. Since its inception in 1992, it has contributing signifi cantly to date palm
tissue culture mass production. This laboratory has its long-term strategy to
replace 3.1 million date palm trees with newly produced true-to-type plantlets.
The plan to produce 500,000 Fardh cv. seedlings in 5 years is a noteworthy ambi-
tion of this laboratory. More than 250,000 plantlets have been distributed to
growers and signifi cant numbers of genotypes (>70) have been tested/produced
(Fig.
6.10 ). At the Jimmah facility, research studies are also being conducted on
cryopreservation and improvement of existing methods to manipulate and har-
vest plants derived from somatic embryos as shown in Fig.
6.11 (MAF 2009 ).
Ks.06
Ks.011
Kb.015
Kb.035
Ks-Ks3
Ks-Ks4
Ks-13
Ks-G3
Ks-K16
Ks-Kb3
Ks-Kb4
Ks-DI1
Box-RaB3
Box-JBS
Hila-G5
Hila-B5
1.000.750.510.260.02
Cluster A
Cluster B
Cluster C
Khalas Dhahrah Oman
Khasab Oman
Khalas KSA
Khalas Bahrain
Khalas Kuwait
Khasab KSA
Hilali Bahrain
Khalas Kuwait
Barhi
Coefficient
Fig. 6.9 Dendrogram of similarity J. coeffi cients based on UPGMA cluster analysis in 16 geno-
types from Oman, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Kuwait using 16 microsatellite primers ( Source :
MAF
2009 ). Abbreviations are samples of the corresponding cultivars
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
222
1992 1993 1994 1995 1998 1999 2000
Year
2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
0
2
4
6
8
Number of cultivars tested
10
12
14
16
18
20
Cultivars tested
Cultivars produced
Fig. 6.10 Number of cultivars tested/produced at Jimmah Tissue Culture Laboratory, 1992–2009
( Source : MAF
2009 )
Bulk up culture
Embryogenic callus
Cryopreservation
Cell
suspension
Different freezing
Regimes
Different
cryoprotectant
EncapsulationVitrification
NAA + BA
IBA + A/C
Sorbitol
& mannitol
Dehydration
Sucrose
+
ABA
Conversion
study
Somatic embryos
Fig. 6.11 Schematic illustration of date palm tissue culture (somatic embryogenesis) followed at
Jimmah Tissue Culture Laboratory, Oman
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
223
In the Jimmah tissue culture and biotechnology laboratory, a series of experi-
ments have been conducted on standardizing micro-propagation techniques for
date palms; most of the developed techniques can be widely applied to many
cultivars with necessary modifi cations. In this institute, two types of procedures
have been successfully employed in tissue culture of date palms (Fig. 6.11 ). The
most common method is somatic embryogenesis, which has many advantages
and disadvantages. With this method, mass cloning of date palm plantlets through
repetitive somatic embryogenesis has existed since 1996, and a good number of
propagules have been distributed to date farmers (Figs. 6.12 and 6.13 ). However,
it involves the possibility of some undesirable genetic variability in tissue
a
b
c
Fig. 6.12 Stages of date
palm plantlet acclimatization
in ( a ) growth room,
( b ) greenhouse, and
( c ) shadehouse conditions at
Jimmah, Oman, prior to
distribution for cultivation
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
224
culture-derived plants, resulting in some abnormal vegetative traits as well as
unusual fl owering and fruiting habits, which are not usually apparent until the
fruiting stage. Genetic variations were recorded in 6- and 12-month-old cultures.
It was observed also that all morphologically abnormal shoots showed genetic
variations at the molecular level (Saker et al. 2000 ). One of the alternative meth-
ods used now is direct organogenesis. The successful development of this new
technique is expected to reduce the number of steps in culture, thereby shorten-
ing the duration of culture with higher concentrations of auxins which may lead
to reduced somaclonal variations.
A comparable plant tissue culture laboratory at SQU was also created with the
main objectives to train technicians in the fi eld of plant tissue culture and to conduct
other related research and development studies. However, at Jimmah, commonly
practiced methods are adopted with little modifi cations according to local cultivar
requirements.
6.5 Cultivar Identifi cation
6.5.1 Role and Importance
The diverse topographical and climatic ecoregions in Oman have allowed for the
cultivation of various types of date palm cultivars (Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari
2008 ). The documented number of cultivars is 180 female and 48 male of the 7.8
million trees of date palm grown throughout the country. However, the majority of
the total date production, in each region and in Oman in general, comes only from a
1,30,000
No. of SE produced
1,10,000
No. of SE produced
No. of offshoots planted
90,000
70,000
50,000
30,000
10,000
Years
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Fig. 6.13 Production of somatic embryos (SEs) of date palm at Jimmah Tissue Culture Laboratory
and the total number of saplings distributed to farmers since 1996 ( Source : MAF
2009 )
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
225
few commercial cultivars (Table 6.3 ). These cultivars are dominant because of their
marketable high fruit quality or early and late season production (Al-Yahyai 2010 ).
The date palm gene bank of the MAF, established at Wadi Quriat in 1988, contains
166 female and 21 male cultivars, of which 81 produce yellow fruits, 24 produce
red, and the remaining produce various other fruit colors (Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari
2008 ; Al-Zidjali 1996 ). This is the largest fi eld gene bank in the country along with
a sizeable collection at the SQU agriculture experiment facility.
6.5.2 Research in Date Palm Descriptors
Date palm descriptors, both morphological and molecular, are lacking for cultivars
grown in Oman. Information gathered for record keeping that include date of fl ow-
ering time, yield, and fruit quality parameters from the only gene bank in Oman has
not been published yet. Two publications describing the physical and chemical
characteristics of fruits were published as illustrated books in Arabic by the Diwan
of Royal Court Affairs (Macki et al. 1998 ). Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari ( 2008 ) used
that information to assess the biodiversity of date palm in Oman. Jaradat and Zaid
( 2004 ) also used fruit quality traits to assess the origin and diversity of date palm in
southern Arabian Peninsula, including Oman.
Date palm molecular descriptor development for cultivars in Oman now is in
progress. The MAF in Oman is currently working on developing DNA markers and
molecular descriptors for date palm cultivars.
Table 6.3 Major date palm cultivars in various governorates of the Sultanate of Oman in a
descending order of production per cultivar
Northern and
Southern
Al-Batinah Al-Dakhliah
Al-Dhahira
and
Buraimi
Northern
and
Southern
Al-Sharqia Dhofar Musandam Muscat
Oman
(overall)
Um Sella Naghal Fardh Mabsli Sarna Shahl Um Salla Um Sella
Mabslui Khasab Naghal Madloki Madloki Qash Khunaizi Mabsli
Khasab Fardh Khasab Barni Qash Qash
Habash
Khalas Khasab
Shahl Mabsli Khunaizi Khasab Hajar Lulu Naghal Naghal
Naghal Khalas Khalas Naghal Faradhi Khunaizi Khamri Fardh
Mesli Khunaizi Bu Maan Bu Narenja Qash
Jabrin
Qash
Ahmar
Qadmi Shahl
Khalas Handhal Suwaih Bu Daan Khunaizi Naghal Khasab Khunaizi
Khunaizi Barshi Fardh Naghal Bu
Alathoq
Barni Khalas
Munawmah Barni Khunaizi Hassassi Baql Qash Madloki
Salani Zabad Basri Hilali Hassassi Barni
Source : Al-Yahyai (
2010 )
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
226
No commercial laboratories specializing in identifi cation and characterization of
date palm cultivars exist in Oman. The MAF administers one tissue culture labora-
tory that is also carrying out molecular identifi cation of cultivars for quality moni-
toring purposes.
6.6 Cultivar Descriptions
6.6.1 Growth Requirements
Date palm is chiefl y grown in the northern part of Oman. Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari
( 2008 ) identifi ed two main agroclimatic zones where date palm is grown: (a) the
coastal plains that include the governorates of Batinah (north and south), Sharqia
(north and south), and Musandam and (b) the interior that includes Dakhlia, Dhahira,
and Buraimi (Fig. 6.1 ). Both agroclimatic zones are characterized by hot summers
and cool winters, with the coastal plains being more humid, particularly during the
summer. The central governorate, Wusta, is largely dominated by desert and nomadic
lifestyle, thus the number of date palms is minimal. The southern governorate of
Dhofar is not suitable for date palm due to monsoon rains during the ripening months
of dates (May–August); however, farther inland, date palms are grown in oases bor-
dering the Empty Quarter desert. Different cultivars are grown in these various
regions due to a range of agroclimatic conditions (Table 6.5 ), depending primarily on
the cultivar performance under the specifi c climatic conditions of that region.
6.6.2 Cultivar Production Statistics and Economics
Despite the large number of cultivars, as mentioned previously, the production
of dates is largely dominated by only a few cultivars (Table
6.4 ). It can also been
noted from the table that the largest cultivar in production, Um Sella, is not
Table 6.4 Major date palm varieties and its total production in the Sultanate of Oman
Cultivars 2004 yield (mt) % of total Cumulative %
Um Sella 32,696.48 14.15 14.15
Mabsli 30,583.24 13.24 27.39
Khasab 26,678.61 11.55 38.94
Naghal 24,423.38 10.57 49.51
Fardh 18,051.93 7.81 57.33
Shahl 11,435.75 4.95 62.28
Khunaizi 11,340.99 4.91 67.18
Khalas 11,139.04 4.82 72.01
Madloki 5,423.58 2.35 74.35
Barni 4,966.3 2.15 78.65
Total 231,034.91
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
227
destined for human consumption and used mainly as livestock feed. The most
popular cultivars for human consumption and for processing, Khalas and Fardh,
respectively, only contribute around 12 % of the total date produced in Oman.
Earlier cvs., such as Naghal which reaches rutab stage in May, and late cvs. such
as Khasab, harvested until late October, are consumed fresh and not commonly
stored for consumption during the winter months. Mabsli is a cultivar that con-
stitute a large proportion of the export market as boiled dates, most of which
(70 %) is destined for India. However, efforts are under way to expand the list
of cultivars that are suitable for boiling to expand the exports of the important
niche commodity.
6.6.3 Nutritional Aspects
The date fruit nutritional composition of sugar, acidity, fi ber, minerals, and other
components have been studied under various treatments, in the fi eld (Al-Kharusi
et al. 2009 ; Al-Yahyai and Al-Kharusi 2012b ; Al-Yahyai 2010 ; El Mardi et al.
2002 ), during storage (Al-Yahyai and Al-Kharusi 2012a ), at the consumption stage
of the dates (Al-Farsi et al. 2005a , b , 2007 ), and its by-products (Al-Farsi et al.
2007 ). This information indicated that cultural practices and postharvest handling
have a great impact on date nutritional quality. Various cultivars have varying quan-
tities of nutrient composition, particularly minerals and antioxidants.
6.6.4 Morphological Description
The only publication on the date palm cultivars of Oman is by Macki et al. ( 1998 )
in Arabic. However, this catalog details the general physical and chemical attributes
of the reproductive part of the date palm rather than a comprehensive descriptive
analysis of the whole plant. The most popular cultivars for fresh consumption are
Khalas, Barni, and Khunaizi (Fig.
6.14 ), whereas Fardh (Fig. 6.15 ) is commonly
used for industrial packing and processing. The physical and chemical characteris-
tics of Khalas, Fardh, Khunaizi, and Barni are shown in Table 6.5 .
6.7 Date Production and Marketing
The date palm tree has the ability to survive under relatively harsh climatic and soil
conditions while many other crops cannot thrive under such adverse conditions.
Therefore, it is an irreplaceable tree in irrigable desert lands that provide protection
to ground-level crops from heat, wind, and other threats and is an excellent plant
species in terms of combating desertifi cation. Due to these characteristics, date
palm tree has been grown in Oman and the Arabian Peninsula for centuries and it is
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
228
considered to be the oldest fruit tree. Dates have high nutritive value and are the
main food source for Omanis since they began to sail the seas of this region, which
can be traced back to the seventeenth century (El Mardi 1995 ). Date cultivation and
use of the fruit as a basic food commodity is believed to be an integral part of the
Omani national heritage and social life.
Date palm cultivation is one of the most essential agricultural activities in
Oman. This country has diverse topographical and climatic ecoregions that allow
for cultivation of various date palm cultivars, particularly in the northern coastal
and the interior regions (Al-Marshudi 2002 ). Date production is suffi cient to meet
the domestic demand and a signifi cant surplus is also exported. The majority of
palm growers in Oman still use traditional methods for growing this crop from
planting until it is marketed. They are using the farming techniques which require
only limited inputs of capital and cause minimal disturbance to the environment.
Hence, the patterns of production seem truly sustainable and skills are being
Fig. 6.14 Dates of Barni, Khalas, and Khunaizi cultivars grown in northern Oman
Fig. 6.15 Fardh dates at the
transitional stage from khalal
to rutab stage, from northern
Oman
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
229
passed from generation to generation (Al-Marshudi 2002 ). Most of the traditional
date palm growers are considered subsistence producers with a main objective to
only supply enough food for the family needs (Al-Yahyai 2007 ). Nonetheless,
tremendous development has occurred in the production and distribution of dates
during the last two decades. Now in many areas of the sultanate, date palm trees
are very well developed in terms of cultivar selection, planting, harvesting,
marketing, and storage.
Table 6.5 Fruit physical and chemical characteristics of four date cultivars from northern Oman
Parameter Fardh Khalas Khunaizi Barni
Fruit physical characteristic
Color: khalal Orange Yellow Scarlet red Yellowish green
Color: rutab Reddish
brown
Dark yellow Dark red Yellow
Color: tamar Dark brown Reddish
yellow
Black Brown
Fruit weight (g) 15.4 9.6 10.4 9.8
Seed weight (g) 0.6 0.9 0.5 1
Fruit size Large Medium Medium Medium
Fruit length (cm) 3.9 3.4 3.3 4
Fruit diameter (cm) 2.1 2.1 2.2 1.7
Sphericity (length/diameter) 2.1 1.6 1.5 2.7
Chemical characteristics of pitted dry dates
Ash (%) 1.19 1.16 1.14 1.25
Moisture content (%) 39.69 55.17 48.87 42.96
Fiber (%) 1.17 0.74 1.59 2.37
Total carbs (per 100 g) (%) 95.00 89.20 94.30 91.30
Reducing sugars (%) 88.17 80.40 86.60 84.35
Nonreducing sugars (%) 5.33 6.75 5.60 5.00
Starch (%) 1.50 2.05 2.43 1.88
Total protein (%) 3.69 3.57 2.72 3.80
Total lipids (%) 0.39 0.42 0.47 0.56
Pectin (%) 2.75 1.76 3.00 1.52
TSS (%) 60.30 44.85 50.87 56.96
Mineral content (mg per 100 g) on dry weight basis
Potassium 762.00 800.50 786.33 790.50
Phosphorus 48.33 42.60 53.23 57.53
Magnesium 35.83 35.45 34.90 36.45
Iron 1.18 1.34 1.19 1.19
Zinc 0.35 1.78 0.51 0.57
Copper 0.56 0.72 1.43 0.86
Manganese 1.91 1.70 1.73 2.12
Sodium 4.93 5.15 4.90 5.28
Source : Adapted with permission from Macki et al. (
1998 )
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
230
6.7.1 Optimization of Yield
Signifi cant advances have been made in traditional cultivation methods to allow the
farmers to increase yield under all kinds of harsh environments.
The MAF and the College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences (CAMS) at
SQU are doing a commendable job to increase date palm production and to
improve fruit processing in Oman. The MAF has also developed tissue culture
laboratory to mass propagate selected high-quality date palm trees for distribu-
tion to growers. Several MAF agricultural research stations conduct applied
research and provide extension services to date palm growers throughout the
country. The MAF has also designed a strategic plan for improving date palm
production. The MAF plans to increase investments in the date sector that will
help in production of high-quality dates as well as expansion of the national and
international markets for dates throughout the year. The researchers in CAMS
have also done considerable work for the optimization of date palm yield in the
country. They have introduced labor-saving methods in cultivation, developed
modern irrigation systems, and improved packaging of the fi nal products. All
these efforts have resulted in substantial increases in date palm production in
Oman. It has been reported that in the last decade the area under cultivation of
date remained almost the same, but the production has been almost doubled
(Al-Marshudi 2002 ). Much work is yet needed to improve fruit quality. At pres-
ent, Oman’s current net production value of dates is USD 132,533,000
(Fig. 6.16 ).
8,00,000
7,00,000
6,00,000
5,00,000
4,00,000
Net production value (1000$)
3,00,000
2,00,000
1,00,000
0
Egypt Saudi
Arabia
Iran Irag Pakistan
Country
Oman UAE Tunisia Libya
Algeria
Fig. 6.16 The net production value in the top 10 date-producing countries in the world in 2011
( Source : FAOSTAT
2011 )
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
231
6.7.2 Harvest Mechanization
Harvesting of the date palm fruit is very critical in terms of determining the quality
of the produce and hence the ultimate price. Date fruit is harvested either manually
or with some degree of mechanization, especially on large farms. The harvesting
machinery needs to be effi cient and clean since it will affect the rest of the down-
stream steps such as processing, packing, and marketing.
With the subsequent development of date palm industry in Oman, harvesting
strategies have also undergone advancement, and now mechanized harvesting
(Fig.
6.17 ) is becoming popular. Usually the mechanized date-harvesting systems
consist of vehicles equipped with a number of long arms with baskets at the end,
where a worker can stand in the basket to pick the fruit (Mazloumzadeha et al.
2008 ). Research labs at SQU are working to develop new harvesting machines
adapted to the Omani date farms (Fig. 6.18 ).
6.7.3 Postharvest Operations
The date harvest in Oman is long, starting from May and extending until November,
about 6 months, because of the large diverse gene pool (>250 biotypes) which are
distributed throughout the northern parts of Oman (Al-Yahyai and Al-Khanjari
2008 ). Some date cultivars, for example, Mabsli Abou-Narenjah and Madloky, need
special heat treatment processing, before drying, called tabseel . Dates are cooked in
Fig. 6.17 Loaded U-Shaped
harvesting platform ( Source :
Courtesy of H. Jayasuriya)
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
232
large quantities in a big boiling pan nearly for 45 min, until the dates are shiny and
ready to be scooped out of the pan. Drying surfaces used are the ground, simple
platforms, fl at rooftops, and open containers and dates remain there for a week. Dry
dates are packed in 50 kg jute sacks and kept in a dry storage area. The Ministry of
Commerce and Industry purchases directly the dates farmers produce. The main
consumer market is India; therefore, large proportion of the product ( tabseel ) is
exported to India and little to other countries (Fig.
6.14 ). Date palm postharvest
handling of tabseel season is not just an annual farming activity; it is the time when
family, relatives, friends, and neighbors join hands to harvest, process, and work
together in the village.
The date palm harvesting season is considered to entail the hardest agricultural
work of the year as it involves most of the people who own the date palm groves.
Many factors must be considered, for example, environmental hazards especially at
the time of actual harvesting.
Before fi nal packing, dates are graded and deformed or spoiled fruits removed,
leaving the best for marketing. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MOCI)
makes an announcement to the farmers about the purchase of their production from
a collection point, for overseas export. The ministry rechecks the quality, presence
of any pests or diseases, and uniformity and makes the payments according to their
Fig. 6.18 Harvesting
platform lift model ( Source :
Courtesy of
H. Jayasuriya)
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
233
product quality. India is the major importer of the product, which has medicinal
uses and is combined with chocolate and also has a role in festival celebrations.
Dates can be eaten fresh, dried, or in different processed forms, for example, in
cookies, cakes, and bread. Honey and vinegar are also made from the date fruits.
The total dry date palm tabseel export in 2012 from Oman was 6,767 mt (MOCI
2012 ). Apart from traditional processing, modern factories have been established
in Oman to process dates from conditioning to packing for domestic consumption
and export.
6.7.4 Survey of Commercial Producers and Major Farms
Date palm cultivation in Oman is scattered throughout the country. However, large
commercial farms are located in Dhakhlia region (Samail), Al-Dahira region (Ibri),
and Al-Batinah and Al-Sharqia regions. Al-Sharqia regions because of the presence
of wadis with fl owing water, good soil, and favorable climatic conditions. Date
plantations have been adversely affected due to the increasing groundwater salinity
in the last few years caused by seawater incursion in Al-Batinah region. For the
most part, date farms in date-growing areas do not have formally planned orchards,
although new groves with the help of the agriculture department are being estab-
lished scientifi cally following the prerequisites of good agricultural practices for
sustainable crop production.
6.7.5 Marketing Status and Prospect
Dates are sold either fresh or dry. Sometimes the fresh dates are auctioned when
they are still on the tree or brought to the local market. But generally these are sold
or exported to various countries in dried form after some traditional postharvest
treatment, such as boiling (Fig.
6.19 ). Typically, the marketing channel is directly
from the farm to the local consumer in villages; those remote areas where transport
and logistics are ineffi cient pose diffi culties. But in the developed areas having good
infrastructure, there are many alternatives for marketing. For example, these could
be sold on-farm, to the retailers, in local markets, or to the date factories where they
are processed for export. Whatever the selling channel, the success of marketing
depends upon the way the dates are produced, harvested, sorted, graded, processed,
packaged, and transported (Mbaga et al. 2011 , Mbaga 2012 ). The government agen-
cies as well as private organizations involved in date industry are doing their best to
increase the marketability of Omani dates. The government is trying to improve the
infrastructure by building new roads especially in the rural areas and constructing
new local markets (Al-Marshudi 2002 ). The government is also supporting research
programs to improve the quality of dates, particularly, postharvest handling and
processing to improve the country’s date export in coming years.
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
234
6.7.6 Current Import and Export
According to recent data from FAOSTAT ( 2013 ), Omani date exports have decreased
from 2001, but import quantities have increased (Fig. 6.3 ). There could be various
factors responsible for this trend, for example, pests and diseases, increasing soil
salinity, decreasing water availability, degradation of soil and water quality, avail-
ability of skilled labor to carry out fi eld operations, and harvest and postharvest
losses. The government of Oman is providing incentives and technical support to
growers and industry for quality crop production and to decrease postharvest losses.
6.8 Processing and Novel Products
6.8.1 Industrial Processing Activities
Dates are a major fruit crop grown in Oman, and growers use various methods and
equipment to harvest, process, and preserve the picked fruit. In general, farmers use
plastic containers and date leaves for postharvest operations; date fruit is sun dried
in the open air or at room temperature and later transferred to cool storage places.
There are some date cultivars which are heat treated before drying, such as cultivars
used to make tabseel . The date palm processing factories follow standard opera-
tional protocols, for example, cleaning, sorting, fumigation, heat treatment, drying,
grading, conditioning, packaging, and storing. The factories which were established
in 1976 still function with their older technology and machines (Amprawum
1998 ).
However, at present, with the advent of science and technology, date palm process-
ing units are operating modern systems, which are much more effi cient.
United
Arab
Emirates
16 %
Others
9 %
Tanzania
1 %
India
73 %
Malaysia
1 %
Fig. 6.19 Countries
importing boiled dry dates
( tabseel ) from Oman
( Source : MOCI
2012 )
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
235
6.8.2 Survey of Commercial Dates Processers
Most commercial date palm farms are located in Dakhlia Governorate (Samail),
Al-Dhahira Governorate (Ibri), and Al-Batina and Al-Sharqia Governorates.
Processing units are located near the larger producing areas. The functional units of
date palm processing are based in Nizwa, Nakhal, and Al-Rusail industrial area.
The government of Oman has developed better road networks and date growers now
have easy access to take their products for sale at the factory gate throughout the
country. Keeping in view the market demand, the processing units are making var-
ied products, for example, dried and conditioned dates, date syrup, confectionary,
pits for coffee , and animal feed from fruit remains.
6.8.3 Secondary Metabolites
Higher plants, including date palm and many others, store a variety of chemical
compounds in their plant parts. These compounds are commonly divided into
two groups: the products of primary plant metabolism, for example, proteins,
lipids, and carbohydrates, which play primary roles in plant growth and devel-
opment, and secondary plant metabolism products, for example, phenolics.
These phenolic products are broadly scattered in the plant body and have no
direct relationship with primary metabolism; however, these compounds have a
signifi cant role in combating biotic/abiotic stresses. This group includes lignins
and other phenolic substances, which gives mechanical support to the plant cell
wall, while tannins, fl avonoids, and a few other simple phenolics provide pro-
tection against biotic and abiotic stress. Certain phenolics show an allelopathic
effect on adjacent plants. Other metabolites, for example, phytosterols, and
alpha-tocopherols also have substantial roles in plant growth and development
mechanisms. These metabolites have been recognized for their nutritional and
health value in the human diet. The secondary metabolites in date palm have
potential functions in human health and nutrition. An experiment was conducted
at SQU on date palm secondary metabolites on three cultivars. Date palm culti-
vars and time of harvest behaved independently as to their bioactive ingredient
contents. However, it was postulated that the dates are good source of antioxi-
dants (Singh et al. 2012 ). Another study was undertaken to convert surplus date
fruits into value-added products. It was demonstrated that date fruits have a high
content of natural dietary fi ber and antioxidants and could be explored further
for nutraceutical prospects (MAF 2006b ).
A similar study was carried out to extract the phenolics and dietary fi ber from
date palm seeds (cv. Mabseli). The results showed that date seed concentrates have
a potential source of natural dietary fi ber and antioxidant content. It could be pos-
sibly used as a bioactive food ingredient (MAF 2008 ). A study on citric acid pro-
duction from Omani date cv. Um Sella concluded that conditioning experiments are
needed for higher citric acid yield (MAF 2006b ). Another similar experiment on
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
236
citric acid production through a submergence technique showed good-quality citric
acid recovery from date cv. Fardh. Extracted citric acid from date palm has signifi -
cant industrial value (MAF 2008 ).
6.8.4 Indigenous Date Products
Dates can be eaten fresh, dried, or in different processed forms made from the fruits.
The date fruit is processed into diverse products, which have signifi cant commercial
value at local and global markets. The indigenous products are mainly timber wood,
dry dates, date bars, date syrup, date juice concentrates, date jam, date butter, date
candy, date chutney, date biscuits, date pickles, etc. Date seeds (pits) have their own
value for making date coffee and for vegetable oil.
6.8.5 Bioenergy
Entrepreneurs in Sohar, Oman, have initiated an ambitious plan to transform a
petroleum-producing country into a biofuel producer. Oman will be the fi rst Arab
country to produce biofuel from date palm fruits at a large scale. The private Oman
Green Energy Company is looking to invest a large amount of capital in new date
plantations and biofuel refi nery construction in Sohar. The company is targeting the
production of green biofuel energy in particular for automobiles; it claims that they
have been successful in producing and testing ethanol from biomass attained from
the abundant date palms in Oman (Biopact 2007 ). Date palm sap carries a high
concentration of sugars which makes it good substrate for fermenting microorgan-
isms; it also has signifi cant potential to be converted into ethanol and biofuel pro-
duction (Gupta and Kushwaha
2011 ).
6.9 Conclusion and Recommendations
The date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera L.) is the oldest cultivated crop in Oman and the
Arabian Peninsula. Date palm is the main crop in Oman and occupies half of the
agricultural cultivated land. It represents 80 % of the total fruit crop production in
the sultanate with an average annual production of about 260,000 mt. To ensure a
continuous supply of dates throughout the year, many cultivars have been grown for
centuries in various agroclimatic zones of Oman. Furthermore, the date palms sup-
ply many household needs over time and their by-products have been used in ways
ranging from feeding animals to providing construction materials. Date palm has
also social, economic, cultural, and religious signifi cance in the country. However,
there has been a slow decline in production and export in recent years. Various
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
237
reasons could be attributed to the decline in the production of dates in Oman, which
include increasing soil salinity, decreasing water availability, labor shortage, and
labor costs, pest and diseases, postharvest losses, inadequate processing facilities,
etc. Research on date palm is developing slowly as there is no independent, public
or commercial, research facility dedicated to the date palm in Oman.
Concerted effort is required to improve the date palm industry in Oman. Extensive
research work should be conducted to increase the yield of this crop, particularly
when it undergoes water or salt stress and a scenario of climate change. An inte-
grated pest management approach should be used to control insect pests, especially
in areas where pesticide spraying is ineffective. Maximum emphasis should be
given to the awareness of local farmers about recent techniques in cultivation, post-
harvest handling, and processing of dates. The successful accomplishment of these
tasks will ultimately provide new avenues for improving date palm cultivation and
increasing production for domestic consumption and export-quality dates in Oman.
There has been marginal activity in processing and producing novel products
from date palm to the present. However, experimentation on date palm products and
their transformation into novel products has shown promise and potential, for exam-
ple, biofuel products, bioactive ingredients, and nutraceutical products. It is clear
that there is surplus production which needs more attention for conversion into
value-added products.
Traditionally date palm is propagated through offshoots, but due to limited sup-
ply, the pace of further generation perpetuation is slow. The increased biotic and
abiotic stresses have increased the vulnerability of ex situ-conserved date palm
genetic resources. The short-term conservation of genetic material is diffi cult
because of certain viral, bacterial, and fungal pathogen contaminations. The pre-
served genetic material in the form of embryonic cultures may lose its regenerative
capacity gradually if it is not preserved at ultra-low temperature. At present callus-
induced organogenesis has been commonly used for date palm micro-propagation
and genetic conservation. Breeding for desired characters is a long-cycle activity
and may show genetic variability or new mutations at the later stage of develop-
ment. In this way unwanted characters may appear at later stages of growth.
To keep genetic diversity of date palm alive, it is important to preserve the exist-
ing gene pool with full support and interest of academics. A realistic number of
people need to be trained in the fi eld of plant genetic resource conservation and
utilization. Such programs require massive investments which should be backed by
the public sector. Live date palm gene banks must be maintained accordingly; how-
ever, in vitro date palm gene banks carry an advantage for keeping tissue or DNA in
controlled environment (ultra-low temperature) for a longer term. Tissue culture is
an ideal plant propagation method and therefore skilled human resources and all
necessary facilities are prerequisites before starting such endeavor.
Lack of expertise and facilities in the area of morphological and molecular
descriptors represents a great challenge toward methodological identifi cation of
Omani date palm cultivars. Greater attention is needed to conserve the large number
of neglected (i.e., poor quality) cultivars, as they constitute an important germplasm
resource for further potential cultivar development and improvement. Breeding and
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
238
cultivar development is also lacking in the country as little work has gone into
developing new commercial cultivars.
Overall, great steps have been taken to preserve date palm cultivation and utiliza-
tion in Oman. The country intends to plant an additional one million date palm trees
in the coming few years. However, besides increased production, further efforts are
needed to enhance fruit quality by adhering to proper management practices includ-
ing selection of male pollinizers, fruit thinning, and following proper harvesting and
postharvest handling and processing methods. This will ultimately increase exports,
which currently stands at around 2.6 % of the total production and to a limited num-
ber of importing countries.
References
Aaouine M (2000) Production of date palm vitro plants: the Moroccan experience. In: Proceedings
of the date palm international symposium, Windhoek, 22–25 Feb 2000, pp 46–52
Al-Farsi M, Alasalvar C, Morris A et al (2005a) Compositional and sensory characteristics of three
native sun-dried date ( Phoenix dactylifera L.) varieties grown in Oman. J Agric Food Chem
53:7586–7591
Al-Farsi M, Alasalvar C, Morris A et al (2005b) Comparison of antioxidant activity, anthocyanins,
carotenoids, and phenolics of three native fresh and sun-dried date ( Phoenix dactylifera L.)
varieties grown in Oman. J Agric Food Chem 53:7592–7599
Al-Farsi M, Alasalvar C, Al-Abid M et al (2007) Compositional and functional characteristics of
dates, syrups, and their by-products. Food Chem 104(3):943–947
Al-Ghafri A (2006) Afl aj irrigation D/S ratio. In: Proceedings of the international conference on
economics incentives and water demand management, Muscat, 18–22 Mar 2006
Al-Kharusi LM, El Mardi MO, Ali A et al (2009) Effect of mineral and organic fertilizers on the
chemical characteristics and quality of date fruits. Int J Agric Biol 11:290–296
Al-Marshudi AS (2002) Oman traditional date palms: production and improvement of date palms
in Oman. Tropiculture 20(4):203–209
Al-Ruqaishi IA, Davey M, Alderson P, Mayes S (2008) Genetic relationships and genotype tracing
in date palms ( Phoenix dactylifera L.) in Oman based on microsatellite markers. Plant Gen Res
Char Util 6(1):70–72
Al-Sadi AM, Al-Jabri AH, Al-Mazroui SS, Al-Mahmooli IH (2012) Characterization and patho-
genicity of fungi and oomycetes associated with root diseases of date palms in Oman. Crop
Prot 37:1–6
Al-Yahyai R (2007) Improvement of date palm production in the Sultanate of Oman. Acta Hort
736:337–343
Al-Yahyai R (2010) Current status of date palm in the Sultanate of Oman. In: Proceedings of the
international conference on date palm production and processing technology, Sultan Qaboos
University, Muscat, 9–11 May 2006, pp 1–6
Al-Yahyai R, Al-Khanjari S (2008) Biodiversity of date palm in the Sultanate of Oman. Afr J Agric
Res 3(6):389–395
Al-Yahyai R, Al-Kharusi L (2012a) Physical and chemical quality attributes of freeze-stored dates.
Int J Agric Biol 14:97–100
Al-Yahyai R, Al-Kharusi L (2012b) Sub-optimal irrigation affects chemical quality attributes of
dates during fruit development. Afr J Agric Res 7(10):1498–1503
Al-Yahyai R, Manickavasagan A (2012) An overview of date palm production. In: Manickavasagan
A, Essa M, Sukumar E (eds) Dates: production, processing, food, and medicinal values. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, pp 3–12
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
239
Al-Zidjali TM (1996) Oman: country report to the FAO international technical conference on plant
genetic resources. FAO international technical conference on plant genetic resources, Leipzig
Amprawum DB (1998) Post-harvest processing and technologies used by Oman date farmers and
factories. Agric Mech Asia Afr Lat Am 29(2):61–66
Arunachalam V (2000) Participatory conservation: a means of encouraging community biodiver-
sity. PGR Newsl 122:1–6
Bagniol S, Engelmann F, Michaux-Ferrière N (1992) Histo-cytological study of apices from in
vitr o plantlets of date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera L.) during a cryopreservation process. Cryo
Lett 13:405–412
Biopact (2007) http://news.mongabay.com/bioenergy/2007/06/oman-green-energy-company-
makes- ethanol.html . Accessed 15 Sept 2013
El Mardi MO (1995) Traditional date culture. College of Agriculture, Sultan Qaboos University
Press, Sultanate of Oman
El Mardi MO, Salama SB, Consolacion E, AlಣShabibi MS (1995) Effect of treated sewage water
on vegetative and reproductive growth of date palm. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal
26(11):1895–1904
El Mardi MO, Salama SB, Consolacion EC, Al-Solomi M (1998) Effect of treated sewage water
on the concentration of certain nutrient elements in date palm leaves and fruits. Commun Soil
Sci Plant Anal 29(5):763–776
El Mardi MO, Esechie H, AI-Kharousi LM, Abdelbasit KM (2002) Effect of pollination method
on changes in physical and chemical characteristics of date fruit during development. Agric Sci
7(1):21–27
El Mardi MO, Al-Said FA, Bakheit SC et al (2007) Effect of pollination method, fertilizer and
mulch treatments on the physical and chemical characteristics of date palm ( Phoenix dacty-
lifera ) fruit I: physical characteristics. Acta Hort 736:317–328
El-Kharbotly A, El-Mardi O, Al-Saidi N, Al-Mahruki Y (1998) Towards the construction of
genetic map of date palms using AFLP technique. In: Proceedings of the fi rst international
conference on date palm, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, 8–10 March 1998, pp
194–207
Engelmann F, Assy-Bah B, Bagniol S et al (1995) Cryopreservation of date palm, oil palm, and
coconut. In: Bajaj YPS (ed) Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry, Cryopreservation of
plant germplasm I. Springer, Berlin, pp 148–169
FAOSTAT (2011) Crop Production, Statistics Division. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome.
http://www.faostat.fao.org
FAOSTAT (2013) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation.
http://www.faostat.
fao.org . Accessed 2nd Sept 2013
Finkle BJ, Ulrich JM, Rains DW et al (1979) Survival of alfalfa, Medicago sativa , rice Oryza
sativa and date palm Phoenix dactylifera callus after liquid nitrogen freezing. Cryobiology
16:583
Gupta N, Kushwaha H (2011) Date palm as a source of bioethanol producing microorganisms. In:
Jain SM, Al-Khayri JM, Johnson DV (eds) Date palm biotechnology. Springer, Dordrecht,
pp 711–727
Jaradat AA, Zaid A (2004) Quality traits of date palm fruits in a center of origin and center of
diversity. Food Agric Environ 2(1):208–217
Jarvis D, Zoes V, Nares D, Hodgkin T (2004) On-farm management of crop genetic diversity and
the convention on biological diversity programme of work on agricultural biodiversity. PGR
Newsl 138:5–17
Macki MA, Hamouda AM, Al-Abri A (1998) Date palm cultivars of Oman, vol. II, The date palm.
Diwan of Royal Court, Sultanate of Oman
MAF (2005) Oman date production (2003–04). Ministry of Agriculture, Sultanate of Oman
MAF (2006a) Biennial Agricultural Research Report 2005/2006. Ministry of Agriculture,
Sultanate of Oman
MAF (2006b) Annual report. Ministry of Agriculture, Sultanate of Oman
MAF (2007) Oman date production (2005–06). Ministry of Agriculture, Sultanate of Oman
6 Date Palm Status and Perspective in Oman
240
MAF (2008) Annual report. Ministry of Agriculture Oman, Sultanate of Oman
MAF (2009) Annual report. Ministry of Agriculture, Sultanate of Oman
Manickavasagan A, Al-Yahyai R (2012) Quality assessment of dates by computer vision technol-
ogy. In: Manickavasagan A, Essa M, Sukumar E (eds) Dates: production, processing, food, and
medicinal values. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, pp 217–226
Manickavasagan A, Alahakoon PMK, Al-Busaidi TK et al (2013) Disinfestation of stored dates
using microwave energy. J Stored Prod Res 55:1–5
Mater AA (1987) Production and cryogenic freezing of date palm germplasm and regeneration of
plantlets from frozen material. Iraqi J Agric Sci 5S:35–49
Mazloumzadeha SM, Shamsa M, Nezamabadi-Pourb H (2008) Evaluation of general-purpose lift-
ers for the date harvest industry-based on a fuzzy inference system. Comp Elect Agric
60:60–66
Mbaga MD (2012) Date marketing. In: Manickavasagan A, Essa M, Sukumar E (eds) Dates: pro-
duction, processing, food, and medicinal values. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA,
pp 155–172
Mbaga M, Al-Shabibi MS, Boughanmi H, Zekri S (2011) A comparative study of dates export
supply chain performance: the case of Oman and Tunisia. Benchmark Int J 18(3):386–408
Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MOCI) (2012) Report of the Statistical Department. Ministry
of Commerce and Industry, Sultanate of Oman
Pillay AE, Williams JR, El Mardi MO et al (2003) Risk assessment of chromium and arsenic in
date palm leaves used as livestock feed. Environ Int 29(5):541–545
Popenoe PB (1913) Date growing in the old and new worlds. West India Gardens, Altadena,
California, USA, p 64
Saker MM, Bekheet SA, Taha HS et al (2000) Detection of somaclonal variations in tissue culture-
derived date palm plants using isoenzyme analysis and RAPD fi ngerprints. Biol Planta
43:347–351
Sawadogo M, Ouedraogo J, Belem M et al (2005) Infl uence of ecosystem components on cultural
practices affecting the in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity. PGR Newsl 141:1925
Siebert SF (2004) Traditional agriculture and the conservation of biological diversity in Crete,
Greece. Int J Agric Sust 2:109–117
Singh V, Guizani N, Essa MM et al (2012) Comparative analysis of total phenolics, fl avonoid
content and antioxidant profi le of different date varieties ( Phoenix dactylifera L.) from
Sultanate of Oman. Int Food Res J 19(3):1063–1070
Ulrich JM, Finkle BJ, Moore PH, Ginoza H (1979) Effect of a mixture of cryoprotectants in attain-
ing liquid nitrogen survival of cells. Fiziol Rast 15:749–756
Williams JR, Pillay AE, El Mardi MO et al (2005) Levels of selected metals in the Fard cultivar
(date palm). J Arid Environ 60(2):211–225
R. Al-Yahyai and M.M. Khan
