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Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 10 years of research
... The attention can be directed to focus either internally or externally. An internal focus of attention (IFA) is used when the person focuses on their body, its movements, and sensations, and an external focus of attention (EFA) when they focus on the environment and the effect their movements cause on it [8]. ...
... An EFA enhances motor learning compared to an IFA in various physical characteristics or motor skills, one of which is balance [8]. An EFA contributes to increased static and dynamic balance, an increased maximum force production, and a more economical and sufficient move-ment [8,9]. ...
... An EFA enhances motor learning compared to an IFA in various physical characteristics or motor skills, one of which is balance [8]. An EFA contributes to increased static and dynamic balance, an increased maximum force production, and a more economical and sufficient move-ment [8,9]. Piccoli et al. [10] reported limited research examining the effect of attentional focus on people with musculoskeletal disorders. ...
Objectives: The focus of patients’ attention during the physiotherapy program has been reported to affect the rehabilitation goals. The study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of an external focus of attention (EFA) on static balance and functional ability in individuals with chronic ankle instability (CAI).
Methods: Fourteen subjects with CAI, aged from 19 to 25 years, were randomly assigned to two groups: external and internal focus of attention (IFA) group. The outcome measures of the
study were static balance and functional ability. A pre-intervention evaluation was performed. Following instructions to an external or an IFA, subjects practiced on a balance board 3 times per week for 4 weeks. At the end of each week, they performed evaluation tests, including a time balance test, foot lift test, side hop test, figure-8 test, and star excursion balance test
(SEBT). Parametric (mixed analysis of variance) and non-parametric analysis (the Mann–Whitney and Friedman tests) were performed between measurements and groups.
Results: The intervention program showed a statistically significant improvement in static balance and functional ability in both groups. The results indicated the main effect of time
(F(2.488, 29.855)=43.880, P<0.001). For the time in balance test, analysis of variance revealed a main effect of time (F(2.571, 30.855)=11.188, P<0.001). Regarding the SEBT, every direction
indicated a main effect of time for both groups. No significant differences between the two groups were found in static balance and functional ability.
Discussion: Even though there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups, both types of focus of attention contributed to the improvement of static balance and
functional ability, which may reveal an increase in motor control and neuromuscular ability of the subjects with CAI.
Keywords: Ankle sprain, ankle injury, ankle instability, attention, balance, functional ability
... teachers, physiotherapists, and coaches), which can facilitate and improve motor skill learning and performance of their students, players, and patients Marchant et al., 2018). Attention can be directed either internally (internal focus -IF), towards body movements or externally (external focus -EF), towards the intended effects of the movements (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2012Wulf et al., 1998;Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016;Wulf & Prinz, 2001). In a pioneering investigation (experiment 1), (Wulf et al., 1998) showed that adults who focused on the pressure exerted on the wheels (EF) of a ski simulator exhibited better learning compared to the group that was instructed to focus on the force exerted from the feet (IF). ...
... Participants who focused on the balance platform markers (EF) showed better learning than those instructed to focus on the feet (IF). Based on these first experiments, a growing body of research has been conducted over the last few years, indicating the beneficial effects of EF over IF on motor skill learning and performance (Chua et al., 2021;Wulf, 2007Wulf, , 2012Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2010a;Wulf & Prinz, 2001). Studies also showed that the adoption of an EF improves balance performance Shin et al., 2019), movement accuracy (Zachry et al., 2005), the performance of force production (Marchant, 2011;Wu et al., 2012), speed (Freudenheim et al., 2010;Grgic & Mikulic, 2022), endurance , and movement behavior (Peh et al., 2011). ...
... Over the past quarter-century, substantial research has underscored the benefits of directing attention and inducing the learner to focus on movement effects in adults. These benefits are transversal to different skills, levels of expertise, sports, and populations, showing higher movement effectiveness and efficiency (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2012Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016). The findings of the current review showed that EF is also more beneficial than IF for enhancing motor learning of atypical developing children. ...
A growing body of investigation has suggested the benefits of an external focus of attention on the performance and learning of motor skills in adults and the elderly. This systematic review investigates the effects of focus of attention on the performance and learning of motor skills in children with typical and atypical development. The literature search was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Scielo, with data inception in December 2023. Of the 43 studies in the review, 30 involved the performance and learning of motor skills in children with typical development and 13 in children with atypical development. The current systematic review demonstrates that the direction of instructions/feedback can influence the performance and learning of children's motor skills, regardless of the children's developmental condition or task.
... Manipulation check which evaluated how extent the participants concentrated on the instructed target showed no significant difference between the EF and IF conditions (EF, 7.9 [6][7][8][9][10]; IF, 7.6 [5][6][7][8][9]). The subjective ratings of performance were 2.6 (range [1][2][3][4][5] for 'flight trajectory of the dart' in the EF condition, and 3.9 (range 2-6) for 'elbow angle at release' in the IF condition (Fig. 1A). These results confirmed that the participants were able to concentrate on the instructed target well in both EF and IF conditions. ...
... Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures showed a significant effect of the 'muscle' (F (3,42) = 174.8, P < 0.0001, η 2 = 0.81), but no effect of the 'condition' (F (1,14) = 2.8, P = 0.10, η 2 = 0.002), with no interaction between the factors (F (3,42) = 2.0, P = 0.13, η 2 = 0.004). In both EF and IF conditions, the EMG activity of the TA muscle significantly preceded the onset of the TB muscle (P < 0.0001), while that of the SOL muscle started slightly earlier (but not significantly) than that of the TB muscle (P = 0.43). ...
... On the other hand, the onset of the AD muscle was significantly delayed (P < 0.001). Regarding the integrated EMG (iEMG) activity in each muscle, two-way ANOVA with repeated measures showed no effect of the 'condition' (F (1,14) = 3.0, P = 0.09, η 2 = 0.002; TB muscle, EF: 46 ± 4% of maximum voluntary contraction [MVC], IF: 52 ± 6%MVC; TA muscle, EF: 11 ± 2%MVC, IF: 9 ± 1%MVC; SOL muscle, EF: 27 ± 6%MVC, IF: 25 ± 5%MVC), but the AD muscle (EF, 55 ± 8%MVC; IF, 59 ± 9%MVC) showed a trend of less activity in the EF condition than in the IF condition (post hoc, P = 0.06). ...
Whether attentional focus modulates the corticospinal excitability of the lower limb muscles in anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) when performing a ballistic movement of the upper limb remains unclear. The present study used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to examine the corticospinal excitability of the lower limb muscles along with the kinematic profiles during dart throwing with different attentional foci, external focus (EF) and internal focus (IF). In 13 healthy participants, TMS was applied immediately before electromyographic onset of the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle, and the motor evoked potential (MEP) was recorded in the TA and soleus (SOL) muscles. The performance accuracy was significantly higher in the EF condition than in the IF condition. In both EF and IF conditions, MEP amplitude in the TA muscle, but not the SOL muscle, was significantly higher immediately before TA muscle onset (− 100, − 50, and 0 ms) compared to the control. In particular, the MEP increment in the TA muscle before TA muscle onset (− 50 and 0 ms) was significantly larger in the EF condition than in the IF condition. Our findings provide the first evidence for the modulation of corticospinal excitability in APA by changing attentional focus.
... The direction could be internal Specifically, focusing on body or executive limbs, -adopting an external focus (In.F)-, while performing a motor skill has been found to be relatively ineffective. contrariwise, focusing on the movement's effects on the environment, has been verified to result in more effective performance and learning (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2013. For example, external focus (Ex.F), has been found to enhance the performance in dart throw ( ...
... The participants were 20 men gymnasts (19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26) years old), with right domain in lower extremity, normal posture and vision. They also had no musculoskeletal disorders, crucial injury, or fracture in lower limbs bones in the last two years. ...
... Any attempt to control the movement consciously, constrains the movement system and prevents the automatic processes that control the movement. Conversely, neglecting movement and focusing on its effects (EF) would allow the system to organize itself naturally(Wulf, 2007). Adopting an Ex.F allows unconscious, quick, and reflexive processing and appropriate results in the performance. ...
Background: Examining effects of attention on motor performance at the neurophysiological level, considering the skill level, seems there are still ambiguities. Objective: The purpose of the present study was to examine the neurophysiological effect of Attentional Focus on in postural task as a function of skill level. The performance (postural sways) and muscular activity changes was recorded shift concurrently in two attentional conditions. Method: 20 gymnasts (19-26 Years old) participated and assigned to groups of skilled (10 years' experience) and novices (3-5 years history of training in Gymnastics). All participant of both groups performed ten trails of semi-dynamic balance (10 seconds) in tow conditions of internal and external focus in a counterbalanced order. Postural sways were measured using Biodex Stabilometer and Electromyography (EMG) signals of Tibalis Anterior and Soleus muscles recorded using ME6000 device. Data where data were analyzed using 2×2 mixed ANOVA. Results: Results showed higher performance (less postural sways) and reduced EMG under external focus condition for novices and lower EMG activity for experts. Conclusion: Research findings (enhanced performance and reduced EMG) support Constraint action hypothesis. Focus of attention can have profound effects on motor behavior and the underlying neurophysiologic factors regardless of skill level but in behavioral level of analyze it effects depended on expertise.
... The direction could be internal Specifically, focusing on body or executive limbs, -adopting an external focus (In.F)-, while performing a motor skill has been found to be relatively ineffective. contrariwise, focusing on the movement's effects on the environment, has been verified to result in more effective performance and learning (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2013. For example, external focus (Ex.F), has been found to enhance the performance in dart throw ( ...
... The participants were 20 men gymnasts (19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26) years old), with right domain in lower extremity, normal posture and vision. They also had no musculoskeletal disorders, crucial injury, or fracture in lower limbs bones in the last two years. ...
... Any attempt to control the movement consciously, constrains the movement system and prevents the automatic processes that control the movement. Conversely, neglecting movement and focusing on its effects (EF) would allow the system to organize itself naturally(Wulf, 2007). Adopting an Ex.F allows unconscious, quick, and reflexive processing and appropriate results in the performance. ...
Background: Examining effects of attention on motor performance at the neurophysiological level, considering the skill level, seems there are still ambiguities.
Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to examine the neurophysiological effect of Attentional Focus on in postural task as a function of skill level. The performance (postural sways) and muscular activity changes was recorded shift concurrently in two attentional conditions.
Methods: 20 gymnasts (19-26 Years old) participated and assigned to groups of skilled (10 years’ experience) and novices (3-5 years history of training in Gymnastics). All participant of both groups performed ten trails of semi-dynamic balance (10 seconds) in tow conditions of internal and external focus in a counterbalanced order. Postural sways were measured using Biodex Stabilometer and Electromyography (EMG) signals of Tibalis Anterior and Soleus muscles recorded using ME6000 device. Data were data were analyzed using 2×2 mixed ANOVA.
Results: Results showed higher performance (less postural sways) and reduced EMG under external focus condition for novices and lower EMG activity for experts.
Conclusion: Research findings (enhanced performance and reduced EMG) support Constraint action hypothesis. Focus of attention can have profound effects on motor behavior and the underlying neurophysiologic factors regardless of skill level but in behavioral level of analyze it effects depended on expertise.
... (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2013. Also associated with inducing the individual's attention "near" or "away" the body (Kim et al., 2017), these strategies are commonly distinguished into internal and external focus of attention (Schücker et al., 2009;Wulf, 2013). ...
... The effects of attentional focus strategies, just as the benefits of external focus over internal focus, have been seen in several studies, including individuals with different ages, training level, different experimental setups, and different skills (Wulf, 2007(Wulf, , 2013Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016), including balance, or postural control, which shows to have a reduced body sway in external focus conditions (Kim et al., 2017;Park et al., 2015). ...
Attentional focus strategies, especially external focus, are associated with improvements in mechanisms of postural control. This can be important in reducing sports injuries in practices such as running, which has seen an increase in adherence. However, the impacts of these strategies on postural control in runners are unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of internal and external focus strategies on postural control performance with different bases of support tasks in runners. A total of 19 young adults (18–38 years old) were divided into a running group ( n = 9) and a control group ( n = 10). Posturography tests were performed on stable and unstable surfaces, under control, and internal and external focus conditions. The distance, mean velocity, and total velocity of the center of pressure were analyzed ( p ≤ .05). There was a reduction in oscillation under external focus compared to internal and control conditions, as well as under internal focus compared to the control condition. A Group × Surface × Focus interaction for the variables distance and mean velocity in the mediolateral direction was found only for the control group. However, no significant effects were found between groups for postural control performance. Attentional focus strategies were able to reduce postural sway, with external focus condition being the most effective. Practitioners can benefit from these strategies to increase postural control performance to help reduce the number of injuries and improve sports performance. It is speculated that the effects of attentional control strategies on postural control may differ depending on the specific adaptations of each sport.
... Among the important psychological abilities in high performance sports, the process of attention and focus invades notoriously preeminence as a variable object study, influential in sport performance [1][2][3][4]. Today it is known that attention and concentration are habilities that can be learned and trained, in expert athletes and those in the process of formation. ...
... Furthermore, it can be said that results of research show that centering in the result of the movement can be more beneficial, that is, an external focus, than centering in comparisons of the movements of the ability, or internal focus [19,20]. There exists wide empirical evidence that the adoption of an external focus, compared with an internal focus, promotes bigger automaticity of movement control [3,4]. Finally, in this order of ideas, the researchers encourage the strengthening of research related with the process of attention and concentration, with the purpose of consolidating the theoretical body of the applied sport psychology, especially in the Venezuelan context. ...
... As it applies to coaching, instruction can be defined as "verbal cues, reminders or prompts to instruct/direct skill or play related to player(s) performance e.g., pass the ball" (Cushion et al., 2012, p. 211). The type of instruction, direct management, and feedback provided to athletes by a coach can significantly influence not only their level of sporting performance but also their ability to learn (Wulf, 2013). Systematically observing coach behavior and training session content in applied settings has regularly been used in an attempt to understand what can be considered best coaching practice; however, in a review of the use of such tools, the authors highlight the need to include an appropriate context to go along with any observational data . ...
... Coaches should endeavor to ensure that both the quality and quantity of their explicit behaviors, namely instructions (O'Connor et al., 2017), feedback (Raya-Castellano et al., 2020), and questions (Stonebridge & Cushion, 2018), are to an appropriate level and in a relatable context for the recipient athlete cohort they coach (Cope, Partington, Cushion et al., 2016). By coaches being selective to their explicit behaviors in both quality and quantity, they can ensure their coaching message is delivered as succinctly as possible for the athlete to perform and learn to their optimal level (Wulf, 2013). In contrast to the similarity of the prominent coach behaviors observed, much of the significant variation between the coaches was revealed in less prevalent behaviors, constituting a relatively small percentage of the participants overall coaching style (e.g., significant differences between all teams for the RPM behaviors "humor" and "hustle," which comprised <6% each of all teams coaches' profile of displayed behaviors [both p ≤ .02]). ...
The coach–athlete dyad is complex where both parties can often have contrasting perceptions of each other. The purpose of this research was to examine coaching behaviors and perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship across different age grades of rugby football union. Coaches ( n = 5) and athletes ( n = 78) from three separate rugby union teams (Child, Adolescent, and Adult) had their training sessions ( n = 3) analyzed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System. Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviors were measured via the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport, while coach perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. Prescriptive coaching styles were observed in all coaches as Coach Analysis and Intervention System results showed high levels of explicit behaviors: “instruction,” “direct management,” and “feedback.” All coaches utilized similar time proportions within sessions for Coach Analysis and Intervention System “Practice,” “Playing,” and “Management” states, respectively. Questionnaire results revealed positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for all teams. Despite positive bidirectional relationships, the prescriptive coaching style displayed by all coaches may not align to best coaching practice. Development of a coach’s behaviors, training content, and perceptions through coach education has the potential to enhance their athletes’ sporting experience, athletic development, and sport-specific competencies.
... The aim of this study was to assess the differences in explosive strength performance among female adolescent athletes by analyzing the results obtained from the Push Up test [1]. The work is based on the hypothesis that there is a different form of learning and teaching, focused on athlete attention, which can influence performance in the same test [2][3][4][5] In the basic paradigm, the visually perceived movement corresponds to an Effect-Movement. ...
... This can lead to suboptimal performance and limit the athlete's potential for growth [16]. This is because teaching orientation based on external stimuli and not on internal ones (Effects or Causes) can lead to greater ease of momentary learning (imitative), but then to a decrease in performance in specific tasks [1]. The importance of attention orientation and appropriate technical-methodological teaching is especially important in young people, as they are in a crucial phase of neuromotor development [17]. ...
... Motor learning is a set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for skilled movement (Schmidt et al., 2019). Several studies have identified that directing the attention consciously to the intended movement effect (external focus) enhances motor performance and learning if compared to directing the attention to body movements (internal focus) (Wulf, 2013;Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2020). ...
... The INTERNAL and PROXIMAL attentional focus instructions were based on De Giorgio et al. (2018). The DISTAL attentional focus instruction was based on the goal of the task, which is advised by the literature (Wulf, 2013). ...
In adults, longitudinal external focus benefits the motor performance of high-skilled performers. While low-skilled performers benefit from a proximal external focus. Children seem to respond differently to adults regarding the effects of attentional focus on motor learning, and the cause of this difference remains unclear. The present study investigated the effects of the attentional focus distance on motor performance and learning of high-skilled children. Forty-five 8-years-old high-skilled children were divided into three groups with different attentional focus distances (internal, proximal external and distal external). All participants practiced an inside-of-the-foot kick soccer task in 5 blocks of 10 trials. Motor performance was assessed through absolute and variable errors before the practice (pre-test), immediately after the practice (post-test), and after 24-hours (retention test). As inferential analyses, we run an ANOVA two-way (3 groups x 3 times) for absolute and variable errors. For absolute error, there was an effect in time (p < .0001), with improvement across practice and retention; also, the distal external group demonstrated lower absolute error than other groups (p < .0001). In contrast, proximal external focus provides a lower variability inter-trials (but with a lower score) (p < .001). Our findings suggested that distal external attentional focus benefits motor performance and learning of skilled children. Practice and experience are the predominant factors in this interaction, as it happens in adults. Childhood characteristics seem not to influence this process.
... Perhaps even more importantly, it should be considered that all studies used complex, multi-joint exercises, such as the bench press, squat, and deadlift. This should be mentioned as complex movements require a greater level of multi-muscle and multi-joint coordination [26]. Therefore, the effects of an external focus of attention may be greater in multi-joint vs. single-joint resistance exercises [26]. ...
... This should be mentioned as complex movements require a greater level of multi-muscle and multi-joint coordination [26]. Therefore, the effects of an external focus of attention may be greater in multi-joint vs. single-joint resistance exercises [26]. To test this hypothesis, future studies are needed to compare the effects of external vs. internal focuses of attention on muscular endurance in various single-joint and multi-joint upper-and lower-body exercises. ...
Several studies explored the effects of attentional focus on resistance exercise, but their analysed outcomes most commonly involved surface electromyography variables. Therefore, the effects of attentional focus on resistance exercise performance remain unclear. The aim of this review was to perform a meta-analysis examining the acute effects of external focus vs. internal focus vs. control on muscular endurance. Five databases were searched to find relevant studies. The data were pooled in a random-effects meta-analysis. In the analysis for external vs. internal focus of attention , there were seven comparisons with 14 study groups. In the analyses for external focus vs. control and internal focus vs. control, there were six comparisons with 12 study groups. An external focus of attention enhanced muscular endurance when compared with an internal focus (Cohen's d: 0.58; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.34 and 0.82) and control (Cohen's d: 0.42; 95% CI: 0.08 and 0.76). In the analysis for internal focus vs. control, there was no significant difference between the conditions (Cohen's d:-0.19; 95% CI:-0.45 and 0.07). Generally, these results remained consistent in the subgroup analyses for upper-body vs. lower-body exercises. From a practical perspective, the results presented in this review suggest that individuals should use an external focus of attention for acute enhancement of muscular endurance.
... Since those initial findings, many experimental studies have followed. Much of this research has previously been reviewed in a comprehensive narrative (e.g., Lohse et al., 2012;Wulf, 2007aWulf, , 2007bWulf, , 2013Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2010, 2016Wulf & Prinz, 2001) or a more focused manner (e.g., Kim et al., 2017;Marchant, 2011;Park et al., 2015;Ziv & Lidor, 2015). Therefore, rather than providing another literature review, the main goal of the present study was to undertake a comprehensive meta-analytic review to provide quantitative dimensions to the findings. ...
... To date, the evidence synthesis of attentional focus effects has largely focused on the use of narrative (e.g., Lohse et al., 2012;Wulf, 2007aWulf, , 2007bWulf, , 2013Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2010, 2016Wulf & Prinz, 2001) or systematic (e.g., Neumann, 2019;Piccoli et al., 2018;Sturmberg et al., 2013) reviews without data aggregation, or meta-analyses limited to the analysis of single categories of motor tasks in either motor performance studies (Makaruk et al., 2020) or motor learning studies . We aimed to not only systematically find and select research studies from extant scientific literature comprised of experimental studies that compared the effects of different types of attentional focus using various outcome measures, but also comprehensively synthesize available empirical data, which have accumulated for over two decades, from this large pool of research studies across various design, sample, and task characteristics. ...
Considerable literature on the role of attentional focus in motor performance and learning has accumulated for over two decades. We report the results of comprehensive meta-analyses that address the impact of an external focus (EF, on intended movement effects) versus internal focus (IF, on movements of body parts) of attention on the performance and learning of motor skills. Values of effect sizes (ES) from 73 studies with 1,824 participants and 40 studies with 1,274 participants were used for examining the effects of EF versus IF on behavioral outcomes of motor performance and learning (separately for retention and transfer phases) respectively. The EF condition was more effective than the IF condition for performance, Hedges’ g value = 0.264 (95% CI [0.217, 0.310]), retention learning, Hedges’ g value = 0.583 (95% CI [0.425, 0.741]), and transfer learning, Hedges’ g value = 0.584 (95% CI [0.325, 0.842]). Multivariable metaregression analyses on behavioral measures further indicated that neither age group, health status, or skill level, nor their two-way interactions, moderated the ES differences between EF and IF in performance, retention, and transfer models (all p > .100). A secondary analysis on 12 studies with 216 participants that examined the effects of EF versus IF on electromyographic outcomes of motor performance also indicated that EF was associated with more efficient neuromuscular processing, Hedges’ g value = 0.833 (95% CI [0.453, 1.213]). From nine studies with 272 participants, performance measured by behavioral outcomes was found to be more effective when a more distal, rather than proximal, EF was used, Hedges’ g value = 0.224 (95% CI [0.019, 0.429]). Overall, the meta-analytic results are consistent with prior narrative reviews and indicate that an external focus is superior to an internal focus whether considering tests of motor performance or learning, and regardless of age, health condition, and level of skill expertise.
... Given the absence of experimental evidence as to which aspect of a movement, if any, attention is primarily focused on in functional tremor or indeed any functional movement disorder, we tested all major possibilities: the proprioceptive aspect of the movement, the ongoing visual feedback of the movement, the target or a movementunrelated aspect. Based on our clinical experience and on beneficial and detrimental attentional foci in the context of sports, [11][12][13] we hypothesized that the attentional focus in functional tremor would be misdirected either on proprioceptive-motor information or on the ongoing visual feedback. ...
... Compared to explicit control of movement, it leads to smoother and better performance. 11,24 Stated differently, explicit, attentionful control of movement interferes with automatic movement control, making movement slower, less smooth and ultimately less well performed. Multiple studies in the context of sports have shown that an internal, body-oriented focus of attention (closely linked to explicit control of movement), as opposed to an external, goal-oriented focus of attention (closely linked to implicit control of movement), is detrimental to performance. ...
A characteristic and intriguing feature of functional neurological disorder is that symptoms typically manifest with attention and improve or disappear with distraction. Attentional phenomena are therefore likely to be important in functional neurological disorder, but exactly how this manifests is unknown. The aim of the study was to establish whether in functional tremor the attentional focus is misdirected, and if this misdirection is detrimental to the movement, or rather reflects a beneficial compensatory strategy.
Patients with a functional action tremor, between the ages of 21-75, were compared to two age and gender matched control groups: healthy controls and patients with an organic action tremor. The groups included between 17 and 28 participants. First, we compared the natural attentional focus on different aspects of a reaching movement (target, ongoing visual feedback, proprioceptive-motor aspect). This revealed that the attentional focus in the functional tremor group, in contrast to both control groups, was directed to ongoing visual feedback from the movement. Next, we established that all groups were able to shift their attentional focus to different aspects of the reaching movement when instructed. Subsequently, the impact of attentional focus on the ongoing visual feedback on movement performance was evaluated under several conditions: the reaching movement was performed with direct, or indirect visual feedback, without any visual feedback, under three different instruction conditions (as accurately as possible/very slowly/very quickly), and finally as a preparatory movement that was supposedly of no importance. Low trajectory length and low movement duration were taken as measures of good motor performance.
For all three groups, motor performance deteriorated with attention to indirect visual feedback, to accuracy, and when instructed to move slowly. It improved without visual feedback and when instructed to move fast. Motor performance improved, in participants with functional tremor only, when the movement was performed as a preparatory movement without any apparent importance.
In addition to providing experimental evidence for improvement with distraction, we found that the normal allocation of attention during aimed movement is altered in functional tremor. Attention is disproportionately directed towards the ongoing visual feedback from the moving hand. This altered attentional focus may be partly responsible for the tremor, since it also worsens motor performance in healthy controls and patients with an organic action tremor. It may have its detrimental impact through interference with automatic movement processes, due to a maladaptive shift from lower- to higher-level motor control circuitry.
... For instance, binaural beats (BB), which are perceived when two slightly different frequencies are presented to each ear, have demonstrated improvements in attention and memory [16]. Moreover, auditory stimuli can induce an external focus of attention, a mechanism that enhances motor performance by encouraging more automatic control, as supported by the constrained action hypothesis [17]. Additionally, the phenomenon of stochastic resonance-where a suitable amount of random noise can enhance cognitive performance-underscores the potential benefits of auditory stimulation, as seen in its ability to facilitate responses to visual stimuli and aid individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and cognitive deficits [18][19][20]. ...
... Given the features of the pattern of impact locations for various courses and the height of the ball, exploring the bat swing movement with respect to the assumed impact location can be potentially useful for devising a way to provide instruction and/or feedback for players to improve the motor task that they are engaged in. A line of studies by Wulf et al. (Wulf, 2007 for review), which examined the influence of learners' focus of attention on their motor performances and improvements, demonstrated that an external focus of attention (i.e., the attention of a performer is directed to the movement effect) is more effective than an internal focus (i.e., attention to the movements themselves). In practical situations of learning sports skills, instruction that refers to the coordination of the performer's body movements (e.g., the order, form, and timing of various limb movements) often directs their attention to their own movements, which induces an internal focus of attention. ...
Background: A baseball hit involves complex whole-body movements and coordination. Research has focused on batting against stationary balls, and insights have been gained into hitters’ intended strategies. However, synchronizing the bat swing with the flying ball is crucial for an effective hit in game scenarios. Objective: Movement patterns in baseball hitting were analyzed by comparing two batting tasks: hitting a stationary ball on a tee stand (stationary ball hit) and hitting a ball projected by a pitching machine (oncoming ball hit). The study examined whether motor representations elicited in the stationary ball hit were applicable to the oncoming ball hit, and to identify differences in the movement patterns between the two tasks. Methodology: Ten male college baseball players participated in stationary and oncoming ball-hitting tasks. A three-dimensional motion analysis of ball-bat contact locations and hitting movements was conducted. Results: For the stationary ball hit, a high correlation was observed between the depth and course (rrm(79) =.968) or height positions (rrm(79)=.875) of the ball. However, for an oncoming ball hit, the impact depth did not systematically vary with course (rrm(189)=.333) and heights (rrm(189)=.213). Correlation analysis of the duration and timing between the stepping movement and bat swing revealed compensatory timing for starting the bat swing in response to pitch release (rrm(189) = 0.79). Conclusion: The results revealed the temporal coordination of movement for initiating a bat swing at a relatively consistent timing with respect to the flight of pitches. Therefore, the ball was intercepted at a relatively consistent depth location.
... Een omvattende studie met meerdere systematische reviews en metaanalyses uit 2021 van Chua et al. (met Wulf als laatste auteur) 7 leidde in essentie tot dezelfde conclusie als die van eerdere verhalende reviews 8,9,10 en mijn Sportgericht-artikel 5 uit 2011: een externe focus van aandacht leidt zowel tot betere taakprestaties als betere leerresultaten in termen van retentie en transfer dan een interne focus van aandacht, on geacht de taak, het vaardigheidsniveau (met meer beginners dan experts), de leeftijd en in dit geval ook de gezondheidsstatus van de deelnemers. De meta-analyses waren gebaseerd op 73 studies (met in totaal 1.824 deelnemers) waarin het effect van de focus van aandacht op de motorische prestatie werd onderzocht en 40 studies (met in totaal 1.274 deelnemers) waarin het effect van de focus van aandacht op motorisch leren (retentie én transfer) werd onderzocht. ...
... İçsel bir odaklanma, oyuncunun kendi vücut hareketlerine yönelikken, dışsal bir odaklanma, çevresel hareketlerin beden üzerindeki etkilerine yöneliktir. Bu bağlamda dikkatin dışarıdan odaklanmasının performans ve öğrenme için daha etkili olduğuna dair önemli kanıtlar vardır (Wulf, 2007). Sporcunun dikkatinin odaklanması, antrenörlerin en önemli endişelerinden birisi olduğu için, en uygun dikkat odağının koşullara bağlı olduğunu düşünen antrenörler "optimal dikkat ilkesi" izlemek isterler (Künzell, 2007). ...
Bu araştırmada, profesyonel futbol müsabakalarında erken ofansif oyuncu değişikliğinin müsabaka sonucu ve oyuncu psikolojisi üzerine etkilerinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmanın yöntemi, nicel ve nitel yöntemlerin bir arada kullanıldığı eş zamanlı karma yöntemler araştırması desenidir. Nicel kısımda, TFF 1. Lig’de 2017-2018 ve 2018-2019 sezonlarındaki toplam 612 maçta, takımların beraberlik veya mağlubiyet esnasında, erken evrede (ilk devre içerisinde ve devre arasında) gerçekleştirdikleri 345 ofansif oyuncu değişikliği incelenmiştir. Nitel kısımda; aynı sezonlarda, beraberlik veya mağlubiyet durumlarında erken evre ofansif oyuncu değişikliği gerçekleştiren dört teknik direktör, oyuna giren dört ofansif oyuncu ve oyundan çıkan dört oyuncu ile görüşülmüştür. Nicel kısmın verilerinin istatistiksel analizinde ki-kare testi kullanılmış, nitel kısımda ise ‘Yarı Yapılandırılmış Görüşme Formu’ verilerinin içerik analizi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda, teknik direktörler gerçekleştirdikleri erken evre ofansif oyuncu değişikliklerini genel olarak maçın skoru ile ilişkilendirmiş ve ofansif oyuncuların oyuna dahil edilmesini skor üretebilme çabası olarak görmüşlerdir. Ancak ilgili sezonlarda beraberlik veya mağlubiyet durumlarında gerçekleştirilen oyuncu değişikleri sonrasında, oyuncuların %15,07’sinin katkı (gol ve/veya asist) sağladığı, %84,93’ünün ise katkı sağlamadığı belirlenmiştir. Oyuna giren ofansif oyuncular ideal performanslarını olumsuz yönde etkileyen faktörleri; motivasyon eksikliği, konsantre olamama, hissedilen baskı, yetersiz ısınma, oyunun temposuna uyum sağlayamama olarak ifade etmişlerdir. Bununla birlikte, oyuna giren ofansif oyuncuların katkı sağladığı müsabakalarda takımın puan kazanmasının, katkı sağlamadığı müsabakalarda ise takımın aldığı puanda bir değişiklik olmamasının anlamlı düzeyde yüksek olduğu tespit edilmiştir (p<0,05). Erken evre ofansif oyuncu değişiklikleri ile oyundan çıkartılan oyuncular ise hem psikolojik hem de sosyal olarak olumsuzluklarla karşılaştıklarını ifade etmektedirler. Özellikle ilk devre içerisinde oyundan çıkarılmak, oyuncular tarafından daha kötü olarak tanımlanmıştır. Ayrıca oyundan çıkan oyuncular; özgüven kaybı, kendini değersiz hissetme, teknik direktörüne olan güven kaybı, hata yapmaktan korkmak, sorumluluk almaktan kaçınmak, aynı değişikliğe tekrar maruz kalma kaygısı ve odaklanamama gibi nedenlerle, değişikliğe uğradıkları maçtan sonraki antrenmanlarda ve gelecek müsabakalarda performanslarının olumsuz yönde etkilendiğini belirtmişlerdir. Sonuç olarak, erken evre ofansif oyuncu değişikliklerinin gerek müsabaka sonucu gerekse oyuncular üzerindeki çok boyutlu etkileri göz önüne alındığında, teknik direktörlerin bu tarz değişiklikleri yalnızca skor odaklı değil farklı yönleriyle de değerlendirerek gerçekleştirmesinin daha yararlı olabileceği düşünülmektedir.
... One of the effective variables in the motor learning process, which there are significant and controversial studies in this field, is the type of attentional focus instructions (Pe et al. 2011). Till now, several pieces of evidence and hypotheses have been presented regarding the superiority of using the external focus of attention, the most important of which are the conscious processing hypothesis (Maxwell and Masters, 2002) and the constrained action hypothesis (Wolf et al., 2001 and2013). On the other hand, the de-automatization of skill hypothesis (Bilak et al. 2002) and research in line with it point to the superiority of the internal focus of attention for beginners. ...
Introduction: Achieving a high level of motor learning requires finding an optimal
combination of variables and methods. This research aimed to investigate the
interactive effect of the focus of attention (internal and external) and learning
approach (explicit and implicit) on the retention and transfer of basketball free throw
skills.
Methods: Forty-eight volunteer male students were randomly assigned to four
Explicit Learning - Internal Attention, Explicit Learning - External Attention,
Implicit Learning - Internal Attention, and Implicit Learning - External Attention
groups. In the acquisition phase, the groups practiced basketball free throws in 6
blocks of 10 trials. 24 hours after the end of the acquisition phase, a retention test and
two transfer tests were performed in a block of 10 trials for each test. The first transfer
test was performed 10 minutes after the retention test under pressure conditions, and
the second transfer test was performed ten minutes after the first transfer test from a
4-meter distance and a 45-degree angle.
Results: The results showed that in explicit learning conditions, the external focus
of attention and in implicit learning conditions, the internal focus of attention led to
better learning in basketball free throw.
Conclusion: According to the findings of the present study, the cognitive overload
of the explicit learning approach was moderated by providing the external focus of
attention instructions. However, in the implicit learning approach, due to the use of
analogy learning, little cognitive load is exerted on the learners’ working memory
and it is possible to direct their attention to the skill itself or parts of the body that are involved in the execution of skill to achieve the benefits of the internal focus of
attention.
... Thus, one may speculate that the difference could be related to biomechanics, skill or attentional focus on the task (Burns et al., 2020;Zimmermann et al., 2012). For example, in work by Wulf (2007) investigating the impact one's attention on moving body parts (internal focus) has on overall motor processes, suggests that internal focus may result in performance decrements. As such, it may be possible that the differences in performance during the 180° and 90°-90° tests are due to a shift of external focus to greater attention put on the pull motion of the left arm. ...
... On the other hand, when instructed with an internal focus, self-reflection contributes to gain a better knowledge about motor abilities and performance (Kupper et al., 2020;Wulf and Lewthwaite, 2009). Coaches need to recognize how youth players respond in the context characterized by different levels of incertitude and complexity (Wulf, 2013). ...
Basketball shooting is a complex skill that requires visual routines and trained players typically evidence a specific oculomotor pattern. This study aimed to examine visual patterns in male novice youth and professional adult players while performing a jump shot. The sample included 20 basketball players grouped as under-16 youth (n = 10) and professional adult (n = 10) players. Each participant completed 50 shots at two distances (long range: 6.80 m; middle range: 4.23 m). Eye tracking glasses were used to obtain quiet eye (QE), the number of fixations, total fixation duration, duration of first and last fixation. An independent t-test was used to assess differences between groups. Shooting accuracy given by % of efficacy indicated that under-16 players attained poorer scores at both distances: long (t = −4.75, p < 0.01) and middle (t = −2.80, p < 0.012) distance. The groups also differed in QE time (long: 600 ms vs. 551 ms; middle: 572 ms vs. 504 ms) and total duration of the fixations (long: 663 ms vs. 606 ms; middle: 663 ms vs. 564 ms) in both long and middle distance shots. Significant differences also occurred in the last fixation (long distance: t = −4.301, p < 0.01; middle distance: t = −3.656, p < 0.01) with professional adult players presenting the value of, on average, 454-458 ms, while youth shooters 363-372 ms. In summary, visual strategy differed between under-16 youth and professional adult basketball players. To support their long-term sport development, it is recommended that youth basketball players focus their attention with longer final fixation before releasing the ball to improve their shot.
... Participants' task was to swim one length of a pool (16 m) using the front crawl stroke or the leg kick respectively, results of the research demonstrated that the times were significantly faster in the external focus compared with both the internal focus and control conditions. The advantages of adopting an external focus of attention over the internal focus of attention is that the external focusing promotes automatic movement control, while the internal focusing constrains the motor system by intervening with automatic processes (Wulf, 2007). Another study supported the growing consensus that encouraging individuals to adopt an internal focusing strategy is counterproductive in complex sensor motor tasks (Weiss & Owen, 2008). ...
Previous studies have reported that focus of attention plays an important role in improving performance in a variety of motor skills. The purpose of the study was to compare the effectiveness of instructional feedback based on external or internal focus of attention on performing the volleyball serve. Participants (n=66; age: 17-27 years old) healthy male secondary school and undergraduate students were recruited. Participants were randomly assigned to either external, internal focus or control groups (n= 22 each). After the pre test of performing five overhead volleyball serves, nine sessions of practice based on the groups' focus of attention were conducted before the post test. A 3 group x 2 tests with repeated measures on the second factor analysis of variance was used to analyze the data. There was a main effect between groups F (2, 63) =12.9, p<0.05. There was an interaction effect between test and groups F (2, 63) =59.2 p<0.05. In the pretest the internal focus (IF) group scored (M=6.5 points, SD=2.0), the external focus (EF) group (M=7.0 points, SD=2.0) and control group (M=7.1, SD=2.4). The post-test scores for the IF group (M=7.1, SD=2.1), EF group (M=12.2, SD=1.7) and the control group (M=7.2, SD=3.2). This result demonstrated that external focus of attention was significantly more efficient in assisting the learning of a motor skill than the internal focus. We recommend that the coaches provide external focus of attention instructions to enhance performance in sports skills.
... The wearable sensors provide immediate external feedback about movement performance and motor errors, which may enhance motor learning and facilitate successful task execution. Studies suggest that focusing on movement results is more effective for motor learning than focusing on movement performance [38]. Augmenting movement results with external feedback can supplement internal feedback and serve as a 'sixth sense' [34]. ...
Improved life expectancy is increasing the number of older adults who suffer from motor-cognitive decline. Unfortunately, conventional balance exercise programs are not tailored to patients with cognitive impairments, and exercise adherence is often poor due to unsupervised settings. This study describes the acceptability and feasibility of a sensor-based in-home interactive exercise system, called tele-Exergame, used by older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia. Our tele-Exergame is specifically designed to improve balance and cognition during distractive conditioning while a telemedicine interface remotely supervises the exercise, and its exercises are gamified balance tasks with explicit augmented visual feedback. Fourteen adults with MCI or dementia (Age = 68.1 ± 5.4 years, 12 females) participated and completed exergame twice weekly for six weeks at their homes. Before and after 6 weeks, participants’ acceptance was assessed by Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) questionnaire, and participants’ cognition and anxiety level were evaluated by the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), respectively. Results support acceptability, perceived benefits, and positive attitudes toward the use of the system. The findings of this study support the feasibility, acceptability, and potential benefit of tele-Exergame to preserve cognitive function among older adults with MCI and dementia.
... This argument implies that confidence may be causally related to performance, but not directly. For example, generally, a more confident person may be more motivated and pay extra attention to the task at hand, leading to better performance, whereas a less confident person may be less motivated and pay less attention, leading to poorer performance (Bozkurt et al. 2012;Bredin et al. 2013;Gagnon-Dolbec 2015;Hays et al. 2009;Wulf 2007). However, in other circumstances, a more confident person may believe that they can easily perform the task, and so may not be motivated to exert maximum effort. ...
This study investigated the relationship between sport-confidence and athletic performance. Fifty male lacrosse players competed against each other three times on three lacrosse skills. Sport-confidence was assessed before each trial using a modified version of the State Sport-Confidence Inventory (SSCI). Performance feedback was manipulated to boost confidence in some players and diminish it in others. Over trials, self-reported confidence increased with positive (winning) feedback and decreased with negative (losing) feedback, but lacrosse performance remained stable. When sportconfidence was treated as a subject variable, performance did not differ between players who were higher or lower in confidence. These results are inconsistent with the claim that confidence influences performance.KeywordsSport-confidenceVealey’s conceptualmodelLacrosse skills
... First, the standard instruction to stand as still as possible used in most studies might induce conscious monitoring of the body sway. These laboratory instructions may influence the neuromuscular control of the upright stance and consequently minimize spontaneous postural sway [61][62][63]. The steadiness requirement of these instructions might have reduced the between-subjects' variability, as every individual behaves the same irrespective of the level of pain-related threat beliefs [64]. ...
Purpose
Low back pain (LBP) individuals with high levels of fear of pain might display changes in motor behavior, which leads to disability. This study aimed to systematically review the influence of pain-related threat beliefs or disability on trunk kinematic or postural control in LBP.
Method
Eight electronic databases were searched from January 1990 to July 1, 2020. Meta-analysis using random-effect model was performed for 18 studies on the association between pain-related threat beliefs or disability and lumbar range of motion. Pearson r correlations were used as the effect size.
Result
Negative correlations were observed between lumbar range of motion (ROM) and pain-related threat beliefs (r = − 0.31, p < 0.01, 95% CI: − 0.39, − 0.24) and disability (r = − 0.24, p < 0.01, 95% CI: − 0.40, − 0.21). Nonsignificant correlations were reported between pain-related threat beliefs and center of pressure parameters during static standing in 75% of the studies. In 33% of the studies, moderate negative correlations between disability and postural control were observed.
Conclusion
Motor behaviors are influenced by several factors, and therefore, the relatively weak associations observed between reduced lumbar ROM with higher pain-related threat beliefs and perceived disability, and postural control with disability are to be expected. This could aid clinicians in the assessment and planning rehabilitation interventions.
Level of Evidence I
Diagnostic: individual cross-sectional studies with the consistently applied reference standard and blinding.
... Based on our prior study (Wong et al., 2019), we reasoned that it should be possible to use instructions to set this context. Indeed, across a variety of motor activities, task instructions have been shown to strongly modulate where individuals focus their attention during a task, consequently affecting task success (for reviews, see (Wulf, 2007;Wulf, 2013) (for a similar effect in stroke patients, see Kantak, Tessa, & William, 2020). In these studies, instructions to focus on internal features such as how an individual's body is moving (e.g., arm postures during a tennis swing) interestingly tend to result in worse performance compared to instructions directing focus toward external features associated with how the environment is affected by the movement (e.g., the motion of the racket and ball). ...
Imitation is a significant daily activity involved in social interaction and motor learning. Imitation has been theorized to be performed in at least two ways. In posture-based imitation, individuals reproduce how the body should look and feel, and are sensitive to the relative positioning of body parts. In trajectory imitation, individuals mimic the spatiotemporal motion path of the end effector. There are clear anecdotal situations in which one might benefit from imitating postures (when learning ballet) or trajectories (when learning to reach around objects). However, whether these are in fact distinct methods of imitation, and if so, whether they may be applied interchangeably to perform the same task, remain unknown. If these are indeed separate mechanisms that rely on different computational and neural resources, a cost should be incurred when switching from using one mechanism to the other within the context of a single task. Therefore, observing a processing cost would both provide evidence that these are indeed two distinct mechanisms, and that they may be used interchangeably when trying to imitate the same stimulus. To test this, twenty-five healthy young adults performed a sequential multitasking imitation task. Participants were first instructed to pay attention to the limb postures or the hand path of a video-recorded model, then performed a neutral, congruent, or incongruent intervening motor task. Finally, participants imitated the modeled movement. We examined both spatial and temporal imitation accuracy as well as individual spatial consistency. When the primary task involved imitating trajectories, analysis of individual consistency suggested a processing cost: movements following the posture-matching intervening task were less consistent with baseline (neutral) performance, suggesting performance may be disrupted by the incongruence. This effect was not observed when imitating limb postures. In summary, we present initial evidence for a difference between posture matching and trajectory imitation as a result of instructions and intervening tasks that is consistent with the existence of two computationally distinct imitation mechanisms.
... The type of feedback an individual receives can shift the attentional focus of athletes. For example, receiving feedback about movement effects or outcomes (i.e., KR feedback) could result in an external focus, while feedback provided on body movements and movement coordination (i.e., KP feedback) might direct athletes' attention internally (Wulf, 2007). Due to the complexity of certain sports skills, KR feedback might not be the most effective type of feedback to provide to athletes, as it may prevent individuals from using intrinsic feedback processing and error detection (Salmoni et al., 1984). ...
Athletes regularly face the possibility of failing to meet expectations in training and competition, and it is essential that they are equipped with strategies to facilitate coping after receiving performance feedback. Self-compassion is a potential resource to help athletes manage the various setbacks that arise in sport over and above other psychological resources. The primary purpose of this research was to explore how athletes respond to objective biomechanical feedback given after a performance. Specifically, we investigated if levels of self-compassion, self-esteem, self-criticism, and concern over mistakes were related to one another before and after a series of sprint tests interspersed with biomechanical feedback, and whether self-compassionate athletes achieved a better sprint performance after receiving and implementing biomechanical feedback. Forty-eight athletes (20 female: Mage = 19.8 years, SD = 3.1; 28 male: Mage = 23.6 years, SD = 7.8) completed online measures of self-compassion, self-esteem, self-criticism and concern over mistakes before performing four sets of 40-m sprints. Participants received personalized biomechanical feedback after each sprint that compared their performance to gold standard results. Following all sprints, they then completed measures of self-criticism, and reported emotions, thoughts, and reactions. Self-compassion was positively correlated with self-esteem (r = 0.57, p < 0.01) and negatively related to both self-criticism (r = −0.52, p < 0.01) and concern over mistakes (r = −0.69, p < 0.01). We also found that athletes with higher levels of self-compassion prior to sprint performance experienced less self-critical thoughts following biomechanical feedback and subsequent sprint trials (r = −0.38, p < 0.01). Although the results of this study provide some support for the effectiveness of self-compassion in promoting healthy emotions, thoughts, and reactions in response to sprint performance-based biomechanical feedback, a moderated regression analysis between the first and fourth sprint time variables revealed that self-compassion was not a moderator for change in sprint performance (R2 = 0.64, ΔR2 = 0.10, p > 0.05). These findings suggest that there are likely longer-term benefits of athletes using self-compassion to cope with biomechanical feedback, but that any benefits might be limited in a short series of sprint trials.
... Because the auditory system has a remarkable temporal resolution and sensitivity to frequency and time changes, it is possible to provide biomechanical feedback on kinematic parameters of the movement execution by changes in pitch and rhythm using algorithmically-defined sound sequences. Since one of the key points in simultaneous feedback is that the information content is relevant, accurate, fast, and easy to understand (Anderson, 2010), sonification must provide intuitively understandable auditory information to support the process of regulating action execution and motor learning (Wulf & Prinz, 2001;Lahav, Saltzman & Schlaug, 2007;Wulf, 2007). ...
In competitive sports, testing and training equipment is used to monitor and optimize the training process and to analyze and improve the performance of athletes. These technologies offer coaches and athletes innovative and effective support. Sports science research provides empirical evidence that the use of synthesized additional audio information (data-driven sonification) as interactive feedback has positive effects on the accuracy of perception, the reproduction and regulation of movement patterns as well as on motor control and learning. Providing objective data on technical devices quantifies the information and enables the detection of deviations in the movement being performed. To meet the needs of a specific field, the measurement and analysis systems are developed by engineers in collaboration with scientists, biomechanics and coaches. In addition to biomechanical aspects, the athletes’ subjective perception and individual idea of the movement should be considered. Thus, the interface between human and computer becomes an integral part of the process of selecting, manipulating or controlling the display. This chapter aims at describing the design of interactive real-time audio feedback systems for sport applications. Focus is on the development of specially adapted sonification algorithms for real-time sound synthesis and the information transfer to the athlete.
... Based on this comparison of exercises used for the strength test, it might be that the effects of adopting an external focus of attention are greater in lower body vs. upper body or in complex vs. simple exercises. The latter idea has more support in the literature, as Wulf [36] suggested that external focus benefits are larger in more complex movements that require a greater level of multi-muscle and multi-joint coordination. Therefore, using an external focus may impact strength gains to a larger extent in complex vs. simple exercises. ...
This review aimed to perform a meta-analysis examining the following: (a) acute effects of adopting an internal focus vs. external focus of attention on muscular strength; and (b) long-term effects of adopting an internal focus vs. external focus of attention during resistance training on gains in muscular strength. We searched through five databases to find eligible studies. Random-effects meta-analyses of standardized mean differences were conducted to analyze the data. Ten studies were included. In the meta-analysis for the acute effects, there was a significant positive effect of external focus on muscular strength (standardized mean difference: 0.34; 95% confidence interval: 0.22, 0.46). In the meta-analysis for the long-term effects, there was no significant difference between training with an internal focus and external focus on muscular strength gains (standardized mean difference: 0.32; 95% confidence interval: –0.08, 0.73). In the subgroup analysis for lower-body exercises, we found a significant positive effect of training with an external focus on muscular strength gains (standardized mean difference: 0.47; 95% confidence interval: 0.07, 0.87). In summary, our findings indicate an acute increase in muscular strength when utilizing an external focus of attention. When applied over the long-term, using an external focus of attention may also enhance resistance training-induced gains in lower-body muscular strength.
... The emphasis on external foci rather than internal foci is associated with a performance enhancing effect in using motor skills. 16,17 Contrary to the original hypothesis of this study, no differences in the throwing accuracy (scoring probability) between the soft methodic ball and the size 0 ball were found. However, given that the throwing velocity was higher with the soft methodic ball, the accuracy was nevertheless similar in both ball conditions -that is, usually accuracy of a throw decreases with increasing throwing velocities. ...
Throwing a ball is a primary skill in team-handball and can be directly influenced by the properties of different types of balls. Therefore, the use of different balls (i.e., methodic ball) recommended by the handball federations (e.g., IHF) and the education guidelines, are important in teaching throwing. Previous studies have shown that movement patterns and throwing velocity can be influenced by different ball types and sizes. However, the influence of these factors on throwing accuracy has not been investigated in detail yet. This study aims to replicate the findings of previous studies on increasing throwing velocity in children by comparing the use of a soft methodic ball with a size 0 handball. Furthermore, this study investigates the influence of these balls on throwing accuracy. In an experimental study, participants (10-years of age) threw a soft methodic ball and a size 0 ball at target areas in a handball goal. For all the throws, throwing velocity and accuracy were measured. Commensurate with previous research, throwing velocity was higher for the soft methodic ball compared to a size 0 ball. No difference was found in accuracy, although, it is worth mentioning that the participants were only experienced in throwing using the size 0 ball. Moreover, only one-third of the children favored throwing with a size 0 ball, which is what they are used to in training and competition. The results of our study, therefore, confirm that using soft methodic balls additionally, positively influences the throwing velocity and has no negative effect on the accuracy in throwing among young handball beginners.
Improvement balance by exercise interventions in older adults has great importance. The purpose of
this study was to investigate the effect of dual task attention instruction on the static and dynamic
balance older adults in Ahvaz.
Materials & Methods:
This quasi-experimental applied research recruited men of over 60 years old living in Salehin residency
of Ahvaz. Twenty individuals who met the inclusion criteria were selected by convenience sampling
method and participated voluntarily after signing written consent. A week after the pretest, the training
sessions started and lasted for three consecutive sessions. The dual task attention group were instructed
to perform a secondary cognitive assignment (countdown) during the execution of the static and
dynamic balance task. The control group did not perform any cognitive dual task. A post-test was
performed after the end of the training sessions. To compare the two groups, ANCOVA test was used
(p <0.05).
Results:
The results revealed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the static
balance (P = 0. 001) and dynamic balance (P = 0.001). Using dual tasks improved static balance (p
<0.05), but had a weakened effect on the dynamic balance of older adults (p <0.05).
Conclusion:
The results of this study showed that a period of dual task attention instruction improves the static
balance in older adults, but has a weakened effect on the dynamic balance of older adults. Therefore, it
is suggested that dual task be used to improve static balance in older adults.
A holistic focus (HF) has been found to significantly
improve performance over an internal focus (IF), in a
Q3 similar way to an external focus (EF) (Becker et al., 2019).
There is a need to understand the effectiveness of a HF
by investigating kinematic and kinetic outcome measures.
19 college-aged adults performed 12 vertical jumps under four
conditions in a counterbalanced design. The conditions were,
IF, EF, HF, and control, or no focus condition. All participants
performed the vertical jumps on a force plate with 16 reflective
markers placed on the lower extremities. Separate repeated
measures ANOVAs with Sidak post-hoc were used to analyze
jump height, flight height, peak force, takeoff velocity, and
knee and hip flexion. A significant main effect for jump height
was observed (p<0.001). HF and EF jumped significantly
higher than IF (p<0.001; p<0.001). EF also jumped significantly
higher than control (p<.05). No significant main effects
were observed for any kinematic or kinetic dependent variables.
The results of this experiment support previous research by
observing performance benefits of HF and EF over an IF
(Zhuravleva & Aiken, 2023). However, the benefits of HF and
EF cannot be attributed to the kinetic or kinematic changes.
Purpose: This brief report aims to present and reflect on the lessons learnt from practice with an individual case professional dancer who sought comprehensive psychological support as a result of a trauma-injury ruptured Achilles tendon during a live performance.
Method & Results: A professional elite ballet dancer received a total of 12 sessions delivered weekly lasting 60 minutes each session. Rehabilitation post-surgery included physiotherapy, strength and conditioning, pilates, nutrition and psychological support as part of a comprehensive package. Quantitative data through the PANAS questionnaire (Watson et al., 1988) was administered at baseline, midpoint and at the end of the sessions. Three main themes emerged as acquired skills through psychological interventions: 1) self-confidence and self-esteem, 2) a renewed sense of belonging, and 3) a sense of autonomy.
Discussion & Conclusions: A dancers’ centred approach in providing psychological support for a comprehensive rehabilitation program where transdisciplinary interlinked approaches benefited the recovery from injury to full recovery. Reflections highlight the importance of positive person-centred psychological models of practice, the Rogerian foundations of authenticity, non-judgemental and guiding principles of recovery and the clinician positionality, active listening and compassion.
The aim of this paper is to present and reflect on the lessons learnt from practice with an individual case professional dancer who sought comprehensive psychological support as a result of a sustained trauma-injury ruptured Achilles tendon during a live performance. A single case study is represented as part of reflections and lessons learnt throughout the period of consultation and psychological support offered. The mode of service delivery, methods, and final evaluation, with final reflections are presented. A total of 12 sessions delivered fortnightly were offered lasting 60 minutes each session. Rehabilitation post-surgery included physio, strength and conditioning, Pilates, nutrition, psychological support as part of a comprehensive package.The PANAS questionnaire (Watson et al, 1988) which was administered at baseline, mid-point and post-sessions was used as an evaluation tool. Through reflective practice, three main themes emerged as acquired skills through the psychological interventions offered: 1) self-confidence and self-esteem, 2) a renewed sense of belonging, and 3) sense of autonomy. A dancers’ centred approach in providing psychological support for a comprehensive rehabilitation program was used, where transdisciplinary interlinked approaches benefited the recovery from ‘curtain down’ to ‘curtain up’. Reflections highlight the importance of positive psychological models of practice, the Rogerian foundations of authenticity, non-judgemental and guiding principles of recovery through empathy, and the clinician’s positionality right from the start of the support offered.
Tədqiqat işində idmançının psixoloji hazırlığında və nailiyyətinin yüksəldilməsində diqqətin rolu nəzəri və praktiki cəhətdən əsaslandırılır. İdmançının fiziki hazırlığı ilə yanaşı onun psixoloji hazırlığı da zəruri hesab edilir. Diqqət mahiyyətcə psixofizioloji proses hesab edildiyindən, digər psixoloji proseslərin də gedişini müəyyənləşdirmək imkanı nöqteyi-nəzərindən idmançının hazırlığı prosesində əsas amil kimi götürülməsi tədqiqat işinin mahiyyətini müəyyənləşdirir. Tədqiqat işi idmançılarda diqqətin pozulmasının qarşısının alınmasında tətbiq edilən effektiv metodların təklifi və onların praktiki tətbiqinə dair nümunələri əks etdirir. İdmançının diqqətinin yayına biləcəyi hallar müəyyənləşdirilir və onların həllinə dair təkliflər, metodlar əsaslandırılmış formada təqdim edilir.
Abstract
Objective: In some situations, however, the goal of the skill is to correct movement mechanics, and in these specific scenario’s external focus instructions should be specific to mechanic. External focus instructions Based on Performance do not have a positive effect on motion mechanics. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of external focus instructions Based on mechanics and performance in the vertical jump movement: Examining the constrained action hypothesis.
Methods: For this purpose, 12 male professional volleyball players (average age 24.0±1.92 years; average weight 73.5±8.7 kg) voluntarily participated in this research. Subjects performed the vertical jump movement with all their strength in two external focus situations (1- performance-based external focus 2- mechanics-based external focus) on the dynamometer screen (ten jumps in each situation). During jumping, surface electromyography signals of the right abdominal muscle were recorded using an electromyography device that was simultaneous with a force plate device in terms of time.
Results: The results of the paired t-test showed that the jump height in the performance-based external focus condition was significantly higher than the mechanics-based external focus condition (P=0.0005). Also, the focus of external attention based on mechanics compared to the focus of external attention based on performance caused a significant increase in the electrical activity of the right abdominal muscle during the concentric phase (P=0.0005). However, there was no significant difference in the eccentric phase of the electrical activity of the right abdominal muscle between the centers of the two conditions (P=0.233).
Conclusion: These results indicate that performance-based external focus instructions lead to greater automaticity of movement and improved performance. But it is not useful for improving movement mechanics, and for this purpose, external focus instructions based on movement mechanics should be used.
The purpose of this article is to provide strategies for using imagery to build confidence in esport athletes. Because confidence is a belief and strongly influenced by success and failure, mental training using imagery should be designed to create and sustain an agile mindset to accept events that shake confidence and enable athletes to respond productively to adapt and restore self-belief. Esport athletes should start small with short but frequent sessions of polysensory imagery practice of simple skills and strategies to build imagery skill and confidence. Imagery practice should be similar to competition, in terms of physical posture, setting, and equipment. Confidence-building imagery strategies include creating and rehearsing optimal performance plans as well creating imagery scripts for productive responses to mistakes, losing, tilting, and worrying about the skills and decision-making of teammates. Uses of imagery can be periodized to optimally develop confident performance and responses, prepare for specific opponents or tournaments, and assess prior performances using a growth mindset to enhance self-belief.
Der vorliegende Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über die aktuellen Motoriktheorien. Grundlegende Verfahren der Bewegungskontrolle wie Steuerung und Regelung sowie präskriptive und emergente Ansätze werden vorgestellt und überführt in die aktuelle Theorie der internen Modelle. Im Anschluss wird erläutert, wie sich durch motorische Adaptation und durch motorisches Lernen die Kontrollmechanismen auf verschiedenen Zeitskalen verändern. Abschließend wird der Beitrag von expliziten und impliziten Prozessen auf die Motorik thematisiert.
Postural control is one of the important abilities in daily life and sport
activities of human beings and the importance of focus of attention is always
discussed in this issue. In this regard, the aim of the present study was to
investigate the effect of the instructions of focus of attention of suprapostural task on performance and learning of postural control in girls aged
between 9 and 12. 45 female students in an elementary school in Malayer
city participated in this study and were randomly divided into 3 groups:
external attention, internal attention and control by drawing of lots. The
participants were asked to maintain their postural control by instructions on
supra-postural task. Instructions included focus of attention on the bar they
held horizontally (external focus), on their hands (internal focus) and no
instructions (control). The results of analysis of variance with repeated
measures showed that learning process in external focus group was
significant compared with the internal focus (P=0.049) and control
(P=0.005) groups. However, no significant differences were found in
learning between internal focus and control groups (P=0.345). It can be
concluded that external attention instruction on supra-postural task led to
better postural control than internal attention instruction.
هدف از پژوهش حاضر بررسی و مقایسه تأثیر تمرینهای تصمیمگیری بر حافظه کاری، توجه انتخابی و دقت عملکرد است. پژوهش حاضر از نوع نیمهتجربی با طرح پیشآزمون و پسآزمون است، جامعه آماری پژوهش دختران دانشگاه تبریز در دامنه سنی 19 تا 25 سال است، که از میان آنها 45 نفر از بازیکنان والیبال مبتدی آموزشدیده به صورت نمونهگیری هدفمند انتخاب شد. این بازیکنان به صورت تصادفی در سه گروه تمرینات تصمیمگیری با پیچیدگی زیاد، تمرینات تصمیمگیری با پیچیدگی کم و کنترل قرار گرفتند. پروتکل تمرینی به مدت 18 جلسه انجام شد و گروهها تمرینات را بر اساس دستورالعمل تمرینی هر گروه در قالب 3 بلوک 20 تایی اجرا کردند. برای ارزیابی توجه انتخابی، حافظه کاری و دقت عملکرد بهترتیب از آزمونهای استروپ، ظرفیت حافظه کاری و آزمون استاندارد شده والیبال استفاده شد. پس از جمعآوری دادهها با استفاده از آزمون شاپیرو ویلک، نرمال بودن توزیع دادهها بررسی شد و در ادامه، از روش تحلیل واریانس عاملی بین و درونگروهی در سطح معناداری (P<0/05) با استفاده از نرمافزار اس پی اس نسخه 25 به آزمون فرضیهها پرداخته شد. نتایج حاصل از این بررسیها نشان دادند که گروه تمرین تصمیمگیری نسبت به گروه کنترل بهبود چشمگیری در متغیرهای پژوهش داشته است. این افزایش در گروه تصمیمگیری با پیچیدگی زیاد به مراتب بیشتر از گروه تصمیمگیری با پیچیدگی کم گزارش شد و در گروه کنترل تغییری مشاهده نشد.
Predictability is increasingly recognized as an important principle in perception and motor learning. The pursuit of increased predictability seems to one of the main goals that the human system pursues. Therefore, providing predictability in one of the most challenging situations that humans face, namely multitasking, a promising line of research. In this thesis the impact of predictability was systematically investigated in five experiments. In the first four experiments predictability was achieved by implementing a repeating pattern in one task, or both tasks. Participants acquired knowledge of these patterns either explicitly or implicitly in several training sessions, under single-task or dual-task conditions. We tested whether this increased predictability helped dual-task performance after the training sessions. The results suggest that predictability is helpful for dual-task performance, although the benefits are confined to the predictable task itself. In a fifth experiment we focused on providing between task predictability, which led to a large performance improvement in both tasks, prompting the discussion about what constitutes a task, in the sense of when can two tasks be perceived as a single task comprising both, a theoretical problem we tried to tackle in one of the articles. Explanations for the findings, theoretical implications, methodological issues and suggestions for future research are given in the general discussion
Learning is a process of changes in which individuals evolve from rudimentary stages to stages more specialized, showing, over time, better conditions to perform motor skills. Attention is an important factor in this process. Specifically, attention can be directed to body movements or on the effects of our movements on the environment. Evidence shows that increasing the distance between the focus of attention and body movements (distal focus), can enhance the acquisition of motor skills. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different types of focus of attention in learning a penalty kick in children. Twenty-nine children with a mean age of 6,12±0,4 years participated in the study, which was randomly assigned into four groups (proximal external focus, distal external focus in target, distal external focus in goalkeeper and control). Participants performed a trial to pre-test, followed by 20 trials in the acquisition phase. On the following day, five trials were performed in the retention and transfer test, separately in each phase. The results showed high accuracy in kicking for the distal external focus in target on retention (p=0,003) and transfer (p=0,011) tests, compared to the proximal external focus of attention and control. The findings demonstrate that instructions inducing distal external focus of attention can increase the learning of sports skills in children.
Postural control decrements with advancing age have been largely identified in the literature. Dual-task paradigms have been utilized to increase older adults' stability in order to direct the attention towards the completion of a secondary task, leaving the automatic motor control processes to modulate posture unconstrained. To the extent that older adults allocate greater attentional resources to maintain an upright posture, the present study aimed at replicating St-Amant et al. (2020) protocol to investigate automatic postural control and prefrontal cortex activation in older adults when simultaneously performing quiet standing wtih different attention-demanding cognitive tasks.
Nineteen healthy older adults (71.47 ± 6.01 years) were recruited and self-reported no hearing, musculoskeletal and neurological problems. Older adults were required to perform three different cognitive loads while seated (SC), quietly standing on a force platform (SM), and performing both tasks simultaneously (DT).
Static center-of-pressure measurements and wavelet discrete transform did not reveal postural automaticity in dual-task conditions. Conversely, sample entropy values were significantly greater when performing n-back compared to all other tasks in the medial-lateral direction, and significantly greater than SM in the anterior-posterior direction. The relative concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) of the left hemisphere was significantly greater than the right when performing n-back, and significantly greater within the left hemisphere when performing n-back compared to double-number sequence.
Collectively, our results do not support the presence of automatic postural control in dual-task conditions for older adults. The present study highlights the importance of using numerous variables when investigating posture in order to capture its complexity.
The goal of this research was to test the effectiveness of an integrative-adaptive teaching strategy against direct and indirect teaching strategies while learning a new and difficult movement task. In instructional psychology, there is a long-standing research debate on whether direct or indirect teaching strategies are more effective (cognitivsm versus constructivsm). While the research results up to this day do not suggest a superiority of direct or indirect teaching strategies, there are first indications that integrative teaching strategies may be more effective. The current research study is divided into 3 steps: In the first step, an explanatory model, namely, a biomechanically optimal solution for balancing on the slackline, was developed and empirically tested on n = 16 slackliners with different skill levels. The results show that the identified technical skills (e.g., low stiffness of the lower extremities) are responsible for a stable and economical movement solution. In the second step, an integrative-adaptive teaching strategy was systematically designed on the basis of the modified heuristic framework of Hänsel (2002), which means that the concrete teaching content, methods and activities (design parameters) are determined based on evidence. In the third step, a training experiment was carried out to test the practical implementation and effectiveness of the integrative-adaptive teaching strategy compared to a direct and indirect teaching strategy. In a study design that comprised three groups (direct, integrative-adaptive and indirect teaching strategy) and six measurement times (MZP), the exercise effect (5 MZP) as well as the learning and transfer effects (retention and transfer test after one week) of N = 36 slackline beginners were tested. All subjects practiced three times a week for four weeks (for a total of 12 training sessions of 20 minutes net time including tests) while using their assigned teaching strategy. Slackline performance was measured at different levels: (1) the qualitative and quantitative realization of the technical skills, (2) standing time and walking distance on the slackline and (3) the stability and economy of balancing. In summary, the results indicate an advantage of using the integrative-adaptive teaching strategy for balancing on the slackline. (1) The direct and integrative-adaptive group were more likely to perform the movement technique in terms of the optimal solution. (2) There was an advantage of the integrative-adaptive group over the direct and indirect group in terms of walking distance. For standing time, no effect was found due to a ceiling effect in performance for all conditions. (3) There was a tendency for the integrative-adaptive and indirect group to balance more economically than the direct group. No conclusions can be drawn on the effect on stability.
The neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the behavioural improvements usually associated with an external (EF) compared with an internal focus of attention (IF) remain poorly investigated. Surround inhibition in the primary cortex has been shown to be more pronounced with an EF, indicating a more spatial restriction of the motor command. However, the influence of different foci on the temporal aspect of the motor command, such as the modulation of fast versus slow(er) motor pathways, remains unknown and was therefore investigated in this study. Fourteen participants were asked to press on a pedal with the right foot to match its position with a target line displayed on a screen. The deviation of the pedal from the target line was used as a behavioural parameter and compared between both foci (EF vs IF). Additionally, conditioned H-reflexes were evoked during the motor task to assess the excitability of fast (direct) and slower (more indirect) motor pathways when adopting an EF or IF. With an EF compared to an IF, the motor performance was enhanced ( P = .001; + 24%) and the activation of slow(er) motor pathways was reduced ( P < 0.001, − 11.73%). These findings demonstrate for the first time that using different attentional strategies (EF and IF) has an influence on the excitability of slow(er) motor pathways. Together with the increased intracortical inhibition and surround inhibition known from previous studies, the diminished activation in the slow(er) motor pathways further explains why using an EF is a more economic strategy.
Various studies have shown that the external focus of attention is better than the internal focus of attention. But, so far no study has been investigated the level of electrical activity of the rectus abdominus muscle as a trunk stabilizer muscle. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of focus of attention on electromyography activity of the rectus abdominus muscle during Different phases of vertical jump.Twelve male elite volleyball players from university of Tehran Participated in this research voluntary. They performed a vertical jump on the force plate in both internal and external focus of attention condition. Rectus abdominus Surface electromyography (SEMG) signals recorded by electromyography apparatus during vertical jump and The electrical activity of this muscle was calculated in the different phases of vertical jump motion. Paired t-test results showed that height of jump under the external focus was higher than the internal focus. In addition, this results showed that internal focus caused significant increasing in Rectus abdominus EMG in comparison to external focus during concentric phase. But, there was no significant difference in the eccentric phase between the external and internal focus of attention conditions. These results suggest that the external focus of attention effectively increases the efficiency of vertical jump. Therefor; we recommend using the external focus of attention instructions when executing vertical jump movement.
How the focus of attention affects motor skill performance has been an interesting research topic in the last two decades for sport psychologist and motor behavior researchers. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of attention instructions on quiet eye duration (QED) and performance of dual task in novice individuals. In a semi-experimental design with repeated measurements the participant executed 54 trial of dart throwing with secondary task (each condition 18 trial), also at the same time with dart throw, gaze behavior captured by eye tracker. Result indicated external focus improved accuracy of dart throwing than internal focus. For QED no different found between focus of attention conditions. Result of research supported the constrained action hypothesis and in contrast with constraints-led perspective showed that benefit of external focus is independent from visual information.
The dynamics of juggling three balls in a figure-of-eight pattern are explored from a natural physical perspective. A pilot experiment is reported in which the juggling task is scaled on rate in order to test hypotheses as to how this effects: (1) the timing relation between two key time components in the motion of the hands, and (2) the relative balance between harmonic and relaxation behaviour of the effector system. In addition, some clues and ideas are provided as to how perception may constrain the act of juggling.
An experiment was conducted to examine the respective roles of explicit rules about movement execution and direction of attention in learning and performing a novel perceptual-motor task. To this end, four groups of learners (34 participants in total) acquired the table tennis forehand (450 repetitions) under different instructions (explicit, implicit, movement focus, and environment focus learning) and were subsequently tested under increased performance pressure and secondary task loading. In the absence of any differences in acquisition between the groups, the results revealed that the accumulation of a large number of explicit rules about task execution (i.e., explicit learning) was detrimental to performance underpressure and secondary task hading. It was therefore concluded that the number of explicit rules accumulated, rather than direction of attention during learning, determines the robustness of the acquired skill to performance pressure.
The present study examined whether the previously observed benefits of an external focus of attention (i.e., focusing on the movement effect), relative to an internal focus (i.e., focusing on one's body movements) and control conditions, would generalize to tasks requiring maximum force production, such as jumping. In two experiments, participants performed a vertical jump-and-reach task. A Vertec™ measurement device was used to determine jump-and-reach height. Participants performed under three conditions in a within-participant design: External focus (i.e., focus on the rungs of the Vertec that were to be touched), internal focus (i.e., focus on the finger, with which the rungs were to be touched), and control conditions (i.e., focus on jumping as high as possible). Experiment 1 showed that participants' jump-and-reach height was greatest with an external focus. Those results were replicated in Experiment 2. In addition, it was observed that the vertical displacement of the center of mass was greater under the external focus condition, compared to the other two conditions. This suggests that participants jumped higher by producing greater forces when they adopted an external focus. These findings indicate that the previously shown benefits of an external attentional focus generalize to tasks requiring maximal force production
This article discusses the acquisition of knowledge about environmental regulatory features that guide the selection and execution of movements involved in performing open motor skills. First, empirical evidence related to the visual search characteristics of skilled and novice performers is considered to demonstrate that learning environmental regulatory features is an important part of performing an open motor skill. Then, the hypothesis is proposed and discussed that environmental regulatory features can, and probably should, be learned implicitly, which means the features can be learned and used, even though the learner is not consciously aware of the specific characteristics of those features. This article also discusses laboratory-based experiments that provide evidence supporting this hypothesis and presents implications for developing instructional strategies and practice conditions.
This study included 235 Canadian Olympic athletes who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles. Individual interviews were carried out with 75 athletes and a questionnaire was completed by another 160 to assess their mental readiness for the Olympic Games and factors related to mental readiness. Common elements of success were identified, as well as factors that interfered with optimal performance at the Olympic Games. Statistically significant links were found between Olympic performance outcome and certain mental skills. This investigation assessed the level of mental readiness and mental control experienced by Canadian athletes at the 1984 Olympic Games. A large-scale study was undertaken involving 235 Canadian Olympians who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo or Los Angeles. It was a two-stage study involving an interview sample and a questionnaire survey sample.
The author clarifies the objective and essence of the psychological, or perceptual-cognitive, approach to voluntary movement. According to that approach, voluntary movements are organized and performed as meaningful, perceptible events with bodily and environmental aspects. Body-oriented control is thus not neglected in the perceptual-cognitive approach but is actually an important issue. He further clarifies how material and psychological factors relate to each other in motor control and why they are not considered a coalition of constraints. The central importance of the sparse coding principle for the perceptual-cognitive approach is underlined. Finally, the author argues that the psychological information format is particularly suitable for motion control and stresses the power of the perceptual-cognitive approach to possibly provide a unifying framework for understanding human voluntary movements.
This article examines the cognitive architecture of complex movements, how it is organized over several levels and is built on specific building blocks. Basic Action Concepts (BACs) are identified as the major building blocks on the level of mental representations. These BACs are cognitive tools for mastering the functional demands of movement tasks. New experimental methods are introduced and applied in studies addressing the functional link between representation structures and human performance. Results from two different lines of research showed that not only is the structure formation of mental representations in long‐term memory built upon BACs, but so is chunk formation in working memory and systematically relates systematically to movement structures. Further lines of experimental research in various fields of sport showed that cognitive subsystems work together functionally with different levels of movement architecture in order to solve movement tasks. These results support the hypothesis that voluntary movements are planned, executed, and stored in memory directly through representations of their anticipated perceptual effects. Conclusions are drawn for new forms of mental training as well as new ways of carrying out technical preparation.
In this study, 36 participants read an expository text describing 4 rare illnesses from a given perspective. Their eye movements were recorded during reading, and think-alouds were probed after 10 relevant and 10 irrelevant sentences. A free recall was collected after reading. The results showed that in addition to increasing the fixation time and recall for relevant in comparison to irrelevant text information, a reading perspective guides readers to use slightly different comprehension processes for relevant text information, as shown by think-aloud protocols. Repetitions were more frequent responses after relevant than after irrelevant target sentences. Verbally reported processing strategies were associated with the eye-fixation patterns. Verbal responses indicative of deeper processing were associated with longer first-pass fixation times than those indicative of shallower processing. It is concluded that a "triangulation" using complementary measures is a worthwhile endeavor when studying text-comprehension processes.
Research on attentional focus and motor learning seems to be conclusive: Directing attention to distal effects of movements is superior to an internal focus. However, looking at further evidence raises doubts about this general statement. On the other hand, the theoretical explanation of attentional effects is not convincing. Rather the (functional) relationship of attentional focus and task demands should be reconsidered.
Gabriele Wulf betont in ihrem Forschungsüberblick die Rolle der Aufmerksamkeit für das motorische Lernen. Wenngleich die empirische Befundlage deutlich zeigt, dass der Aufmerksamkeitsfokus von Bedeutung ist, bleiben die zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen noch weitestgehend unverstanden. Zukünftige Theoriearbeit sollte auf die Aufschlüsselung möglicher Kosten eines internalen Fokus und möglicher Gewinne eines externalen Fokus sowie auf die zeitliche Dynamik des Fertigkeitserwerbs gerichtet sein. Schlüsselwörter: Aufmerksamkeitsfokus, interne Bewegungs-repräsentation, antizipative Verhaltenskontrolle, Verhaltenswir-kung, Forschungsmethodologie Gabriele Wulf discusses an interesting line of research and rightly emphasizes the importance of the attentional set in learning motor skills. However, while the empirical evidence clearly suggests that the attentional focus matters, the way how it does so is not yet well understood. Future theorizing needs to disentangle the possible costs of adopting an internal focus from the possible benefits of adopting an external focus, and to consider the temporal dynamics of skill acquisition.
provide a perspective on the roles of mental control and hedonism in human behavior / the essence of the argument is that mental representations develop as a means of coordinating the conduct of time-consuming actions, and that the attainment of effective coordination—the calibration of mind and action—comes to complement and sometimes supplant simple hedonism as the driving force in thought and behavior
what is the source of plans, goals, motives, and the like that provide the basis for the . . . conscious control of action / how do such representations come to control behavior / are mental representations typically stable over time, providing consistent bases for action, or are they instead malleable, showing dramatic change in response to events and social forces / when does mental control become ineffective or otherwise maladaptive / what is the relationship between mental control and emotion (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Exploratory studies examine the effectiveness of old way/new way, an innovative metacognitive learning strategy initially developed in education settings, in the rapid and permanent correction of established technique difficulties experienced by two Olympic athletes in javelin and sprinting. Individualized interventions included video-assisted error analysis, step-wise enhancement of kinesthetic awareness, re-activation of the error memory, discrimination and
generalization of the correct movement pattern. Self-reports, coach's ratings and video
recordings were used as measures of technique improvement. A single learning trial produced
immediate and permanent technique improvement (80% or higher correct action) and full
transfer of learning, without the need for the customary adaptation period. Findings are consistent with the performance enhancement effects of Old way/new way demonstrated experimentally in non-sport settings.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning explores how a person's focus of attention affects motor performance and, in particular, the learning of motor skills. It synthesizes the knowledge coming from recent research examining the effects of attentional focus on motor performance and learning, and it provides practical implications for both instructional and rehabilitative settings.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning challenges traditional views that the method of learning a motor skill involves focusing attention on each part of the skill and internalizing proper execution. Instead, author Gabriele Wulf argues that the learning of new motor skills suffers when attentional focus is on the coordination of movements. When attention is directed to the desired movement effect, however, performance levels rise. Not only is a higher level of performance often achieved faster with an external rather than an internal attention focus, but the skill is retained better. The advantages of external focus apply to a variety of skills and skill levels and may be used while instructing athletes, children, and those with physical impairments as well as in any setting in which effective and efficient training of motor skills is a concern.
Attention and Motor Skill Learning not only presents the latest research on attentional focus, but it also offers practical solutions for bypassing or at least shortening the first “conscious” stage of learning. Instructors may then use these suggestions to provide their students or patients with a faster and more effective way to develop and perform motor skills.to develop and perform motor skills.
This text turns research into application by
- detailing how a person's attentional focus changes with age and type of task and in later stages of learning, allowing readers to apply the information to a variety of ages and settings;
- providing specific instructional examples and challenges in “Practical Applications” sections that may be used in everyday teaching scenarios; and
- including comparison tables and offering suggestions for differentiating instructions regarding internal and external foci of attention.
To help teachers understand how the wording of their instruction can facilitate the learning process, Attention and Motor Skill Learning shares insights from athletes, musicians, and speech therapists on their thinking as they perform or teach selected skills in each chapter's “Attentional Insights” section. The “Future Directions” sections at the end of each chapter highlight potential research studies that challenge readers to use and further develop the methods and practices in the book. Other useful features include case studies and chapter-opening scenarios that present motor-learning problems and demonstrate the role of attentional focus in solving them.
In this response we discuss how the issues reviewed regarding attentional focus and motor learning have not been addressed in the field of health professions education. We provide a brief introduction to the field of health professions education, and present a rationale for applying current concepts related to attention and learning to facilitate the development of technical clinical skills curricula.
Recently, researchers in the motor learning area have shown that instructions to direct the learner’s attention to their body movements (i.e., induce an internal focus) – such as those typically used in applied settings – are less effective than instructions directing attention to the movement effects (i.e., inducing an external focus). Under the assumption that females tend to be more concerned about performing a movement correctly than males, who might be more inclined to focus on the outcome of their actions, the purpose of the present study was to examine whether females would benefit more from external-focus instructions than males. Female and male high-school students practiced a soccer instep kick with instructions that either induced an internal or external focus of attention. Subsequent retention (stationary ball) and transfer (moving ball) tests without instructions were performed to assess learning. The female group that was given internal-focus instructions during practice showed a greater performance decrement from retention to transfer than all other groups. This provides support for the view that the type of attentional focus induced by instructions might be particularly relevant for females, and that females might show greater learning advantages when provided with external-focus instructions.
Current attentional research and theory are related to the development of skilled performance. Emphasis is given to how performance changes with practice. Dual process attention theory is reviewed examining the distinctions between automatic and controlled processing. The changing interactions between automatic and controlled processing in the development of skill are discussed. It is proposed that consistent practice produces automatic productions which perform consistent transformations in a heterarchial system. Automatic productions are proposed to: be modular; show high transfer; become resource free; not be under direct control, and be fast, accurate, and coordinated. Controlled processing is assumed to develop automatic processing, maintain strategy and time varying information, and perform problem solving activities. Perceptual data, some motor data, and several motor performance examples are presented to illustrate automatic/controlled processing effects. The relationship to current theories of motor skill is discussed. New research paradigms suggested by the current approach are discussed.
Using a dual-task paradigm, it has been shown that it is possible to acquire motor skills in an implicit manner, whereby performers have little explicit knowledge of the underlying rule structures governing the mechanics of their movements. Motor skills learned in this way appear to benefit from some of the advantages attributed to implicit mechanisms; particularly, resilience to skill failure under stress. They also, however, suffer disadvantages associated with the inhibitory effects of secondary tasks on learning. After a brief overview of the implicit learning literature this paper describes some of the recent studies which have established implicit learning in the motor domain and discusses current developments in the search for more sophisticated implicit learning techniques which avoid the disadvantages associated with dual-task learning techniques and which are both theoretically valid and ecologically viable.
It requires some courage to speak on consciousness to an American audience, for the phenomena any study of consciousness must rely on are too questionable for them. Strictly speaking they only consist of a sum of verbal reactions whose relation to the underlying observations as reported by the informant is highly complicated and whose reliability in any case remains uncertain. Theoretically, all contents of consciousness have a certain chance of manifesting themselves somehow in overt nonverbal behavior. But American psychologists in general do not trust very much in the value of behavior as representing what goes on in the mind of a subject. So many try to get along without any knowledge about consciousness except for sensory discrimination which can be represented without uttering a single word, simply by running to the left or to the right in a choice ex-periment. As for the rest. they consider a human being to be a "black box" that after suffering certain impacts from the outside at a certain spot of its surface reacts on its surroundings at another spot. They seem to feel safe only in studying the familiar S-R relation.
Human factors is a critical discipline for human spaceflight. Nearly every human factors research area is relevant to space exploration-from the ergonomics of hand tools used by astronauts, to the displays and controls of a spacecraft cockpit or mission control workstation, to levels of automation designed into rovers on Mars, to organizational issues of communication between crew and ground. This chapter focuses more on the ways in which the space environment (especially altered gravity and the isolated and confined nature of longduration spaceflight) affects crew performance and thus has specific novel implications for human factors research and practice. We focus on four aspects of human performance: neurovestibular integration, motor control and musculoskeletal effects, cognitive effects, and behavioral health. We also provide a sampler of recent human factors studies from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
The present study assessed the influence of different attentional focusing instructions upon muscular activity during biceps curl movements. Twenty-nine participants carried out 10 biceps curl repetitions on an isokinetic dynamometer at 60oás-1 using control, internal (focusing upon arm movements) and external (focusing upon movement of the bar) attentional focusing strategies whilst Electromyography (EMG) activity of the biceps brachii was recorded. Significantly higher levels of EMG activity were observed in the internal and control conditions when compared to when an external strategy was used. When data was normalised against the control condition, the internal strategy resulted in significantly higher levels of EMG activity when compared to the external strategy. Attentional focusing strategies and instructions influence the observed muscular activity, which has direct implications for both skill execution and physical training settings. Coaches, trainers, and physiotherapists should be aware of the effects that different instructional emphases can have at a muscular level.
The present study examined the influences of instructions that directed the learner’s attention to either an internal focus or external focus on the performance and learning of a dynamic balance task. The instructions given were related to either the participant’s own body movements (internal focus) or to the effects their movements had on the apparatus (external focus) (Wulf et. al, 1998). The purpose of this study was to investigate balance performance and learning in 9-12 year old children using internal and external focus of attention strategies. Participants were 9-12 year olds (N= 88) from intact physical education classes at a K-12 public school in Tallahassee, Florida. The hypotheses tested were instructions referring to an external focus of attention would be more effective in promoting balance performance and learning than internal focus instructions for 9-10 year olds and 11-12 year olds. Participants were randomly assigned into an external focus group, internal focus group and control group for 9-10 year olds and 11-12 year olds. A Biodex Dynamic Balance System was used to measure select dependent variables (overall stability, anterior/posterior stability, medial/lateral stability, mean deflection, anterior/posterior deflection and medial/lateral deflection) for six instructional set trials. A questionnaire was given to participants following the testing trials to examine whether or not participants were focusing on the instructional set cues. The instructional set cues were as follows: stand as still as possible while “keeping your feet still” (internal focus), stand as still as possible while “keeping the platform still” (external focus), stand as still as possible (control group). Two days following the testing trials, each group completed three retention trials with no focus of attention instructions provided. Participants who were given an external focus cue and said they used it based on the results of the questionnaire were significantly better in balance performance and learning than those who were given an internal focus cue and said they used it. All participants who said they used an external focus cue regardless of what focus group they were randomly assigned were better in balance performance and learning than participants who said they used an internal cue.
The article presents an overview of notions of anticipatory control of behavior, meaning the control of behavior through advance representations of sensory effects. First, a brief historical overview of concepts regarding sensory effects as the intra‐psychic raw material of actions is presented. These concepts are generally subsumed under the term ideo‐motor principle. Evidence is presented that associations between actions and their sensory effects are formed even if the effects are not intended by the actor. Specifically, the impact of redundant tone effects on the acquisition of movement sequences is discussed. Further evidence suggests that effect anticipations also influence the selection and initiation of choice responses. This is exemplified above all by a phenomenon referred to as response‐effect‐compatibility. It is then specified that the impact of effect anticipations on the preparation and the execution of responses differs, suggesting that different processes are influenced by them. In conclusion, the importance of sensory anticipations for motor control is acknowledged and a number of open questions are pointed out.
Three recommendations that are commonly made in the applied sport psychology literature are discussed. These three recommendations are : 1) cognitive anxiety is always detrimental to performance and should therefore be reduced whenever possible; 2) outcome goals and ego orientations have a detrimental effect on a number performance-related variables. so that performers should be encouraged to set performance rather than outcome goals; 3) internal visual imagery is more beneficial to performance than external visual imagery. so performers should always be encouraged to use visual imagery from an internal perspective. For each of these recommendations. empirical and experiential evidence is presented which challenges the recommendation. Alternative refinements to the recommendations are discussed.
This experiment followed up on previous studies showing learning benefits of instructions directing the performers' attention to the effects of their movements (external focus) relative to instructions directing attention to the movements themselves (internal focus). The main purpose was to determine whether similar advantages could be achieved by preventing learners from focusing on their movements through the use of an attention-demanding secondary task. Participants practiced balancing on a stabilometer. External and internal focus group participants were instructed to focus on markers attached to the balance platform or on their feet, respectively. A third group was required to shadow a story presented to them while balancing. In addition, a control group without attentional focus instructions or a secondary task was included. The external focus group showed more effective balance learning than the other groups. The results provide evidence for the learning benefits of external focus instructions. In addition, they show that similar advantages cannot be achieved by simply preventing learners from focusing on the task to be learned.
This chapter is concerned with some of the issues involved in understanding how perception contributes to the control of actions. Roughly speaking, the term of action refers to any meaningful segment of an organisms intercourse with its environment. Two important features of this preliminary definition can be brought out more clearly when “actions” are contrasted with “responses” and “movements”. Unlike response-centered approaches to psychology, which consider the organisms activity more or less determined by the actual stimulus information, the action approach emphasizes intentional control as being simultaneous with (or even prior to) informational control of activity, assuming that intentional processes fix the rules for the selection and use of stimulus information (Heuer Prinz, 1987; Neumann Prinz, 1987). Unlike movement-centered approaches, which describe the organisms activity in terms of the dynamics of muscular contraction patterns and the kinematics of the resulting body movements, the action approach stresses the environmental consequences that go along with these bodily events, contending that meaningful interactions with the environment, rather than movements per se, should be considered the effective functional units of activity (Fowler Turvey, 1982; Neisser, 1985).
Recent experimental evidence suggests that to effectively learn a motor skill, athletes should not focus on their movement. While this finding contests commonly held beliefs, it also lacks a theoretical basis. It can be shown that classic cognitive theories of motor control or of attention do not provide for such a basis. Therefore, based on functional approaches, where the function of attention is the selection-for-action of stimuli, and movements are controlled by their anticipated effects, an integrative framework is proposed. Here, movements can be governed by either “nodal point”, a strategy in which internal or external effects within a movement are attended to, or external control by the final effect in the environment. Experimental findings in support of this framework are mentioned, and implications are discussed.
The author argues that movements are planned, executed, and stored in memory as perceptible events, without regard to efferent patterns. Spontaneous bimanual coordination phenomena are hypothesized to originate on a perceptual-cognitive level, with the muscles automatically tuned in service to preferred perceptible movement properties. The perceptual-cognitive system is hypothesized to control skilled complex movements as well. In perceptual cognitive control, the full potential of the perceptual-cognitive system could be exploited. Thus, movements could be enormously flexible, with a strong potential for improvisation and creativity. An effective representation might be organized in a surprisingly sparse and economic way. In sum, the author argues that a psychological approach is most promising as a possible unifying perspective for understanding human voluntary movements. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
PRESENTS A "PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL OF THE MYSTIC EXPERIENCE BASED ON THE ASSUMPTIONS THAT MEDITATION AND RENUNCIATION ARE PRIMARY TECHNIQUES FOR PRODUCING IT, AND THAT THE PROCESS CAN BE CONCEPTUALIZED AS ONE OF DE-AUTOMATIZATION." AUTOMATIZATION IS TAKEN FROM HARTMANN'S CONCEPT OF THE AUTOMATIC FUNCTIONING OF MOTOR BEHAVIOR, I.E., OF THE AUTOMATIZED INTEGRATION OF BOTH SOMATIC SYSTEMS AND MENTAL ACTS. DEAUTOMATIZATION IS THE UNDOING OF THIS PROCESS BY "REINVESTING ACTIONS AND PERCEPTS WITH ATTENTION." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)