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Translation Under Fascism

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Abstract

In the fascist regimes of the mid twentieth century – this volume the focuses on Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal – translation was a carefully, though not always successfully, managed cultural practice. Translation policies attempted to steer public perceptions and promote or brake ideological change. Translation Under Fascism examines translation practices under fascism within their historical context – from publishers' biographies, institutional constraints and long-term literary trends right down to the textual choices made by translators and editors in individual translations. All these aspects of a translation analysis allow insight into the workings of international cultural exchange in times of dictatorship, and are of interest equally to translation scholars and historians of culture in the periods concerned. The spectrum of translation policies and practices presented here indicates different paradigms, different obsessions and different institutional frameworks, but also shared rhetorical motifs such as the ideas of translation as a cultural weapon and translation as a form of cultural contamination. TABLE OF CONTENTS Notes on Contributors PART I: INTRODUCTION Translation and the History of Fascism; C.Rundle & K.Sturge PART II: OVERVIEW ESSAYS Translation in Fascist Italy: 'The Invasion of Translations'; C.Rundle 'Flight from the Programme of National Socialism'? Translation in Nazi Germany; K.Sturge It was what it wasn't: Translation and Francoism; J.Vandaele Translation in Portugal during the Estado Novo Regime; T.Seruya PART III: CASE STUDIES Literary Exchange between Italy and Germany: German Literature in Italian Translation; M.Rubino The Einaudi Publishing House and Fascist Policy on Translations; F.Nottola French-German and German-French Poetry Anthologies 1943-45; F-R.Hausmann Safe Shakespeare: Performing Shakespeare During the Portuguese Fascist Dictatorship (1926-74); R.P.Coelho PART IV: RESPONSE The Boundaries of Dictatorship; M.Philpotts Bibliography Index
v
List of Figures and Tables vii
Notes on Contributors viii
Part I Introduction 1
1 Translation and the History of Fascism 3
Christopher Rundle and Kate Sturge
Part II Overview Essays 13
2 Translation in Fascist Italy: ‘The Invasion of Translations’ 15
Christopher Rundle
3 ‘Flight from the Programme of National Socialism’?
Translation in Nazi Germany 51
Kate Sturge
4 It Was What It Wasn’t: Translation and Francoism 84
Jeroen Vandaele
5 Translation in Portugal during the Estado Novo Regime 117
Teresa Seruya
Part III Case Studies 145
6 Literary Exchange between Italy and Germany:
German Literature in Italian Translation 147
Mario Rubino
7 The Einaudi Publishing House and Fascist Policy
on Translations 178
Francesca Nottola
8 French–German and German–French Poetry
Anthologies 1943–45 201
Frank-Rutger Hausmann
9 Safe Shakespeare: Performing Shakespeare during the
Portuguese Fascist Dictatorship (1926–74) 215
Rui Pina Coelho
Contents
PROOF
Part IV Response 233
10 The Boundaries of Dictatorship 235
Matthew Philpotts
Bibliography 252
Index 270
vi Contents
PROOF
Part I
Introduction
PROOF
3
1
Translation and the History of
Fascism
Christopher Rundle and Kate Sturge
Recent research has placed cultural policy and practices at the very
centre of our understanding of fascism,1 revealing much about the ideo-
logical frameworks of fascism as well as the institutional tools that were
used to manage public perceptions and ideological change. However,
within this growing body of work, one important aspect of cultural
policy has been largely ignored, and that is translation, whether literary,
cinematic or non-fiction.
Our aim in this volume is, firstly, to begin to fill this historiographical
gap, showing that questions around translation can provide important
insights into four regimes: Mussolini’s Italy, Hitler’s Germany, Franco’s
Spain and Salazar’s Portugal. We hope to bring into the discussion
material on translation that has previously been absent, and to shed
new light on existing material that has not necessarily been considered
from the point of view of translation; at the same time, the book aims
to suggest an outward-looking approach to historical translation studies
that engages closely with the surrounding historiography. Finally, this
volume, with its interdisciplinary group of contributors, aims to
encourage discussion between historians and translation scholars with
a common historical interest and to bring them together in a joint
endeavour.
In our view, translation practices – as important intersections of dif-
ferent cultural, ideological and political influences – are most usefully
examined within their precise historical context. That includes both
the macro level, such as institutional constraints or long-term liter-
ary trends, and the micro level, the texts themselves, right down to
the decisions made by translators, editors and publishers concerning
individual translations. Conversely, all of these aspects of translation
analysis can be of interest to historians investigating the fine detail of
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4 Translation and the History of Fascism
cultural institutions or ideological patterns and practices in the periods
concerned.
The study of translations in this way is not simply a comparative
supplement to the literary history of the periods concerned. We do
not trace the fortunes of individual authors in translation for their
own sake: none of the essays here approaches the relationship between
‘original’ and its translation as a matter of moral probity where the
ideal result would be a perfect reflection of the sacrosanct source. When
we do discuss source text/target text relations, these are studied for the
insight they offer into the strategies used by the translator and thus the
relationship between the translator and the historical context in which
he/she worked, not as part of a narrative of ‘loss’ or ‘distortion’. Nor do
we consider translation to be a personal, individual affair fought out
between a translator and his or her text. Instead, along with translation
scholars like Lefevere (1992) or Wolf and Fukari (2007), we assume that
translations are always active interventions into texts, brought about by
multiple agents with multiple interests, and that they are always active
interventions into the cultural and thus political environment of the
receiving language. By importing ideas, genres and fragments of differ-
ent cultural worlds, translations will affirm or attack domestic realities
(see Venuti 1995); they are never neutral in their impact or in their
representation of the sending cultures. Furthermore, translations can
have an important symbolic value, as a phenomenon which reflects, or
is considered to reflect, the prestige of either the source culture or the
receiving culture – an issue of particular importance in this volume. The
study of translations is pursued here as a means of tracing the contours
of that receiving environment: translation as an indicator of cultural
and political processes at work. We contend that this makes translation
practices a prime area of interest for scholars of fascist cultural policy
and a field that can potentially cast light on issues of central concern to
the study of all the four regimes we set out to examine.
Our use of the label ‘fascist’ to embrace these four different systems
deserves some explanation. While Italy and Germany are generally
accepted as exemplars of fascist regimes, in effect the templates against
which the fascism of other regimes is measured, the term is usually
employed with some qualification, such as ‘para-fascist’ or ‘semi-fascist’,
when applied to Spain or Portugal.2 This is a recognition of the fact that
Francoism and Salazarism, although they were both clearly inspired by
the success of the Fascist and Nazi regimes, were essentially conserva-
tive systems that maintained a number of what are frequently termed
‘fascist trappings’, especially in the interwar period, but did not share the
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Christopher Rundle and Kate Sturge 5
drive towards national and cultural regeneration based on an imagined
glorious past that can be seen in Italian and German fascism. Another
important distinction to keep in mind, and one which will prove signifi-
cant in the course of this volume, is that although all four of these regimes
were, to varying degrees, founded on an often uneasy alliance between
genuinely fascist forces and a more conservative establishment, in Italy
and Germany the fascist partner in this alliance was dominant, while in
Spain and Portugal it was the conservative establishment or its representa-
tives which maintained control and effectively dictated the direction in
which the regime would evolve. Finally, it is important to remember
when comparing the cultural policies of these regimes that although all
four were founded between the two world wars, Spain and Portugal are
to a significant extent defined by their post Second World War history.
The significance of this difference is apparent, for example, in the relative
lack of hostility of these two regimes to the idea of cultural exchange (and
translation) when compared to the much more paranoid attitudes of the
Italian and German regimes in the 1930s, when a closed, nationalist and
xenophobic cultural system in Western Europe was still conceivable.
Aside from these distinctions, it is clearly necessary to consider
the divergences between Fascism in Italy and National Socialism in
Germany, in terms of both ideology and modus operandi. Not only
did both regimes alter their stance on cultural policy over the course of
their existence (most notably – especially in the case of Germany – with
the outbreak of war), and not only did neither ever reach an internal
consensus on means and objectives, but the two orders differed in the
importance they attached to what are, in terms of translation, key policy
issues. The case studies in this volume will show that the treatment of
popular culture (itself largely import-based in the period) was highly
contested inside each regime and drew on contradictory traditions,
while anti-Semitism, a driving force of cultural policy in the Nazi con-
text, played a far less significant role in Italy in the early years.
We use the term ‘fascist’ speculatively, therefore, with a view to initi-
ating a productive comparison of the four regimes through the lens of
translation history; the research collected in this volume will show that
comparative approaches can bear fruit precisely in this field. Our use of
the term is informed by a body of historical research which, while mak-
ing all the necessary distinctions, includes these regimes in the debate
on comparative fascism.3 To clarify this, we will now consider recurrent
themes in the research where the perspective of translation becomes
particularly significant and promises to contribute to our understanding
both of fascism in general and of the specific nature of these regimes.
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6 Translation and the History of Fascism
Publishing history
The history of publishing is an important component of both cultural
and economic developments within a given language community. As
Eliot and Rose point out, not only do books make history, as tools to
‘transmit ideas, record memories, create narratives, exercise power, and
distribute wealth’, but they are made by history, being ‘shaped by eco-
nomic, political, social, and cultural forces’ (Eliot and Rose 2009: 1). In
all the four national contexts we examine, translations played a crucial
part in the history of publishing in general, due to the success of foreign
fiction, and especially foreign popular fiction. As we shall see later, in
these contexts translations could be perceived as a threat to the integrity
of the nation’s culture, but they were also often seen as an economic
threat, provoking hostility on the part of a literary establishment that felt
unable to compete with the easy commercial appeal of foreign romances
and the new imported genres of crime fiction and westerns. Translations,
especially from English, were driving a globalization in reading habits,
both enabling and supported by the modernization of the publishing
industry. While this was occurring across Europe in the interwar period,
the fact that, according to the Index Translationum, in the 1930s Italy and
Germany were translating more than any other countries in the world
suggests that translations from English hold a special place in the his-
tory of reading under these fascist regimes (see Rundle 2010: Chapter 2).
In Spain, in particular, translations enjoyed such a high status among
Spanish readers that there was a boom in pseudotranslations: non-
translated works that claimed to be translations in order to enhance their
prestige or market position (see Merino and Rabadán 2002). In Germany
translation activity continued unabated, at least in quantitative terms,
with English retaining its pre-1933 position as by far the most-trans-
lated language, until the outbreak of war (see Sturge 2004: Chapter 2).
Portugal, on the other hand, was the one country where the translation
market was not dominated by English as a source language. Instead, the
hegemony of French gave way to Spanish as the main source language
with the growth of a mass market for popular fiction – a market pervaded
by translations of Spanish pseudotranslations, written by Spanish authors
using anglophone pseudonyms (see Seruya in this volume).4
Censorship
Another historical issue in which research on translation has an important
contribution to make is fascist censorship. As recent work on translation
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Christopher Rundle and Kate Sturge 7
and censorship has shown, translated works are magnets for censorship,
since they make manipulation possible at several stages, from the selec-
tion for publication to the precise wording of the translated text. The
phenomenon of censorship in translation is far from unique to fascist
or other totalitarian regimes, and the translation studies debate on the
boundaries between ‘censorship’, ‘literary conventions’ and ‘good taste’
is only just beginning (see Billiani 2007a; Seruya and Moniz 2008b;
Ní Chuilleanáin, Ó Cuilleanáin and Parris 2009). Equally, the history of
translation in the regimes we are investigating can certainly not be ade-
quately addressed from the perspective of censorship alone. Nevertheless
the processes and rationales of fascist censorship of translation are an
important theme in the research collected in this volume, at the very least
because they cast light on the specific mechanics of political interven-
tion in culture during the periods concerned, and in a more far-reaching
respect because they hint at the ideological complexities that often under-
pinned such intervention.
A number of preconceptions concerning the totalitarian efficiency
of these regimes need to be reconsidered in the light of what emerges
from their treatment of translations (and publishers of translations). In
Germany a dense net of preventive or ‘prior’ censorship was imposed on
all the mass media (press, radio and cinema), but book publishing was
mainly controlled via post-publication measures; for Spain the preven-
tive approach applied to books as well. Italy maintained the pretence
that Italians enjoyed a freedom of speech and that no preventive cen-
sorship was in force – something that was in fact only true (and then
only partially) for books; in any case Italy applied its censorship with a
surprising degree of flexibility. Portugal maintained a tight control on
all forms of mass communication but adopted a relatively pragmatic
attitude towards the censorship of books, which were never moni-
tored systematically. Like Italy, Salazar’s regime was prepared to allow
the cultural elite a degree of freedom it would not allow the masses,
as long as this freedom did not develop into a potentially dangerous
political activism. Significantly, only the Nazi regime and, very late
in its lifespan, the Italian Fascist regime devised a specific censorship
policy concerning translations; and only Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy
adopted specifically anti-Semitic censorship policies.
Renewal and expansion
The drive for renewal and regeneration, the desire to reconstitute the
nation in a new form, is widely considered to be one of the defining
PROOF
8 Translation and the History of Fascism
characteristics of a fascist political programme (regardless of how suc-
cessfully these programmes were put into practice), and is particularly
evident in the Italian Fascist and Nazi cases, while both Franco and
Salazar resisted and defused such impulses from within the ranks as
they established more reactionary regimes. In Italy and Germany this
drive was, unsurprisingly, also played out in the cultural field – on the
whole with results that were disappointing for the regime. The problem
for cultural policymakers was how to generate a cultural renewal, which
many thought required contact and interaction with the outside, while
maintaining control over a distinctive national identity at home in a
form of cultural ‘autarky’ or self-reliance. In Italy, translation became
one of the nodes around which this debate developed – as a potential
vehicle of cultural exchange and enrichment but also as the vehicle of
a cultural pollution that was perceived as a threat to the integrity of the
national culture and language. In Nazi Germany the terms of the debate
were different in that exchange (via translation) with regions that
seemed to have a cultural, and hence ‘racial’, affinity with Germany was
not necessarily seen as an unambiguous threat, while an uncontrolled
exchange with other cultures driven only by public taste could never be
considered beneficial.
Also typical of fascist political ambitions was the drive towards politi-
cal, colonial and, by extension, cultural expansion. Among the many
reasons for these ambitions in Italy and, at least in part, Germany was
the desire to enhance the nation’s prestige abroad, and in both coun-
tries, though probably somewhat more so in Italy, translations became a
key issue in this project. On the one hand they were seen as a uniquely
effective means of cultural conquest – or ‘instrument of penetration’,
as the Italian Fascists put it; on the other, the statistics on translation
showed that Italy published more translations than any other state
while Italian was one of the least translated languages, providing glar-
ing evidence of the failure of Fascist culture to expand and of its low
status abroad. German literature was more successful in this respect, in
that it was widely translated, yet literary policymakers complained that
this success arose from the translation of the ‘wrong’, that is anti-Nazi,
German authors and could thus have a harmful propaganda effect (see
Sturge 2004; Rubino in this volume). Careful management of transla-
tion from German in the occupied nations was to help redress the prob-
lem (see Hausmann in this volume).
Such issues were of much less significance in Spain and Portugal,
especially after the Second World War. Spain rapidly abandoned any
ambitions it may have entertained of further colonial expansion and
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Christopher Rundle and Kate Sturge 9
remained in self-imposed isolation until the late 1950s. There is no evi-
dence that the success of foreign cultural products was seen as a threat
to national prestige, as long as they conformed to the ideological and
moral constraints that the regime very efficiently imposed. Furthermore,
both Spain and Portugal could point to a large linguistic community
spread throughout the world, to the extent that, unlike Fascist Italy, the
perceived prestige of their languages was unlikely to be affected by the
dynamics of the translation market.
Racism
One very important distinction between the regimes lies in their
respective attitudes towards racism and especially anti-Semitism. Both
Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were deeply concerned with notions
of cultural and racial purity. These notions defined the ways in which
each regime reacted to the phenomenon of translation, and the differ-
ent understandings of what constituted purity and national identity is
reflected in the sometimes surprising differences between Fascist and
Nazi treatment of translations. In official Nazi discourse, translation was
viewed most often in a framework of racist assumptions, based on the
understanding that (to use the terms of current translation studies) the
activity of translation creates ‘hybrid’ products, mixing cultural orders
and thus potentially undermining the supposed organic, ethnically
defined unity of ‘true literature’. For Nazi policymakers, purity in trans-
lation was possible: translations might be racially pure and therefore
foster racial understanding – a much longer-standing translation ideal
that acquired new dimensions in the Nazi setting. Alternatively, and
more commonly in the late 1930s, they might be contaminants that
threatened to pollute the receiving nation through a kind of cultural
miscegenation. Within the terms of Nazi ‘racial purity’, translations
from what were considered related cultures, such as Sweden and Norway,
were encouraged by parts of the regime as a means of strengthening
connections within an extended idea of the Germanic Volk. Within
Fascist Italy’s initially more nationalistic and less racialized idea of cul-
tural integrity, the source culture was less significant and the debate on
translation was dominated by the fear that Italy’s receptiveness was a
negative reflection on its national and cultural prestige. However, in the
wake of the foundation of the Italian empire in East Africa, and as Italy
and Germany formed closer political and ideological ties, Italy formally
introduced anti-Semitic legislation and began a systematic purge of Jews
from public life. This development also marks the moment when the
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10 Translation and the History of Fascism
regime first started to formulate a specific policy against translation.
What had been confined to a question of national prestige now took on
more dramatic tones as the regime began to see translation as a source
of cultural pollution, in terms that closely matched those being used in
the political sphere as part of the anti-Semitic campaign. In Spain and
Portugal, on the other hand, such racialized policies were not favoured
and the discourse on translation that emerges from the research is free
from the heightened sense of threat that can be found in Italian Fascist
and Nazi rhetoric on translation.
The chapters in this volume are divided into four parts. Part II contains
four overview essays on the context and structures of translation policy in
each regime: Christopher Rundle on Fascist Italy in Chapter 2, Kate Sturge
on Nazi Germany in Chapter 3, Jeroen Vandaele on Francoist Spain in
Chapter 4, and Teresa Seruya on Salazar’s Portugal in Chapter 5.
In Part III, a series of case studies address individual facets of the issues
raised in the opening chapters. In the first of two Italian studies, Mario
Rubino, in Chapter 6, focuses on the specific literary relations between
Italy and its fellow Axis power Germany. Taking up an issue that already
emerges in the opening chapters on Italy and Germany, he traces in
detail the mismatch between the officially voiced desire for brotherly
exchange of ideologically valuable goods and the daily practice of Italian
publishers and readers of translation from German, who persisted in
tastes they had acquired in the pre-Nazi period of Weimar. Rubino’s
study reminds us that ‘censorship’ alone is an inadequate conceptual
tool when working with translation in Fascist Italy, since the complexi-
ties of reception arose from longer histories of literary and journalistic
image-making, the internal dynamics of which continued to work in
parallel to official policy. Indicating the important role of translation in
the generation of such cultural representations, and in turn the part that
existing representations will play in the selection and mode of subse-
quent translations, Rubino casts light on the difficulties faced by fascist
cultural policy in truly managing to ‘educate public taste’.
In Chapter 7, Francesca Nottola, in her detailed study of the Einaudi
publishing house, provides us with an important complement to the
experiences of Mondadori and Bompiani as described by Rundle in
Chapter 2. In contrast to these publishers’ relatively smooth negotiation
of the sensitive field of translation publishing, the political activity of
a number of his friends and associates meant that Einaudi was briefly
arrested and was monitored very closely by the regime. His status was
such, however, that the regime found it expedient not to shut him
PROOF
Christopher Rundle and Kate Sturge 11
down, and instead adopted a strategy of mild but frustrating and often
unpredictable obstructionism in contrast to the more cooperative spirit
adopted towards publishers perceived to be aligned with the regime. In
particular, Einaudi was often hindered in his attempts to publish transla-
tions which were apparently harmless, and he was even told unofficially
to avoid publishing translations of Anglo-American works – the only evi-
dence to date of a Fascist translation policy that targeted a specific source
language, and a case that highlights the ambivalent and often contradic-
tory nature of Fascist policies of censorship and cultural control.
In Chapter 8, Frank-Rutger Hausmann’s essay on two poetry antholo-
gies from the 1940s continues the theme of literary exchange as a politi-
cally charged, and politically manipulated, channel of communication.
His study draws out the importance of such exchange as one element of
the occupation’s cultural propaganda: the compilation of an anthology
of German poetry in French translation was a project of the German
Institute in Paris and part of a drive to publicize German culture in
occupied France. Yet as Hausmann points out, even under such extreme
circumstances the history of the anthology and its planned successor,
an anthology of French poetry in German translation, was not simply
one of obedience to the dictates of the state. The actors involved in the
anthologizing projects were motivated too by continuities with pre-
1933 traditions and their own literary ambitions, which they saw as
existing in a sphere beyond the reach of day-to-day political realities.
Rather than focusing on institutions, Rui Pina Coelho turns to
the fortunes of one author in translation in Chapter 9. His essay on
Shakespeare in the Portuguese theatre under Salazar and Caetano traces
the ways that state intervention could shape an era’s image of a particu-
lar imported author through the choice of particular texts for transla-
tion, textual manipulation, and the specific translational or adaptational
decisions made during production. As Coelho’s case reminds us, such
manipulation is not a feature of fascism alone – the eventful history
of Shakespeare in translation over four centuries is a prime example of
highly diverse forms of selection or exclusion, canonization or demoni-
zation, and ideologically motivated textual intervention (see, for exam-
ple, Delabastita and D’hulst 1993). In the case of Salazar’s Portugal, the
choice of Shakespeare’s plays and the manner of their production took
place at the tense boundary between an inward-looking regime and the
intellectual currents of its Western European surroundings.
The volume closes in Part IV with Chapter 10, by cultural historian
Matthew Philpotts, providing an overall response to the issues raised
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12 Translation and the History of Fascism
by the studies contained in this volume and evaluating the interdis-
ciplinary contribution that studies of translation have to make to the
cultural history of fascism.
Notes
The editors would like to thank the Department of Interdisciplinary Studies in
Translation, Languages and Cultures (SITLeC) of the University of Bologna, Forlì
campus, and especially its former director Professor Rosa Maria Bollettieri, for the
moral, financial and logistical support which helped make this project possible.
1. See, for example, Ben-Ghiat (2001) and Stone (1998) on Italy, Barbian (1995a)
and Cuomo (1995) on Germany, Abellán (1980) and Carbajosa and Carbajosa
(2003) on Spain, and Ó (1996) on Portugal.
2. Griffin (1991: 121) uses the term ‘para-fascist’ to describe the Spanish and
Portuguese regimes, both of which he considers to be examples of ‘abortive’,
not fully realized, fascist systems. Payne (1995: 266) uses the term ‘semi-
fascist’ in reference to Spain but describes Salazar’s Estado Novo as a form of
‘authoritarian corporatism’ or ‘authoritarian corporative liberalism’ (1995:
313), by which he would seem to imply that Spain was more fascist than
Portugal.
3. Aside from Griffin and Payne, mentioned earlier, examples of other scholars
who have, in one way or another, grouped these four regimes (among others)
together in a study of fascism are Blinkhorn (1990), Kallis (2000, 2003), Costa
Pinto, Eatwell and Larsen (1995), and Paxton (2004).
4. Aside from the chapters in this collection, the following historical studies
inform this analysis: Fabre (1998), Ben-Ghiat (2001), Payne (1995), Gallagher
(1990), Costa Pinto (1995), Sturge (2004), Schäfer (1991), Geyer-Ryan (1987).
PROOF
270
Abetz, Otto 202, 204
Action Française 140
adventure fiction 20, 58, 77, 78,
110, 124, 127, 128, 139
agreements, bilateral cultural 71
Alain-Fournier, Henri 163
Albee, Edward 105
Alfieri, Dino 31–2, 35–7, 182
Alfonso XIII, King 113
Alicata, Mario 181, 184–91, 194
Allason, Barbara 168
Allert de Lange (publ.) 166
Alonso-Pesquera, José María 101
Álvarez Turienzo, Father Saturnino 98
Alvaro, Corrado 24, 154, 174
Amado, Fernando 225
Amado, Jorge 137
American literature in translation
into Portuguese 125, 127, 128, 137
into German 8, 19, 55, 56, 59, 63,
68, 77–8, 151, 158, 160
into Italian 11, 41, 50, 151, 170,
181–3, 184, 193–4, 196
into Spanish 91, see also theatre
translation
Amt Schrifttumspflege see censorship in
Germany
Anderson, Maxwell 105
Angelis, Augusto de 72
animal stories 57
Anouilh, Jean 24
anthologies 11, 57, 170, 201–2, 204,
206–8, 210–2, 214
anti-Communism 86, 101
anti-Nazi authors 8, 44 n.7, 60, 70,
72, 101, 164
Emigranten-Literatur 166, 168
anti-Semitism 5, 7, 9–10, 35–7, 41,
42, 110, 118, 154, 169, 171
see also purges, racial laws
Antunes, José Freire 142
Aparicio, Juan 92, 114
Apertura see censorship
Apostel, Leo 97
Appia, Adolphe 223, 225
Aragon, Louis 135
Arcádia (publ.) 139
Arias Salgado, Gabriel 93, 104, 106
Arrabal, Fernando 107, 226
Artemis (publ.) 210, 214, 225
Astrolabio (publ.) 190
Aubry, Octave 58
Aufwärts (publ.) 58
autarky
economic autarky 22–3, 51
cultural autarky 8, 26–7, 30–1, 34,
247
see also reciprocity
Authors and Writers Union 17, 33,
36, 38, 39
anti-translation campaign 26–31
see also Autori e scrittori
Autori e scrittori 27
Ávila, Norberto 223, 227
Axis 71, 167, 187
Balkan literature in translation 150
Balzac, Honoré de 57, 127, 128
Barreto, Álvaro Salvação 129
Barton, John 221
‘Battle for Wheat’ 47
Baum, Vicki 127, 151, 160, 164,
166
Baumann, Hans 201, 211
Beauvoir, Simone de 128, 137
Becher, Johannes R. 201
Beckett, Samuel 222, 226
Belinsky, Vissarion 187
Belo, Ruy 124
Bemporad (publ.) 150, 151, 162
Index
Note: where a name is followed by (publ.) this indicates a reference to a publishing
house.
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Index 271
Benito, Father Eugenio 104
Benjamin, Walter 97, 101, 155
Benoît, Pierre 150
Benthall, Michael 227
Berdyaev, Nikolai Alexandrovich 187
Bergengruen, Werner 201
Berliner Ensemble see Brecht
Bermann-Fischer (publ.) 166
Bernanos, George 134, 139
Bernhardt, Sarah 224
Berti, Luigi 182, 183, 185, 196, 197,
199
Besteiro, Julián 95
bestsellers see statistics
Beumelburg, Werner 166
Bibliographie de la France 44
Billinger, Richard 169
Binding, Rudolf 127, 169, 170
Bissolati, Leonida 180
Blei, Franz 205
Blue Shirts, the 140
Blunck, Hans Friedrich 169
Blyton, Enid 110, 128
Böhlau, Helene 148, 172
Boiadzhiev G. N. 223
Bollea, Giovanni 190
Bollettino delle pubblicazioni
italiane 44
Bompiani (publ.) 10, 41, 158, 164,
169–70, 183, 185
Bompiani, Valentino 26, 49, 182,
195, 196, 197
Bonaparte, Napoleon 188–9, 192,
198
bonifica see purges
Book Corporation (Italy) 24, 44
Book Division/Division III see
Ministry for Popular Culture
book prices 123
book series
‘Biblioteca Arcádia de Bolso’ 139
‘Biblioteca Cosmos’ 144
‘Biblioteca di cultura storica’ 180
‘Deutsches für Deutsche’ 65
‘[I] libri gialli’ 20, 23, 32, 39, 49,
161
‘I romanzi della guerra’ 162
‘L’Universale’ 181, 197
‘Medusa’ 162–3, 171, 175, 177
‘Narratori Stranieri Tradotti’ 180–1
‘Poeti’ 180
‘Ricordi e documenti di
guerra’ 180
‘Rififi’ 138
‘Romanzi della Palma’ 32, 39, 162
‘Saggi’ 180–1
booksellers 30, 52, 59, 62, 122–123,
138, 141, 239
Boor, Ellen de 74, 76, 83
Borchardt, Rudolf 205
Borrás, Tomás 109
Börsenblatt für den deutschen
Buchhandel 44
Börsenverein der Deutschen
Buchhändler 62
Botelho, Fernanda 124
Bottai, Giuseppe 34–5, 47–8, 186,
189, 194–5, 198
Bourdeilles, Pierre de 189
Bourdieu, Pierre 115, 237–8, 246–7,
250, 254
Boutelleau, Jacques see Jacques
Chardonne
Brand, Max 79
Brasillach, Robert 71
Brazão, Eduardo 224
Brecht, Bertolt 132, 170, 201, 247,
316
Berliner Ensemble 221
epic theater 220, 221–2, 226
in Portugal 221–2, 227
Brehm, Bruno 169
British Council 71, 219
Broadway 105–6, 268
Brook, Peter 224
Buarque, Chico 222
Buck, Pearl S. 63, 127, 128, 163,
175
Buckle, Henry Thomas 189
Buero Vallejo, Antonio 109
Burchett, Wilfred G. 138
Bureau International pour la protection des
Oeuvres littéraires et artistiques 44
Cabral, Carlos 228
Caetano, Marcelo 11, 118–19, 130,
217
Caldwell, Erskine 127–8, 138
PROOF
272 Index
Camerino, Aldo 182–3, 185, 188,
196–8
campaigns against translation see
translation
Camus, Albert 96, 128, 133
Cardoso Gomes, Joaquim 142
Carlists 84
Carnation Revolution 119, 217, 229
Carossa, Hans 128, 164, 170, 177,
201
Carroll, Lewis 184
Carvalho, Bessa de 227
Casa da Comédia 225
Casanova, Pascale 247–9, 254
Casini, Gherardo 33, 36, 47, 186,
191, 194, 195, 198, 254
Casson, Lewis 219
Castellani, Emilio 152–3, 173, 254
Catholic Church 84, 86, 141, 192,
240
Catholic opposition 169
Catholicism 84–5, 92, 101, 113, 118
Catholicists 90, 92, 96, 100–3, 109,
113–14, 242
CB Films 103
Cecchi, Emilio 185
Céline, Louis Ferdinand 151, 172
Cénico de Direito theatre group 230
Censoring Commission see censorship
in Portugal
censorship 6–7, 238–9
definitions of 216–17
preventive 7
quantitative and qualitative
research methods 102
self-censorship 89, 107, 159,
183–4, 194, 218, 245
see also purges
Censorship Board see censorship in
Spain
censorship in Germany
and adaptation 67–8
and copyright 57, 63
and publishing strategy 53, 57
and reprints 54–5, 239
anti-Semitic see purges
blanket bans 56, 63, 73, 239
failures of 58–9, 78–9
indexes/blacklists 60–3, 78
institutions: Parteiamtliche
Prüfungskommission 59, 61;
Amt Schrifttumspflege 59;
Sicherheitsdienst 59; Gestapo
59; Propaganda Ministry 60, 63,
72, 76, 79, 242; Reich Chamber
of Writers 51, 60–3, 70, 79–80,
82, 169
of left-wing authors 56
of popular fiction 78–9
permission for translations 61
pre-publication versus post-
publication 61, 64
self-censorship 62
wartime bans 53, 56, 58, 59, 63–4
censorship in Italy
and reprints 181–2, 188, 189
anti-Semitic see purges
criteria 182, 184–90, 193
institutions see Ministry for Popular
Culture
of classics see classics
translation quota 37–8, 39–40
translation restrictions 37–40,
186–8
ban against Anglo-American
literature see Einuadi
ban against Russian literature see
Einaudi
Mussolini’s involvement 188
preventive 23, 47 n.37
censorship in Portugal
abolition of 229
criteria 132, 217–8, 228:
anti-colonialism 136; anti-
militarism 135; ideological/
political dissidence 135,
218; political neutrality 134;
pornography 135–6, 137;
realism 136; morality
and religion 217, 228;
sexuality 133–4, 137, 228
effectiveness of 138–9
flexibility towards elite 133
history of 217–8
institutional framework 129
institutions: Censoring
Commission 129–30, 131–8,
140; Censorship Office 129;
PROOF
Index 273
Commission for Examining
and Classifying Performances
219–20, 230; General Inspectorate
of Theatres 217; [National]
Propaganda Secretariat 120,
130, 217
of books 129
of Shakespeare 218, 221–3, 228–9
of translation 131, 138–9
no a priori ban on authors 132
Regulamento dos Serviços de
Censura 130
reports 131–8
censorship in Spain
Apertura 87–8, 103–4, 106, 113
censors 90, 92–3, 97–9, 101,
103–4, 106–7, 113
Cine-clubs 99–100
children’s literature 109–10
Conversaciones de Salamanca
conference 100
Falangist and Catholic
standards 103, 113
imposition of dubbing 99, 246
imposition of Spanish in
theatres 105
institutions: Censorship Board 87,
91, 100, 108, 238–9; Comisión de
Censura 100; Delegación Nacional
de Cine y Teatro 106; Dirección
General de Propaganda 100, 106;
Junta Superior de Censura 100;
Junta Superior de Orientación
Cinematográfica 100; Delegación
Nacional de Propaganda 100, 106,
110, 114; Subsecretaría de Prensa y
Propaganda 90
of Hollywood see Hollywood
periodization of in Francoist
Spain 87–8
Salas Especiales 100
see also Ley de Prensa
Censorship Office see censorship in
Portugal
Cernuda, Luis 108
Chardonne, Jacques 202, 211
Chessmann, Caryl 139, 144
Chesterton, G.K. 149
Chomksy, Noam 97
Christian Democracy 141
Christian literature 60
Ciardo, Manlio 199
Ciarlantini, Franco 26, 29, 36
see also Publishers Federation
cinema/film 99–105, 155–157
in Germany 7, 74, 152, 174
in Italy 41, 172
in Portugal 120, 121, 123, 131,
133
in Spain 87, 88, 90, 91–2, 99, 105,
106–7, 115
see also dubbing, film industry
Claes, Ernest 61
classics 25, 33, 46, 59, 183, 185, 186,
189, 193, 196, 204, 222
from Scandinavia 65
‘internal’ translations 40
recognized ‘classics’ 57, 183
theatre classics 224, 226
Cocteau, Jean 209
Coimbra University student company
(TEUC) 228
Coimbra University theatre group
CITAC 220, 227–8
Cold War 86, 135, 186, 237, 249
Colette 133, 143, 163
collaboration 35, 129, 193, 202–3,
210
colonialism 8, 26–7, 41, 95, 132,
136
Italian East Africa 9, 23, 26–7, 147,
166, 182
Portuguese Empire 119, 136
Roman Empire 165, 189, 191–2
comic fiction 57, 103, 105, 216, 224,
228, 229
Comisión de Censura see censorship in
Spain
Commission for Examining and
Classifying Performances see
censorship in Portugal
Commission for the Purging of Books
see Ministry for Popular Culture
Communism 85–7, 96–7, 118,
132–9, 141, 186, 192, 243
Communist Manifesto 97
Companhia Dramática da Sociedade
Theatral 230
PROOF
274 Index
Companhia Nacional de Teatro 227
Companhia Rey Colaço-Robles
Monteiro 224–5, 227
Conan Doyle, Arthur 55, 77, 127,
241
Conde, Enrique 110
Confederation of Professionals and
Artists (Italy) 28, 31, 37
Confiscation 60, 138
Conrad, Joseph 127, 149, 172, 189
conservative revolution 75, 127,
265
contamination see translation,
metaphors of
continuity with pre-fascist
traditions 55, 58, 64, 67, 241
Coppola, Goffredo 185–6, 198, 255
copyright 28, 57, 63, 73–4, 80, 122
Corbaccio see Modernissima (publ.)
Corbière, Tristan 209
Corporation for Paper and Printing
(Italy) 44
Corporation of Professions and Arts
(Italy) 34
corporativism 12 n.2, 85, 118
Corticelli (publ.) 150, 169
cosmopolitanism 53, 169, 187, 247
Coster, Charles de 65
Couto Viana, António Manuel 227
Cozzani, Ettore 72
Craig, Gordon 223, 225
Crane, Stephen 187
crime fiction 6, 40, 52, 58, 77–9,
127–8, 241–2
‘I libri gialli’ see book series
Critica fascista 34, 47, 49
Croce, Benedetto 26, 155, 195, 255
Crompton, Richmal 110
Cronin, A. J. 68
cross-gendering see sexuality
cultural autarky see autarky
cultural exchange 5, 8, 20, 28, 33–5,
43, 179, 202, 248, 249
cultural expansion 8, 15, 20, 34–5,
42–3, 71, 85
cultural policy 3–5, 8, 10, 51–2, 79,
87–8, 120, 204, 212, 239, 243
cultural prestige 9, 15–16, 26, 30,
35, 40, 41, 42
cultural renewal 8, 20, 158, 215,
222, 227
cultural/racial purity 9, 35–6, 41
currency, foreign 30, 63, 247
Customs Services (Portugal) 131
D’Annunzio, Gabriele 148–9, 162,
171
D’Errico, Ezio 72
da Silva, Agostinho 123–4
Dahl, Roald 110
Daily Telegraph, The 119
Danish literature in translation 58,
163, 171
Daranas, Mariano 101
Dàuli, Gian 149–50, 161
De Canales, Patricio G. 104, 111,
114
de Kock, Charles Paul 132
De Vecchi, Cesare 47
Declaración de Principios Fundamentales
del Movimiento Nacional 86
degenerate art 170
Delegación Nacional de Cine y Teatro
see censorship in Spain
Delegación Nacional de Propaganda
see censorship in Spain
Departamento Nacional de
Cinematografía 10
Desbordes-Valmore, Marceline
206
detective novels see crime fiction
dictatorship, limits of 118, 235–8
Diederichs (publ.) 54, 57, 65, 75
Díez de Corral, Luis 92
Dine, S.S. van 161
Dirección General de Propaganda see
censorship in Spain
Döblin, Alfred 151, 160, 170, 172
Domínguez de Igoa, Luis F. 101
Dos Passos, John 61, 128, 134, 136,
160, 163, 172
Dramatic Group of the University of
St Andrews 230
Droit d’Auteur 44
Droste-Hülshoff, Annette von 200
dubbing 99, 102, 105, 245, 246
Dutch literature in translation
55–6
PROOF
Index 275
Echarri, Javier de 101
Eckart, Dieter 67
economic autarky see autarky
Editorial Biblioteca Nueva
(publ.) 111
Editorial Vergara (publ.) 112
Eher (publ.) 64, 74
Einaudi (publ.) 10, 178–96, 240
authorization denied 187–90
ban against Anglo-American
literature 11, 182–5, 193
ban against Russian literature
187–8
Einaudi, Giulio 11, 26, 178–96
Einaudi, Luigi 26, 179, 180, 195
Einstein, Albert 133
elites, allowed more freedom 7, 90,
92, 240–2
Ellie, Albert 137
Éluard, Paul 135
emigrant literature see anti-Nazi
authors
Empresa Vasco Morgado 225–6
English literature in translation 6
into German 54, 55–6, 58, 59, 63,
73, 77–8, 239, 241
into Italian 149, 150, 151, 163,
183, 193
into Portuguese 123, 127, 128
into Spanish 105, 108–9
see also Shakespeare
entertainment 20, 58, 67, 74–5, 77,
78, 155, 167, 171, 217, 242
see also escapism
epidemic see translation,
metaphors of
Epting, Karl 202–7, 210–2
escapism 79, 91, 149
Escorial 110
Escuela Oficial de
Cinematografia 116
Estado Novo 12, 117–19, 121, 124–5,
129–32, 139, 236
Ethiopia, invasion of see colonialism
European Writers Association 170,
249
expansionism 7–8, 27, 41, 71
expressionism 150, 155, 157, 160,
172
Falange Española (FE) 5, 113–14
falangism 92, 116
Falangist Party 166
Falangists 84, 86, 97, 101, 110–112,
166
impact on Spanish censorship 87,
90–5, 98–100, 103, 109, 113, 242
Fallada, Hans 128, 160, 163–5, 169,
241
Faria, Almeida 222
fascism 3–5, 236–8
and aesthetics 101, 110
and renewal 5, 7–8, 33, 36, 244
and totalitarianism 7, 235–7,
244–5
defined by anti-Communism 86
expansion 8–9
gap between rhetoric and
reality 113, 240–1
in Spain 84–86, 112–13, 244
in Portugal 118, 137, 244
para-fascism 4, 85, 93, 113, 236
semi-fascism 4, 236
ultra-nationalism 237, 244, 249
Fascist Grand Council 26, 34
Fascist Party (PNF) 26, 34, 43, 118,
196
Fast, Howard 113
Faulkner, William 59, 128
FE de las JONS 85–7
Fernández Cuenca, Carlos 103–4,
106, 115
Fernández Cuesta, Raimundo 85
Fernandez Flores, Venceslao 171
Fernández Flórez, Darío 110–1
Fernández López Zúñiga,
Guillermo 104
Fernando XIII, King 84
Ferro, Antonio 120–1, 215, 225
FET y de las JONS 84–7, 92–3
Feuchtwanger, Lion 151, 161, 163–4,
166
Feuerbach, Ludwig 97
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb 97
Fiera Letteraria, La 23, 44
film distribution companies 102–3
film industry 22, 152
Weimar Republic 155
US see Hollywood
PROOF
276 Index
film industry – continued
Spanish 92–3, 99, 101–3
see also cinema
film noir 90, 101
film translation 99–100, 107
First World War 67, 105, 140, 148,
152, 173, 180, 191
Flemish literature in translation 57,
65, 68
see also Dutch literature
Fleuron, Svend 58, 71, 73
Fort, Paul 209
Foucault, Michel 98, 237, 245–6
Fraga Iribarne, Manuel 104
Francisco Lage 225–6
Franco, Francisco 3, 8, 84–7, 89,
92–3, 96–9, 101–3, 104, 118, 133,
166, 171
his rule 94, 97, 111, 240
Franco-German relations 202–4,
210, 249
Francoism 84, 87–91, 98, 104–6,
110, 112–13, 116, 143
fascist nature of 4, 84–5
Frank, Leonhard 151, 161, 164, 170,
172
Franke (publ.) 65–6
Frankh (publ.) 66
Frassinelli (publ.) 164, 169
Frege, Gottlob Friedrich Ludwig 190
Freitas, Lima de 124
French literature in translation 250
into German 6, 55–6, 58, 73, 201,
204–210
into Italian 148–51, 162–3, 180,
184–6, 188–9, 240
into Portuguese 105, 126–7, 128,
133–4, 139, 144
into Spanish 105, 226
Frente Popular 84
‘Freudism’ 190
Freya (publ.) 66
Fundação Nacional para Alegria no
Trabalho 134
Gaeta, Bruno 184, 188, 190, 194
Galsworthy, John 54, 63, 163
Garaudy, Roger 97
García del Figar, Father Antonio 101
Garcia Escudero, José Maria 103
Garcia Escudero, Pio 101
García Morente, Manuel 95
García Viñolas, Augusto Manuel 90,
100, 114, 116
García Yebra, Valentín 110
Garnier, Christine 122
Gazzetta del Popolo 134
Geibel, Emanuel 205
General Directorate for the Italian
Press see Ministry for Popular
Culture
General Inspectorate of Theatres
see censorship in Portugal
George, Stefan 201, 205
German Democratic Republic
(GDR) 142, 213, 235–7, 243–4,
248, 250–1
German Institute, Paris 11, 201–7,
210
German literature in translation 8,
18–20, 69–71, 248–9
into Italian 10, 70, 72, 147–51,
157–171, 180–1, 187, 190–3, 241
in occupied areas 11, 201–4, 210,
249
into Portuguese 125–127, 128
into Spanish 90–1, 96–7
Gestapo see censorship in Germany
Gevers, Marie 65
Gibbon, Edward 189
Gide, André 163, 210
Gil, Rafael 104
Giménez Caballero, Ernesto 71, 85,
92, 115
Ginzburg, Leone 150, 179–180, 186,
194
Ginzburg, Natalia 178
Giornale della Libreria 30, 43–4, 45,
46, 47, 48, 49
Giornale di politica e di letteratura 24
Giraudoux, Jean 24
Giustizia e Libertà 26
Glaeser, Ernst 151, 159, 162
Gleichschaltung 62
globalization 6
Gobetti, Piero 178, 195
Goebbels, Josef 76, 169–71, 203
see also Propaganda Ministry
PROOF
Index 277
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 52,
128, 155, 180, 205, 208
Goldmann (publ.) 54, 58, 78, 81
Goldmann, Lucien 136
Gollancz, Victor 114
Gómez Mesa, Luis 103–4, 115
Goncharov, Ivan 187
Goncourt Academy 143
González Ruiz, Nicolás 105–6, 109
Gorki, Maxim 61, 133
Gorkin, Julían 135
Govoni, Corrado 31, 33
Gramsci, Antonio 97, 175, 180
Gray, Ezio Maria 34
Green, A.K. 161
Greene, Graham 128, 137
Grey, Zane 79, 128
Grimm, Hans 128, 169, 191
Groussard, Serge 144
Grupo de Teatro Moderno do Clube
Fenianos Portuenses 222
Guanda (publ.) 169
Guitart, Enrique 109
Gulbenkian Foundation 121, 219
Gulbranssen, Trygve 58, 74–7, 80
Gunnarsson, Gunnar 73, 75
Guthrie, Tyrone 219
Hall, Peter 221
Hall, Radclyffe 55, 59
Hamsun, Knut 73, 75
Hardy, Thomas 182–3
Hašek, Jaroslav 97
Haug, Gerhart 205, 207, 212
Hauptmann, Gerhart 128, 163
Haushofer, Albrecht 169–70
Hawthorne, Nathaniel 127, 185
Hays Code 91, 104, 106, 244
Hedin, Sven 61
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 97
Heidegger, Martin 96
Heine, Heinrich 201
Hemingway, Ernest 59, 128, 133,
160
Heredia, José-Maria 209
Hesse, Hermann 161, 162, 170, 205,
206
‘Hispanidad’ 95–6
historical romance 58–9, 151, 160
history plays see Shakespeare
Hitler, Adolf 3, 59, 67, 86, 93, 116,
134, 147, 165, 170, 204, 221, 239,
245
his regime 235, 237, 243
Hoesslin, Franz von 204
Hofmannsthal, Hugo von 170
Hölderlin, Friedrich 128, 201
Holland, Katrin 166
Hollywood 64, 66, 90–1, 100–1, 104,
106, 108, 241, 144
homosexuality see sexuality
Hugo, Victor 127, 128, 209
Hungarian literature in
translation 171
into German 55, 69
into Italian 151
Huxley, Aldous 111, 128, 163
Ibsen, Henrik 67
Il Saggiatore 180
Il Bargello 37
Il Torchio 23
illiteracy 119, 121, 140
Index Translationum see statistics
Indian National Congress 184
industrialization of publishing 6, 16,
22, 26, 192
Insel (publ.) 65, 213
Institut français 71
Institute for Cultural Cooperation,
Paris 43
Instituto de Investigaciones
y Experiencias
Cinematográficas 116
Instrucciones y Normas para la Censura
Moral de Espectáculos 106
Insula (publ.) 108
Integralismo Lusitano 140 n.2
invasion of translations see
translation, metaphors of
Ionesco, Eugène 226
Italian Communist Party 186
Italian Copyright Agency (SIAE) 28
Italian literature in translation 8, 16,
18–20, 27–8, 30, 34, 36–40, 42–3,
187, 198, 247
into German 55, 59, 72, 162
into Portuguese 135–6
PROOF
278 Index
Italian–German relations 72, 165–7
Italo-German Association 40
Jahn, Moritz 71
James, Henry 127, 183, 197
Janés (publ.) 111
Jato, David 101, 115
Johst, Hanns 51, 169
JONS see FE de las JONS and FET y de
las JONS
Jonson, Ben 109
Joyce, James 59, 111, 242
Jung, Carl Gustav 190
Jünger, Ernst 169
Jünger, Friedrich Georg 201
Júnior, Redondo 223
Junta Superior de Censura see
censorship in Spain
Junta Superior de Orientación
Cinematográfica see censorship in
Spain
Juntas Castellanas de Acción
Hispánica 85
Kadri, Yakub 171
Kafka, Franz 161, 164, 170
Kant, Immanuel 94–6, 98, 103, 136,
170, 240
Kästner, Erich 57, 164, 241
Kaus, Gina 164, 166
Kellermann, Bernhard 128, 164
Kerst, Killian 190
Keun, Irmgard 166
King, Henry 115
Kipling, Rudyard 149–50
Kivi, Aleksis 73
Kolbenheyer, Erwin Guido 166, 170
Kolmar, Gertrud 201
Kott, Jan 220–3
Krause, Christian F.
krausismo 91
Kröger, Theodor 169
La Fayette, Madame de 189
la Rosa, Alfonso de 100
La Sera 24
La Stampa 24, 44, 154, 170
Laclos, Pierre Choderlos de 189
Lacretelle, Jacques de 163
Lagerlöf, Selma 61, 73, 75
Lain Entralgo, Pedro 110
Lamas, Maria 124
Lang, Fritz 152, 155–6
Langen, Albert 73
Langen-Müller (publ.) 58, 74, 75
Lasker-Schüler Else 201
Lasne, René 201, 205, 206–207,
210–211, 213
Laterza (publ.) 26, 179, 187, 195,
199
Lauesen, Marcus 163
Lautréamont, Compte de (Isidore
Lucien Ducasse) 189
Lawrence, D. H. 110, 116, 132, 134,
136, 163, 185
Lawrence, Marc 115
Le Figaro 144
League of Nations 27, 43, 166
sanctions against Italy 23, 182,
192
Leblanc, Maurice 128, 149
Lederer, Joe 164, 165
Ledesma, Ramiro 85, 92, 114
Lefebvre, Henri 97
Lefevere, André 4, 51, 64
Legion of Decency 91–92
Lehmann, Rosamond 111
Lemos, Pedro 227
Lereno, Manuel 229
Leroux, Gaston 149
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim 97
Lewis, Sinclair 64, 151, 160
Lewis, Wyndham 64, 68
Ley de Prensa 87, 97
Liala (Amalia Liana Cambiasi
Negretti Odescalchi) 22
liberal bourgeoisie 85
libraries 51, 61–3, 70, 74, 77–9, 138,
142, 147, 206, 213, 219, 241
‘Libri gialli’ see book series
Linati, Carlo 183, 197
Linklater, Eric 66
Lisbon Players, The 224
literary series see book series
Livros de Portugal (LP) 122–24, 144
Lloyd Wright, Frank 182
Lo Gatto, Ettore 150
Loehlin, James N. 220–1
PROOF
Index 279
London, Jack 68, 127–28, 149–50,
172
longsellers 149
López Rodó, Laureano 86
see anti-Communism
Lorca, Federico Garcia 224
Loriga, Francesco 48–49
Luca de Tena, Cayetano 227
Ludwig, Emil 134
Lumet, Sidney 104, 115
Lumumba, Patrice 133
Macieira, Virgílio 225
Maeztu, Ramiro de 85, 95–96, 98
Malaparte, Curzio 135
Mallarmé, Stéphane 209
Malraux, André 134
Manifesto of Portuguese theatre
professionals 229
Mann, Heinrich 134, 166, 172
Mann, Thomas 128, 151, 161,
163–4, 170, 172, 200, 241
Marcelist Spring 130
Mariani, Mario 149, 172
Marín, Astrana 109
Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso 27, 31,
33, 37, 239
marketing 77–78
Marlitt, Eugenie 148
Martín Vara, Pablo 104
Martins, Armando 216
Martins, Luzia Maria 221–2, 227
Martins, Pedro 227
Marxism 85–86, 96, 111–2, 120, 130,
133, 135–6, 140, 152
mass culture 6–7, 22, 77, 85, 101,
149, 158
Masters, Lee 184–5
Matos, Ruy de 228
Maupassant, Guy de 127, 189
Mauriac, François 163
Maurois, André 163
Maurras, Charles 140, 209
May, Joe 156
Mazzucchetti, Lavinia 148, 150, 161,
168–9, 171
Melville, Herman 182
Menzel, Herybert 201
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 97
metropolitan novel
(Großstadtroman) 160–1
Meyenburg, Erwin 225
Meyerhold, Vsevolod E. 223
Mezzasoma, Fernando 188, 198
Michaelis, Karin 61
Miller, Arthur 105, 107, 108, 128
Miller, Henry 137
Ministry for National Education
(Portugal)
Ministry for Popular Culture
(Italy) 31–3, 37–8, 45 n.25
Book Division/Division III 188
Commission for the Purging of
Books 35–7, 190
General Directorate for the Italian
Press 33
Prime Minister’s Press Office 40,
45 n.25, 162
State Under Secretariat for Press and
Propaganda 45 n.25
Ministry for the Press and
Propaganda 29, 45 n.25
Ministry for Propaganda see
censorship in Germany
Ministry for the Press and Propaganda
see Ministry for Popular Culture
Ministry of Education (Italy) see Bottai
miscegenation see translation,
metaphors of
Moberg, Vilhelm 65
Mocidade Portuguesa 134
Modernissima (publ.) 150–1, 164,
172, 173
modernist literature 57, 59–60, 73,
105, 239, 244
modernization of publishing see
industrialization of publishing
Mondadori (publ.) 20, 40, 158,
161–4, 169–70, 183, 185, 187,
241
see also book series
Mondadori, Arnoldo 26, 48 n.45,
49 n.52, 166, 195, 249
minimizes no. of trans. 32, 39
Monelli, Paolo 153–55, 159, 165
Montano, Lorenzo 168
Monteiro, Luís Infante de Lacerda
Sttau 226, 228
PROOF
280 Index
morality 105, 110–1, 113, 132, 135,
159, 172, 190, 217–18, 228, 244
moralism 85, 87
Morand, Paul 163
Morante, Elsa 184, 189
Moravia, Alberto 133
More, Thomas 189
Morgan, Charles 111
Mourlane Michelena, Pedro 101,
115
Movimiento 86
Müller, A. (publ.) 72, 170
Mura (Maria Volpi) 22
Murnau, Friedrich Wilhem 156
Muscetta, Carlo 181, 184, 189, 196
Musset, Alfred de 209
Mussolini, Benito 3, 22, 26, 59, 99,
113, 165, 167, 176, 187–88, 190,
195, 200
National Socialism 5, 51–2, 73, 118,
127, 134–5, 137, 165, 167, 169,
202, 218, 236, 241, 243–5, 248
policies of 62, 239
programme of 51, 80
National Union (Portugal) 118–19
national-Catholicism 85, 92, 96,
101, 103, 104, 113
nationalism 5, 9, 23, 27, 90, 99, 101,
111, 120, 135, 154, 162, 169, 187,
192, 238
cultural nationalism 33
ultra-nationalism 85, 237, 239,
244, 249
Nazi Party (NSDAP) 78
Nehru, Pandit Jawaharlal 184
Nemésio, Vitorino 124
neo-Nietzschean movement 97
neo-realism 120, 136–7
Neothomism 94
Neruda, Pablo 135
Nerval, Gérard de 201, 210
Neto, João Cabral de Melo 222
Neumann, Alfred 151, 165
New Europe/New European 70, 170,
203, 210
New Shakespeare Company Ltd 219,
227, 230
Niebelschütz, Wolf von 205, 206
Nietzsche, Friedrich 97, 148, 171,
201, 240
NO-DO News Service 101
Nogueira, Goulart 227
Nordic ideal 67, 69, 73, 75, 77, 150,
175
Norwegian literature in translation
into German 52, 59, 67, 69, 73–6
into Italian 171
O Século 142
O’Flaherty, Liam 163
O’Neill, Alexandre 124
O’Neill, Eugene 105, 107, 224
occupied nations 8, 59, 68
France 11, 202
Oggi 196
Old Norse literature in
translation 54, 57, 65, 75
Old Vic 219, 230
Ortiz Muñoz, Francisco 92, 100
Orwell, George 97, 111, 240
Oviedo, Juan Carlos 227
Oxford Playhouse Company 226,
230
Pabst, Georg Wilhelm 152, 156
Palitzsch, Peter 221
Panero, Leopoldo 110
paper shortages 53–4, 61, 64, 73,
105
para-fascist see fascism
paratexts 66
Parteiamtliche Prüfungskommission see
censorship in Germany
Partido Obrero de Unificación
Marxista (POUM) 111
passive resistance 147, 168
Paulo, Rogério 223
Pavese, Cesare 179, 181, 182, 184,
185, 189, 194
Pavolini, Alessandro 31, 37–40, 182,
191
racialized view of translation 40–2
pressured by Mussolini 48 n.49
Pedro, António 222, 227
Pemán, José María 109
Pereira, Araújo 215
permission procedures 54, 61
PROOF
Index 281
Petersen, Nis 163
philosophy, translation of 26, 40,
88, 90, 91, 93–7, 136, 139, 190,
240
Pinter, Harold 226
Pinto, Ângela 224
Pirandello, Luigi 162
Pitigrilli (Dino Segre) 22, 134, 136,
149
Pivano, Fernanda 184, 197
‘Plan for the People’s Education’ 121
Plato 99, 115
Plinay/Plessey Automática Eléctrica
Portuguesa amateur theatre
group 228
Poe, Edgar Allan 127, 128
Polanski, Roman 115
Polledro, Alfredo 150, 161, 187–8
pollution see translation, metaphors of
Polverelli, Gaetano 40–1
Pons de l’Hérault, André 198
Popolo d’Italia 185
popular fiction 224, 241–2
in Germany 54, 58, 59, 76–7, 79,
81, 241
in Italy 6, 16, 20, 22, 25, 27, 32,
33, 38, 39, 158
in Portugal 123, 124, 126
in Spain 91
pornography 60, 137, 140, 143
Portugality (portugalidade) 120
Portuguese Empire see empire
Portuguese First Republic (1910–26)
118
Portuguese police (PSP) 129
Portuguese political police (PIDE/
DGS) 118, 129, 131, 136, 140,
228, 239
Portuguese State Television Theatre
Company 227
Pozzi, Catarina 201
Pratolini, Vasco 137
press, translation in the 93
Prezzolini, Giuseppe 23
Priestley, J. B. 224
Primato 186, 196
Prime Minister’s Press Office see
Ministry for Popular Culture
Primeiro de Janeiro 230
Primer Plano 90, 101, 115, 116
Primo de Rivera, José Antonio 84,
85, 92
Primo de Rivera, Miguel 84
print runs see statistics
private translations 91
promotion of translations see
translation
Propaganda Ministry see censorship in
Germany
Propaganda Secretariat see censorship
in Portugal
Proust, Marcel 128, 189
provincialization 54, 55, 239,
248–9
pseudonyms 6, 58, 78, 91, 127, 129
pseudotranslations 6, 58, 66, 76,
77–8, 91, 93, 127, 241
Publishers and Booksellers
Corporation (Portugal) 122–3,
239
Publishers Federation (Italy) 17,
24–6, 28, 35, 40, 192
manipulates statistics 30
preemptive purge 36–7
translation quota 37–8, 39–40
under attack 29–32
see also Giornale della Libreria
purges 238
of German literature 52, 56, 61,
64, 78
of Italian literature 33, 35–7, 42,
190
of Italian educational literature 35
see also anti-Semitism, censorship,
racial laws
Quayle, Anthony 219
Querido (publ.) 166
Rabuse, Georg 201, 205–7
racial laws 9–10, 35, 42, 147, 167,
181, 186, 194
see also anti-Semitism, purges
Radiguet, Raymond 189
Ramos, Domingos 229
Ramos, José María 104
realism 136, 138, 154, 160, 218,
246
PROOF
282 Index
Rebello, Luis Francisco 218, 222–23,
226–27
receptiveness see translation,
metaphors of
reciprocity 28, 34, 38,187
Reclam (publ.) 57, 65
recontextualization 64, 65
Redondo, Onésimo 85, 92
Régio, José 224
regionalism 120
Reich Chamber of Writers (RSK)
see censorship in Germany
Reich, Wilhelm 137, 157
Remarque, Erich Maria 128, 159,
162
Rémusat, Madame de 188
Renn, Ludwig 159, 162
repertoires 88–9, 91, 93, 101, 103–5,
112–13, 114, 116, 216, 218,
224–5, 228, 240
representation of cultures 4, 10, 102,
140
reprints 53–5, 57, 59, 63, 68, 72,
76–7, 164, 181–2, 188–9, 239
Resnevic Signorelli, Olga 187
Revista Internacional de Cine 93, 116
Rexroth, Franz von 205, 207
Ribeiro, Aquilino 124
Ribeiro, Francisco 225–6
Rice, Elmer 105
Ridruejo, Dionisio 100, 105, 110,
114
Rilke, Rainer Maria 128, 170, 180,
201, 205, 207–8
Rimbaud, Arthur 209, 213
Ring, Barbra 73
Rivera Pastor, Francisco 94
Rizzoli (publ.) 158
Robson, Marc 115
Rocca, Enrico 166, 168
Rodrigues, Urbano Tavares 124
Rodríguez-Puértolas Julio 112, 115
romances 6, 20, 80
Rosa, António Vítor Ramos 124
Rosenberg, Alfred 59, 68, 73, 76–7
Rossi, Ernesto 185, 224
Roth, Joseph 161
Rowohlt (publ.) 57, 59
Royal Academy of Belgium 143
Royal Academy of Italy 190
Royal Shakespeare Company 221
royalties 63
Royer, Charles 134, 5
Rusca, Luigi 168, 171
Russell, Bertrand 133
Russian literature in translation 172,
240
into German 55
into Italian 148, 151, 180, 184,
186, 187–8
sadism see sexuality
Sáenz de Heredia, José Luis 104
Sagan, Françoise 128, 133, 138
Sagan, Leontine 156
Sagarin, Edward 137
Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de 136, 163
Salani (publ.) 169
Salazar, António de Oliveira 3, 7, 8,
10, 11, 118–20, 129, 134, 140,
191, 215, 217
his regime 7, 135
his speeches translated 121–2,
130, 132
Salazarism 4
Salomon, Ernst von 169
Sánchez Bella, Alfredo 104
Sánchez Mazas, Rafael 85, 114–15
Sánchez Salazar, Leandro A. 135
Sanz del Río, Julián 91
Saramago, José 124, 143
Sarfatti, Margherita 22, 48
Sartre, Jean-Paul 94, 96, 115,
127–28, 132, 240
Scerbanenco, Giorgio 72
Schalit, Leon 63
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Josef 97
Schiller, Friedrich 191
Schneider, Georg 205–10
Schneider, Reinhold 169
schools 35, 38, 61, 65–6, 76, 119–20,
144, 148–49, 239
Schopenhauer, Arthur 97
Schröder, Rudolf Alexander 201,
205
Schuré, Édouard 201, 210
Schweitzer, Paolo 183, 191
Scott Fitzgerald, F. 163
PROOF
Index 283
Second World War 5, 8, 87, 95, 100,
130, 133, 182, 193, 220, 265, 224
Seidel, Ina 169, 201
self-censorship see censorship
semi-fascist see fascism
Sena, Jorge de 124, 226
Servien, Pius 208, 209
sexual diseases 133
‘sexualism’ see sexuality
sexuality 134, 192
cross-gendering 104
homosexuality 108, 133, 228
lesbianism 181, 196
sadism 133
‘sexualism’ 137, 246
Shakespeare Festival Company 227,
230
Shakespeare, William
in Portugal 215–29: comedies
223; history plays 216, 219–21;
impact of censorship on
staging 218; only eleven plays
performed 223; quatercentenary
celebrations 226–7; status of
canon 220; tragedies 223
Shaw, G.B. 127, 133, 161, 163, 219,
224
Sheldon, Edward 107
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley 219
Sicherheitsdienst see censorship in
Germany
Sinclair, Upton 160
Sindicato Español Universitario 99, 115
Sindicato Nacional del Espectáculo 109
Slavia (publ.) 150, 186
social Catholicism 118
Sociedade de Instrução Tavaredense 227
Solari, Pietro 159, 173
Sonzogno (publ.) 150, 158
Soria, Florentino 106
Soriano, Joaquin 101
Sorlot (publ.) 203
Sotelo, Calvo 85, 95
Soviet Union 43, 142, 157, 187
Spaini, Alberto 190, 191
Spanish Civil War 1936–39 132, 133,
166
Spanish literature in translation
into Italian 183
into Portuguese 6, 124, 125–9
pseudotranslations 91, 93
Spanish Second Republic 84, 86, 95,
114
Sperling & Kupfer (publ.) 150, 151,
164, 171
Stalin, Josef 57, 140, 221
post-stalinism 243, 244
Stalingrad 210
State Under Secretariat for Press and
Propaganda see Ministry for
Popular Culture
statistics
bestsellers 22, 75, 112
Germany 53–4, 69–70
Index Translationum 6, 25, 142
n.18, 166
Italy 16–22, 43 n.4, 164, 181
Portugal 121, 125–9, 139
Spain 95, 107–10
Stein, Gertrude 181
Stekel, Wilhelm 143
Sternberg, Josef von 156
Stevenson, Robert Louis 127, 149,
161
Stirner, Max 148, 171
Stock (publ.) 201, 202, 212
Stopes, Marie 57
Storoni Mazzolani, Lidia 185, 189
Strapaese/Stracittà 158
Strehler, Giorgio 221
Streuvels, Stijn 57
Strodtmann, Adolf 67
Subsecretaría de Prensa y Propaganda
see censorship in Spain
Suevos, Jesús 115
Suhrkamp 211
Swedish literature in translation
into German 9, 55, 65, 69, 73
Swift, Jonathan 183
Symbolism 204
Teatro da Juvénia 215
Teatro da Natureza 215
Teatro de Algibeira (later Teatro de
Bolso) 225, 255
Teatro de Ensaio Raul Brandão 227
Teatro do Ateneu de Coimbra 220
Teatro do Povo 225
PROOF
284 Index
Teatro Español 109
Teatro Español Universitario
(TEU) 103, 106
Teatro Estúdio de Lisboa 221
Teatro Experimental do Porto
(TEP) 225
Teatro Livre 215
Teatro Moderno 215, 222
Teatro Nacional D. Maria II. 224,
225
Teatro Nacional Popular 225, 226
Teatro Novo 215
Teatros de Cámara y Ensayo 103, 107
Theatre of Bremen 222
Theatre of the Absurd 226
theatre translation
in Spain 105–9
in Portugal 222–3
see also Shakespeare
Third Reich see National Socialism
Thomas, Adrienne 162
Time Magazine 229
Timmermans, Felix 57, 61, 71
Toller, Ernst 170
Tolstoy, Alexandra Andreevna 187
Tolstoy, Leo 186, 187
Torrente Ballester, Gonzalo 111
Tosti, Amedeo 188, 190
totalitarianism 7, 167, 235, 237,
243–5
Toulet, Paul-Jean 209, 212, 213
tourist brochures, translation of 121
Tovar, Antonio 110
TRACE (Translation and Censorship
Project) 90
translation
as danger for the masses 133
as instrument of cultural
exchange 8, 10, 19–20, 210,
238, 247–8
as instrument of cultural
penetration 8, 35, 49 n.61
as instrument of
internationalization 121–2
as political problem 23–6, 36,
38–9, 124
as safety valve 79, 242
as sign of weakness 16, 20, 25, 27,
30, 40–1
as subversion 80, 133, 228, 246
as threat 6, 8–9, 10, 16–17, 20–3,
40–2, 51–3, 78, 219–21, 238–9
as unfair competition 122
campaigns against 22–3, 23–6,
26–9, 52–3, 69–70, 77, 238–9
commercial success of 6, 9, 16,
20–2, 38, 42, 54, 73, 76–8, 138,
149–51, 162–4, 242
craze for 52, 66, 76–8, 80
deficit, trade balance 16, 18, 69,
247
from enemy nations 27, 53, 56,
64
idea of 15, 41
in wartime 53, 56, 58, 59, 63–4,
205
‘internal’ translations 40
of classics see classics
promotion of 56, 58, 61, 67–71
propaganda effect of 8, 18, 40,
42–3, 68–71
quality of 20, 23, 28, 31, 122,
123–4, 163, 179, 181, 210, 238,
249
quota see censorship in Italy
reciprocity of see reciprocity
translation statistics see statistics
translation studies
and historiography 3
contribution to fascism
studies 88–9
Polysystem Theory 89, 114 n.8
Portugal neglected 117
translation, metaphors of
as bridge-building 203
as contamination/pollution 8–10,
35, 40–2, 69, 72
as epidemic 122, 238
as invasion 16, 20, 23–6, 34,
39–40, 158
as miscegenation 9, 35, 52
as penetration 8, 35, 49 n.61
as poison 40–1, 52
as receptiveness 9, 18, 187
as seduction 52
as smuggling 52
as source of knowledge 30, 56,
71, 77
PROOF
Index 285
translators
competence of 123–4, 181, 194
contribution of 16, 150, 168, 179,
210
habitus of 102, 107, 246–7
persecution of 62–3
register of see Authors and Writers
Union
Traverso, Leone 170
Treves (publ.) 148, 158, 162
TUCA 222
Ulisseia (publ.) 124
ultra-Catholicism 84, 85, 87, 92, 93,
101, 102, 114
ultra-conservatism 104
ultra-nationalism see nationalism
Unión Monárquica Nacional 84, 95
Updike, John 137
Valente, Vasco Pulido 124
Valéry, Paul 206, 207–8, 209–10
Vallardi (publ.) 25, 26, 150
Vallardi, Antonio 25, 46
Vallecchi (publ.) 26
Vercors (Jean Marcel Bruller) 180
Verlaine, Paul 206, 207, 209, 212
Verona, Guido da (Guido
Verona) 22, 149
Vesper, Will 70, 168
Vicesecretaría de Educación de FET y de
las JONS 92
Vicesecretaría de Educación Popular 106
Victor Aúz, Víctor 106
Vidor, Charles 101
Viebig, Clara 148
viejofalangistas 86
Vigilanti Cura 90, 106
Villares, Father Manuel 101
Vinciguerra, Mario 189
Vittorini, Elio 41, 134, 136, 170
Volk 9, 52, 62, 69, 72, 80, 83, 203, 206
spirit of 53, 59, 95
Voltaire 97, 127, 128, 189
Wagner, Richard 201, 204, 210
Wallace, Edgar 54, 58, 77, 78, 79,
127, 161, 241
Waln, Nora 66
Walschap, Gerard 57
war novels 123, 160, 162
Wassermann, Jakob 151, 161, 163,
164
Weimar Republic
bestsellers in 54, 77
Italian views of 147, 151–5, 157,
160, 241, 248
Weinheber, Josef 201
Weiss, Peter 222
Wells, H.G. 62, 128
Werfel, Franz 151, 164, 165, 170,
171
westerns 6, 76, 128
Whitehead, Alfred North 190
Wiechert, Ernst 164, 168, 170
Wilde, Oscar 55, 66–7, 127, 241
Wilder, Billy 100–3, 104, 106
Wilder, Thornton 105, 107, 160
Williams, Tennessee 104, 105, 106,
107
Wilson, Pedro 230
Winkler (publ.) 210
Wolfe, Thomas 59
Wolfskehl, Karl 201
Woolf, Virginia 81, 111, 163
xenophilia 31, 34
xenophobia 5, 24, 27, 51, 205
‘Years of Lead’ 134–5
Zacconi, Ermette 224
Zadek, Peter 222
Zech, Paul 205
Zeitromane 160
Zsolnay (publ.) 54, 62, 63, 65, 68,
166
Zweig, Arnold 162, 163, 166, 175
Zweig, Stefan 142, 164, 205, 241
PROOF
... Translation policies under totalitarian regimes have in general constituted an unexplored area in studies of both fascism and translatology. The collection Translation under Fascism (Rundle, 2010) started plugging this gap by comparing four fascist states and aspects of their often diverging and contradictory translation policies. However, next to nothing exists on policies in occupied territories, where the situation is even more complex as they involve extra players and changing political interests, both those of occupiers and the locals. ...
Article
Full-text available
The German occupation period in Latvia followed the twenty years of Latvian independence and a year of the Soviet occupation. The shifts in the translation policies at these critical junctions were incredibly fast. The independence period saw a developed translation industry. The source language variety was growing; the variety of literature translated and the quality of translations was broad. The communist system quickly nationalized the publishers, ideologised the system and reshaped the translation pattern. Russian was made the main source language and other languages minimized. The share of ideological literature grew exponentially. Soon after the German invasion the publishers regained their printing houses and publishing was renewed. During the German occupation around 1500 books were published. Another reorientation occurred, with German literature taking around 70 per cent of the source texts. Most of the other source texts were Nordic. No pulp literature was produced. Translation quality was generally high. The focus was on literary classics, travel literature and biographies (many German musicians). There are few ideologically motivated translations. The official policies of the regime as regards publishing in Latvia appear to be uncoordinated and vague, with occasional decisions taken by ‘gate-keepers’ in Ostministerium and other authorities according to their own preferences. There was a nominal pre-censorship, but the publishers were expected to know and sense what was acceptable. In their turn the latter played safe sticking to classical and quality translations. Yet the statistics of what was published reflects the general drift. Some high class translations into German of Latvian classics were published.
Book
Full-text available
This volume presents a survey of Russian children’s literature published in Italy from 1945 to 1991. On the one hand the analysis accounts for the historical, social and literary context of post-war Italy, in which the books were published. On the other, a textual and translating analysis of a selection of volumes is conducted within the theoretical framework of Translation Studies and Adaptation Studies. The book aims at: filling a gap in Slavic studies, which so far have dealt discontinuously with children’s literature; including Russian children’s literature in the history of Italian publishing; providing some preliminary observations regarding the image of Russian children’s literature created in Italy from the post-war period to the collapse of the USSR.
Article
During the Cold War, books in translation were considered an important means of strengthening ideological and cultural influence in many regions of the world. Among a variety of different publishing activities undertaken, Franklin Book Programs, a US-initiated translation and publishing venture, was designed with the specific purpose of translating American books and disseminating them in emerging and non-aligned nations. This article aims to analyse Franklin Book Programs’ translation and publishing work in Iran, one of its most successful operations. It draws on archives, interviews and the correspondence of some of the prominent agents involved in Franklin Book Programs. This story illuminates a significant chapter in Iranian translation and publishing history, as well as revealing an important, and often overlooked, dimension of the USA’s global cultural Cold War.
Chapter
Much attention in Interpreting studies has been devoted to the Nuremberg trials, a landmark event for our profession since they are considered the birth of simultaneous interpretation. In turn, the role played by interpreters at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 has raised considerably less interest among academics, although the visible functions of scribes, translators and advisors uniquely performed by interpreters at this historical moment made them relevant agents in the geopolitical configuration of subsequent international relations. The Paris Peace Conference was an important milestone for two closely intertwined disciplines: International Relations and Conference Interpreting studies. For the former, it set the departing point for drafting treaties that promoted the creation of international institutions that would later become decisive in world politics. For the latter, it meant the institutionalisation of this profession in the political arena, as this was one of the first occasions in which the role of interpreters was made visible to the very powerful stakeholders involved in decision-making processes. This proposal will look into the role of diplomatic interpreters as tools for exerting symbolic power (Bourdieu, 1991, p. 170) in the negotiation of the Treaty of Versailles, and the repercussions thereof in reframing the totalizing grand narrative (Lyotard, 1979) that prevailed in politics throughout the interwar period, on the basis of the following assumption: the choice of English and French as the Paris Peace Conference main working languages (and the subsequent exclusion of German) had direct impact on the ensuing conformation of alliances and animosities among the parties involved in the negotiations and, therefore, in world politics. An interdisciplinary approach drawing on sources from International Relations, Interpreting Studies, and, most specifically, the dynamics between language and power addressed by Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1989; Van Dijk, 1998; Chilton & Schäffner, 2006) will be used to analyse a corpus of minutes of conferences organised by the League of Nations between the years 1918 and 1943 that run like a red thread in describing the role of interpreters as co-constructors of political metanarratives.
Thesis
Full-text available
The objective of the present doctoral thesis is to describe the reception of Czech literature in Spain between 1900 and 2015 with a special emphasis on German as a mediating language for translation between Czech and Spanish, placing Czech research of this phenomenon into a broad international context of investigating the role of languages and cultures in multilingual communities. The thesis further explores issues partially covered by previous research (Uličný 2005, Špirk 2011, Cuenca 2013). The theoretical part first provides a short historical context of both countries, commenting on their bilateral relations during the 20th century, analysing the publishing sector and describing the official censorship. It then provides a detailed investigation of indirect translations and introduces diverse methods in which they can be explored, highlighting the importance of paratextual material, that is paratexts (Genette 1982, 1987) and metatexts (Popovič 1975, 1983), and the influence of censorship and dominant ideology (Abellán 1980, 1982, 1987; Neuschäfer 1994). Methodologically, the present work relies on Czech and Slovak translation studies (Levý, Popovič) and the TRACE project (Rabadán, Merino). The empirical part uses the methodological tools of critical discourse analysis, author’s introspection, oral history and micro-textual analysis to analyse censorship reports obtained from the AGA archive, reviews, peritexts, interviews (or correspondence). The corpus contains 18 second-hand translations of Czech fiction translated into Spanish via German. The case studies are devoted to Jaroslav Hašek’s novel Osudy dobrého vojáka Švejka za světové války (1920-1923) and Milan Kundera’s novel Žert (1967), applying macro-textual and micro-textual analysis. The conclusion summarises and discusses the findings and outlines the possible lines of future research. The research introduced in the present thesis follows the trajectory of Czech literature in other cultures and describes the impressions and reactions it provoked in the target culture. Simultaneously, the thesis aspires to contribute to the explanation of Czech-Spanish literary relations in the 20th century, discussing the potential of German as a mediator between cultures.
Article
Full-text available
A literary translation invariably reflects the historical and cultural features of the time and place of its production. The perception of literary texts is determined by the political and cultural situation in a given language community, and the literary translation, therefore, is justly seen as the negotiation that aims at reaching a compromise between two languages, two geographical spaces, and two historic times. Literary translation is as well regarded as a manipulation, an attempt to make the translation fit in with the target audience culture, social situation, or ideology. The famous poem The White Man’s Burden by Rudyard Kipling was alternately seen as racist and Eurocentric or as missionary and philanthropic. The translations made into different European languages conveyed the ideology of the poem differently as well, the interpretation depending on the historic time, the targeted language community, and the social requirements to literature and translation. These social factors preconditioned the difference in interpretation of such controversial issues of the poem as race, difference, and religion in the five translations analysed in this article. The article offers a comparative study of the strategies applied by Russian, Bulgarian, and French translators of the poem who worked under different historical and social conditions.
Chapter
This chapter starts from the observation that languages have traditionally been invisible in accounts of war and in academic commentaries on conflict. Early attempts to demonstrate their presence have tended to rely on physical manifestations of language mediation, often linked to postwar activities like war crimes trials or peace conferences. Researching the role of languages within war-making involves challenging the archaeology of archives which have usually been established to reflect nation-state histories. The chapter argues that researchers need to see the sites of war as translational spaces within the transnational, setting their investigations on languages within the contexts and chronology of the particular conflict, and embracing an eclecticism of sources which could include elements of material culture and the physical landscapes of war.
receptiveness see translation, metaphors of reciprocity 28
  • Luis Rebello
  • Francisco
Rebello, Luis Francisco 218, 222-23, 226-27 receptiveness see translation, metaphors of reciprocity 28, 34, 38,187
António Vítor Ramos 124
  • Rosa
Rosa, António Vítor Ramos 124
Virginia 81, 111, 163 xenophilia 31, 34 xenophobia 5, 24, 27, 51, 205 'Years of Lead
  • Woolf
Woolf, Virginia 81, 111, 163 xenophilia 31, 34 xenophobia 5, 24, 27, 51, 205 'Years of Lead' 134-5
Bertrand 133 Russian literature in translation 172, 240 into German 55 into Italian 148
  • Russell
Russell, Bertrand 133 Russian literature in translation 172, 240 into German 55 into Italian 148, 151, 180, 184, 186, 187-8