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Land tenancy, soybean, actors and transformations in the pampas: A district balance
... Una hipótesis complementaria a la hipótesis principal indica que los grandes pools conformados por grandes capitales no han sido los principales responsables de los cambios tecnológicos del periodo ni del aumento en el costo de la tierra, sino que, por el contrario, esos cambios son los que explican su existencia (Urcola et al., 2015;Muzlera, 2016b). ...
... A fines de la década de 1990 y, en especial, en la primera de los 2000, este modo de organización y la demanda de tierra se incrementaron notablemente. El precio de la toma de tierra creció por un aumento de la demanda -gracias a las mejoras relativas de la producción de granos-, que posibilitaron aún más las dinámicas de concentración de tierras y el desplazamiento de productores (Villulla & Fernández, 2016;Urcola et al., 2015;Gras & Hernández, 2013;Murmis & Murmis, 2012). Así, el valor de la tierra no era responsabilidad principal de la existencia de las megaempresas detrás de los pools más conocidos, sino de la demanda por parte de una gran cantidad de sujetos, entre los que se encontraban estas empresas. ...
... Según Hernández et al. (2013), el proceso de concentración por el cual un número significativo de unidades productivas fueron desplazadas de la producción directa, estuvo principalmente liderado por los productores medianos locales mediante el arrendamiento de las tierras agrícolas a vecinos o parientes. Asimismo, Urcola et al. (2015) afirman que "Los pequeños productores tienden a alquilar en su totalidad para producir cultivos anuales solamente, mientras que las explotaciones de mediana y gran escala tienden a ser administradas por sus dueños y combinar agricultura y la producción ganadera" (2015, p. 29. Traducción propia). ...
En el agronegocio argentino, los actores se vinculan y gestionan su producción con prácticas multisituadas, flexibles y altamente adaptativas. Este trabajo, mediante un estudio de caso comparado, da cuenta de ello en dos territorios paradigmáticos de la pampa húmeda argentina: el de los pools y mega pools, y el de “resistencia” herencia de familias chacareras. Los resultados revelan una compleja interrelación entre lógicas y dinámicas globales y estructuras e idiosincrasias locales en ambos casos, aunque con diferencias que derivan de la incorporación de elementos constitutivos específicos dados por una adaptación de alcance más o menos local y por una mayor o menor inversión extrasectorial.
... Agricultural intensification is a process mediated by agents (farmers) that respond to a complex combination of exogenous and endogenous factors (Ahnström, Höckert, Bergeå, Francis, & Skelton, 2009;Meyfroidt, 2013) (Fig. 1A). Some of the exogenous factors are favorable conditions promoted by international markets (grain prices), national agricultural policies, climate, shifts in the production systems, and new rural social structures (Urcola, de Sartre, Veiga, Elverdin, & Albaladejo, 2015;González, 2007). In small farms, these exogenous drivers can prevail in decision-making over endogenous factors, i.e., those associated with cultural traditions, social norms, and sense of place (Burton & Wilson, 2006). ...
... On the one hand, the cropped area expanded to marginal areas such as roadsides and woodlots associated with abandoned homesteads (Sáez et al., 2014;Szpeiner et al., 2007), reducing landscape heterogeneity (Aizen et al., 2009;Baldi et al., 2006), natural grassland area (Herrera, Laterra, Maceira, Zelaya, & Martínez, 2009), and biodiversity across taxa (Azpiroz, Isacch, & Dias, 2012;Medan et al., 2011). On the other hand, social changes were associated with incorporating new social actors in the territory, with a high level of technification and disentangling land tenure from decision-making in farms (Piñeiro & Villareal, 2005;Reboratti, 2010;Urcola et al., 2015). Consequently, the number of farms decreased nearly 28% from 2002 to 2018 in the province of Buenos Aires, generating a process of rural depopulation (Ameghino & Fernández, 2019;González, 2007). ...
... The high variation in the responses to these factors suggests that farmers respond differently to them, but it is not tourism activity that determines these differences. Characteristics such as property size, main agricultural activity, alternative sources of income, or business organization may explain the relative influence of factors in decision-making (Ryan, Erickson, & De Young, 2003;Urcola et al., 2015). An engagement in rural tourism activities may not overcome these factors. ...
The Pampean agroecosystems are oriented to providing a few Ecosystem Services (ES) with undesired consequences on the environment, particularly the loss of biodiversity and cultural ES. In this context, it is necessary to find ways to make agricultural production compatible with biodiversity conservation through sustainable practices. Rural tourism is a form of productive diversification that generates additional economic income for farmers and may encourage the conservation of uncultivated semi-natural environments. Thus, agroecosystems could provide a greater variety of ES, achieving their multifunctionality. For this, it is necessary to understand the link between land use and biodiversity and the psycho-social factors that stimulate or limit farmers to conserve their field’s semi-natural environments. To this end, we conducted a study with three approaches: 1) we evaluated the intentions of rural Pampa’s farmers of conserving uncultivated environments through surveys analyzed under the framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior, 2) we explored the preferred environments for recreation through a self-administered survey to rural tourists, and 3) we conducted bird surveys to associate land use with biodiversity. The results showed a trend of greater intention to conserve uncultivated environments in farmers with rural tourism than without rural tourism. These intentions were related to more positive attitudes due to the intrinsic and utilitarian values of conserving uncultivated environments and less identification with agriculture only as a source of economic income. Tourists preferred semi-natural environments for recreation, which also sustain higher bird diversity. Results allowed to detect key aspects to influence farmers to achieve a greater intention to conserve uncultivated environments and manage them to supply multiple ES.
... Además, el conocimiento (muchas veces heredado) acerca de las particularidades locales de suelo y clima facilita la gestión eficiente. El trabajo familiar constituye un costo flexible porque los trabajadores familiares son captadores del beneficio residual y se adaptan a la demanda del cultivo con mayor facilidad que un asalariado (Collins, 1995), (Wiggins et al, 2010), (Deininger y Byerlee, 2012), (Urcola et al, 2015). Las fincas de subsistencia constituyen el caso extremo de producción familiar, cumplen funciones de garantizar la seguridad alimentaria; en muchos países como los de Europa del Este se presentan como muy persistentes (Buchenrieder y Möllers, 2009). ...
... Constituye el caso típico de la agricultura pampeana, donde la cesión vía alquiler de tierras de la figura de los chacareros tradicionales hacia nuevos actores, caracteriza la dinámica productiva (Lombardo y Charlot, 2003), (Urcola et al, 2015), (Phélinas y Choumert, 2017). En Uruguay el 42% de la superficie agrícola opera bajo arriendo (Piñeiro, 2012). ...
... Otra de las consecuencias de la intensificación pampeana más difundidas, es el surgimiento de nuevas formas de tenencia precaria como los pooles de siembra; en esta situación el productor tradicional -chacarero pampeanoqueda desplazado de la función productiva, para transformarse en arrendador de tierras y en un prestador de servicios agropecuarios (Domínguez y Fontanetto, 2009), (Urcola et al, 2015). ...
La estructura constituye uno de los atributos más estables de los agroecosistemas, por lo cual su caracterización resulta de utilidad para el análisis y diagnóstico de los mismos. Sin embargo, como cualquier sistema abierto, está sujeto a fuerzas que movilizan transformaciones, las cuales cuando son unidireccionales resultan en procesos.
Así, el concepto de estructura aparece a prima facie como simple, compartido por la comunidad científica y de fácil comprensión. La realidad se presenta, no obstante, diferente. Autores provenientes de distintas disciplinas recurren al término y utilizan en el análisis atributos de diversa naturaleza, otros reducen el concepto a un conjunto reducido y acordado de variables.
Esta situación indujo en la autora a sumergirse en este océano de publicaciones en busca de la diversidad de miradas, nociones y aportes que enriquecen tanto la concepción teórica como el abordaje metodológico de la estructura agraria y la dinámica de sus transformaciones.
Esta revisión es el resultado de varios años donde se indagó en la miríada de trabajos referidos a los aspectos estructurales de los agroecosistemas, bajo la luz de diversas disciplinas pudiendo observarse las mutaciones del alcance del término a lo largo de la evolución de la ciencia. Se observó así la gran diversidad de enfoques, aspectos, variables e indicadores a los que los autores recurrieron para abordar el estudio de la estructura agraria.
Algunos son recurrentes y compartidos en una importante parte de las publicaciones, mientras que otros son de mayor originalidad. Este trabajo intentó sistematizarlos bajo criterios dimensionales con la intención de describir el abanico de posibilidades de su abordaje. Estas dimensiones que contiene las variables aplicadas, responden a variados aspectos tales como de naturaleza físico geográfica, tecnológica, productiva, económica, de encuadramiento, sociales, de vínculos, culturales o intangibles.
Una segunda parte indagó acerca de las transformaciones registradas en la estructura, las cuales al adquirir aspectos comunes toman la forma de procesos, tanto espaciales como temporales. Éstas fueron clasificadas y tipificadas de acuerdo a diversas variables, algunas externas como el cambio climático o la globalización, otras por factores más próximos como el avance urbano, modificaciones de la estructura social o al desarrollo, y algunas fueron vinculadas al uso diferencial de algunos recursos asociados a dinámicas intrínsecamente internas. Un análisis de fuerzas conductoras o promotores de los procesos analizados complementa la revisión anterior.
Si bien se mencionan aspectos estructurales, procesos y promotores presentes en diversos territorios rurales, se hizo mayor énfasis en los observados en sistemas agrarios intensivos de oasis.
Se está plenamente consciente de que la presente obra no es exhaustiva ni agota el tema, pero confía que se halle en la misma, material para un punto de partida de abordajes innovadores y útiles para el desarrollo de los territorios. Se espera con la presente obra que el lector encuentre en forma ágil conocimiento acerca la configuración de sus áreas de interés y de las transformaciones pasadas o presentes o potenciales, con la intención de promover nuevas miradas a la realidad.
... Since the introduction of GM soybeans to Argentina in 1996, there has been a dramatic rise in production. 1 As a result, all production of soybeans in Argentina is genetically modified and is mainly concentrated in the Pampas region. Today, Argentina is the third largest exporting country, after the USA and Brazil (Filomeno 2013;Leguizamón 2013;Urcola et al. 2015). ...
... Their children and/or heirs have left agriculture and migrated to urban centers. Most landlords describe themselves as too small to handle the technical changes or the risk of farming themselves, or they feel technically outdated and unable to compete with younger farmers for additional land (Gras 2009;Urcola et al. 2015). Other reasons are a lack of capital and ability to finance the purchase of inputs (seeds, agrochemicals, labor, agricultural services, and so forth). ...
... Other reasons are a lack of capital and ability to finance the purchase of inputs (seeds, agrochemicals, labor, agricultural services, and so forth). Their objective is to obtain the highest quasi riskless short-term return on land capital, and indeed, the level of rental prices is high enough to provide a comfortable standard of living (Urcola et al. 2015). These characteristics largely explain the progressive disappearance of share contracts and the lack of concern about tenants' practices that deviate from good agronomic routines. ...
In this paper we study the determinants of the rental price of farmland in the Argentinian Pampas. In particular, we examine the price of lease contracts using a hedonic price model, while controlling for other potential sources of variation. Using firsthand data for 255 plots, our results indicate that both short-term contracts and contracts with sowing pools push rental prices upwards. We also find that soybean yields have a significant impact on land rental prices. These results suggest that if Argentina intends to protect the enormous natural advantage it has for agricultural production, it should consider strictly regulating land rental contracts.
... As a consequence of concentration of agriculture production and management, very often much of the area planted is not owned by those cultivating it [29]. Indeed, the great economic investment that requires a no-till planting machine makes units smaller than 200 ha [44] non-profitable. Thus, for small and medium land owners, renting land has been a more profitable activity than producing crops. ...
... They lease all the land on which they operate and hire third-party services for all the activities involved in the production process: Planting, agrochemical application, maintenance, tilling and harvesting services [45]. Although there are no official statistics, independent estimates indicate that sowing pools farm about 20% of the land planted with soybean and the total area operated by tenants reached more than 50% by 2005 [44]; and about 60%-70% by 2014 [46,47]. Thus, those using the land make choices during the annual cropping cycle that have consequences that may not become evident until later, when the land is or is not farmed by the same lessee. ...
... Besides the land tenure issue, another crucial aspect of the Pampas production system is the weakness of the public sector and the lack of agricultural policies, which finally promote comparative advantages to large farmers and results in a tacit transfer of responsibilities, such as strategic production decisions, from the government to technical NGOs and agribusiness corporations [29]. The term "soybeanization" has been recently proposed to name the modern, most extreme form of agriculturization that has transformed land tenancy structures, displaced certain agricultural actors and created new others, and ultimately changed the relationship between agriculture and the rest of the society and the territory [44]. ...
Soil is the most basic resource for sustainable agricultural production; it promotes water quality, is a key component of the biogeochemical cycles and hosts a huge diversity of organisms. However, we are not paying enough attention to soil degradation produced by land use. Modern agriculture has been successful in increasing yields but has also caused extensive environmental damage, particularly soil degradation. In the Argentine Pampas, agriculturization reached a peak with the generalized use of the no-till technological package: genetically modified soybeans tolerant to glyphosate, no-till, glyphosate, and inorganic fertilizers. This phenomenon has been widely spread in the country; the no-till package has been applied in large areas and has been used by tenants in a 60%–70% of cultivated lands. Thus, those who were involved in developing management practices may not be the same as those who will face degradation issues related to those practices. Indeed, most evidence reviewed in this paper suggests that the most widely distributed practices in the Pampas region are actually producing severe soil degradation. Biological degradation is particularly important because soil biota is involved in numerous soil processes on which soil functioning relies, affecting soil fertility and productivity. For example, soil meso- and macrofauna are especially important in nutrient cycling and in soil structure formation and maintenance, and they are key components of the network that links microbial process to the scale of fields and landscapes where ecosystem services are produced. However, the knowledge of the impact of different agricultural managements on soil meso- and macrofauna in Pampas agroecosystems is far from conclusive at this stage. The reason for this lack of definite conclusions is that this area has been given less attention than in other parts of the world; the response of soil fauna to agricultural practices is complex and taxa-dependent; and there is a wide variety of practices in the main types of agricultural systems, making generalizations difficult. A review of the existing studies on soil meso- and macrofauna in agroecosystems, revealed that (a) agricultural soils, regardless of farming system, are strongly modified in biological aspects compared to the same soils without human interventions; (b) there are no conclusive results about no-till benefits compared to reduced tillage or conventional tillage; (c) agricultural managements that are alternative to the traditional conventional systems are very poorly represented in research.
... Since the introduction of GM soybeans to Argentina in 1996, there has been a dramatic rise in production. 1 As a result, all production of soybeans in Argentina is genetically modified and is mainly concentrated in the Pampas region. Today, Argentina is the third largest exporting country, after the USA and Brazil (Filomeno 2013;Leguizamón 2013;Urcola et al. 2015). ...
... Their children and/or heirs have left agriculture and migrated to urban centers. Most landlords describe themselves as too small to handle the technical changes or the risk of farming themselves, or they feel technically outdated and unable to compete with younger farmers for additional land (Gras 2009;Urcola et al. 2015). Other reasons are a lack of capital and ability to finance the purchase of inputs (seeds, agrochemicals, labor, agricultural services, and so forth). ...
... Other reasons are a lack of capital and ability to finance the purchase of inputs (seeds, agrochemicals, labor, agricultural services, and so forth). Their objective is to obtain the highest quasi riskless short-term return on land capital, and indeed, the level of rental prices is high enough to provide a comfortable standard of living (Urcola et al. 2015). These characteristics largely explain the progressive disappearance of share contracts and the lack of concern about tenants' practices that deviate from good agronomic routines. ...
... Atualmente, as principais mudanças no meio rural são a diminuição do vínculo entre os atores e o território (GUIBERt et al., 2011), associado ao desaparecimento dos produtores de pequena escala (URCOLA et al., 2015, Litre, 2010, ocasionando repercussões no dinamismo local e na participação dos produtores na política local (MALAQUIN et al., 2012). ...
... A substituição das pastagens para a implementação de cultivos de soja e a integração lavoura-pecuária cria uma rotação de cultivos onde se costumava ter pastagens naturais ou temporárias. Essa mudança leva a um aumento da erosão, do uso de irrigação, de ferramentas motorizadas e agrotóxicos, bem como uma perda de biodiversidade (Modernel et al., 2016;Overbeck et al., 2007;Urcola et al., 2015). Um fenômeno observado na literatura é a intensificação do sistema de pecuária familiar, no qual constatamos um aumento da carga animal, um maior uso de grãos para alimentação animal e o aumento de currais de confinamento para engorda de bois (Arbeletche et al., 2013, Modernel et al., 2016. ...
Uruguay, inserted in the Pampa biome, has been engaged in livestock farming since the 17th century. Yet, in recent decades a change in land use is evident. Soy and rice plantations are gradually replacing native grasslands. This research poses the following question: What are the functions of cattle raising in extensive systems in natural pastures in Uruguay today in the face of competition with agribusiness? A literature review and interviews with farmers in the north of the country highlight five livestock meta-functions: a social function, a production function of goods and services function, an ecosystem service function, a security function, and a territorial development function. Identifying the functionality of extensive livestock farming could help decision-makers protect this activity and encourage its sustainability.
... The landscape changes have become deeper due to the expansion of an agricultural model based on soybean crops, direct seeding technique, and glyphosate-resistant transgenic seeds (Paruelo et al., 2005). This process strongly ignores environmental conservation, affecting the structure and function of natural ecosystems and landscapes (Paruelo et al., 2005;Herrera and Laterra, 2011;Urcola et al., 2015;Herrera et al., 2013Herrera et al., , 2017. In addition, this model has changed the dynamics of rural societies, generating rural depopulation (Morello et al., 2006). ...
... This process has generated new social dynamics in the system, with important changes in rurality (Morello et al., 2006). For example, it has affected small farmers, who rent out their land to large farmers, contributing to the decline of traditional small-scale farms (Urcola et al., 2015). In addition, due to economic and production problems, many family farms have disappeared, resulting in a decreased number of rural inhabitants (Fernández and de los Ríos Carmenado, 2010;Auer et al., 2017). ...
In the Pampean region of Argentina, uncultivated areas with spontaneous vegetation, such as the sierras (low hills), are important sites for nature conservation. In the last decades, the “agriculturization” process has generated different pressures on these areas and their fate depends on farmers' decision making. In order to understand the context of these decisions, it is important to know the farmers' demographic characteristics and perceptions of ecosystem services (ES). The aim of this study was to explore the link between farmers' management decisions and their demographic characteristics and perceptions of ES in one of the most intensively cropped areas in Argentina. Data were obtained from 40 semi-structured interviews with farmers from the Tandilia system in the Pampean region. A typology of farms was generated according to their management practices and then characterized by the farmers' demographic characteristics and perceptions of ES. The results show a typology of four groups of farms defined by the combination of eight management variables. The demographic characteristics of the farmers that have a strong perception of ES derived from the sierras were related to an emotionally and/or physically close connection with the farm (their parents were farmers, they were raised on the farm, they have worked there for many years, the farm is their place of residence, and it is a family farm). However, neither the farmers' demographic characteristics nor their perceptions of ES were related to their management decisions. This is explained by the fact that the agricultural model that characterizes the region generates different pressures on farmers and leaves them with little choice in the matter of productive management decisions. The information derived from this work could contribute to the design of guidance criteria for sound environmental management strategies and policy instruments for the conservation of biodiversity and the provision of ES in a context with particular ecological, social, and economic characteristics.
... On the other hand, some authors argue that the current methods of GM soybean production lead to energy savings, therefore offsetting some negative impacts. 8 It is worth noting however, that the rapid expansion of GM soybean cultivation has considerably modified the country's natural environment with the expansion of crop land at the expense of natural areas and forests (Bouza et al., 2016;Cabrini and Calcaterra, 2016;Gasparri et al., 2013;Rótolo et al., 2015;Urcola et al., 2015;Viglizzo et al., 2011a). ...
... The introduction of glyphosate and other pesticides for intensive GM soybean cultivation challenges the durability of soil quality and poses questions about health impacts (Astoviza et al., 2016;Burachik, 2010;Urcola et al., 2015). World Bank et al.(2015) report that in Argentina "Desertification and degradation (physical, chemical, or biological) processes have occurred on 60 million hectares of land that produce 50% of crops and 47% of livestock, with expected continued losses of up to 650,000 ha/year". ...
This paper explores the long-term sustainability of Argentina’s specialization in genetically modified (GM) soybean cultivation. We perform an evidence-based assessment of the most relevant economic, social, and environmental implications of the “soybeanization” of Argentinian agriculture. Our diagnostic relies on a combination of published sources and a unique data set drawn from a field survey carried out in 2011 in two provinces of the Argentinian Pampas. This data set allows us to evaluate with a reliable empirical base the socio-economic impacts of GM soybean cultivation. Our analysis suggests a conflict between the success of the “soybeanization” of Argentinian agriculture measured in terms of production and profit records, and the social, economic, and environmental sustainability of this new model of production. On the one hand, GM soybean technological package adoption has increased farm productivity, and reduced the costs per unit produced, resulting in a dramatic increase in profits. On the other hand, the specialization of Argentinian agriculture on soybean cultivation has increased the dependence of public finances on the foreign exchange revenue generated by exports earnings. We also find a mixed empirical picture of changing land distribution patterns and labor displacement resulting from GM soybean expansion. Finally, we find that the environmental implications of agricultural biotechnology appear alarming and the long-term sustainability of GM crops highly questionable. Promoting sustainable agricultural growth has become not only desirable but necessary.
... While the technological homogeneity and corporate concentration of the sector has been characterized as an iconic mark of a global 'corporate food regime' distanced and disarticulated from local political, social and environmental realities (Turzi 2011;McMichael 2012;Clapp 2014), it is important to understand that there has been continued state engagement in this sector since its early implementation, including institutional development throughout the region in terms of government-subsidized credit, modernization of cadastral data and land titling, state-supported infrastructure development and machinery imports, and significant research and development funding (Hecht 2005;Fearnside 2007;Wolford 2008;Richards 2010;Urcola et al. 2015;Oliveira 2016, this volume). Although transnational seed and export companies dominate the sector, their business logic and operations remain firmly rooted in concrete social and ecological relations, embedded rather than abstracted from their place. ...
... A still under-studied aspect of this process has been the creation of new vehicles for channeling multiple forms of capital into soy production. These emerged from the practices of land-leasing and outsourcing specific operational tasks (such as harvesting or spraying agrochemicals) that were beginning to take shape on the Argentinian Pampas during the 1980s (Gudynas 2008;Urcola et al. 2015;Leguizamon 2016, this volume). Where this process has taken root, the figure of the independent soy farmer has been splintered into multiple characters, as smaller scale landowners lease their farms to companies that hire agronomists, farm managers, planter/harvester operators and other specialized laborers to run the soy production system. ...
Soy has become one of the world's most important agroindustrial commodities – serving as the nexus for the production of food, animal feed, fuel and hundreds of industrial products – and South America has become its leading production region. The soy boom on this continent entangles transnational capital and commodity flows with social relations deeply embedded in contested ecologies. In this introduction to the collection, we first describe the ‘neo-nature’ of the soy complex and the political economy of the sector in South America, including the new corporate actors and financial mechanisms that produced some of the world's largest agricultural production companies. We then discuss key environmental debates surrounding soy agribusiness in South America, challenging especially the common arguments that agroindustrial intensification ‘spares land’ for conservation while increasing production to ‘feed the world’. We demonstrate that these arguments hinge on limited data from a peculiar portion of the southern Amazon fringe, and obfuscate through neo-Malthusian concerns multiple other political and ecological problems associated with the sector. Thus, discussions of soy production become intertwined with broader debates about agrarian development, industrialization and modernization. Finally, we briefly outline the contributions in this volume, and identify limitations and fruitful directions for further research.
... While the technological homogeneity and corporate concentration of the sector has been characterized as an iconic mark of a global 'corporate food regime' distanced and disarticulated from local political, social and environmental realities (Turzi 2011;McMichael 2012;Clapp 2014), it is important to understand that there has been continued state engagement in this sector since its early implementation, including institutional development throughout the region in terms of government-subsidized credit, modernization of cadastral data and land titling, state-supported infrastructure development and machinery imports, and significant research and development funding (Hecht 2005;Fearnside 2007;Wolford 2008;Richards 2010;Urcola et al. 2015;Oliveira 2016, this volume). Although transnational seed and export companies dominate the sector, their business logic and operations remain firmly rooted in concrete social and ecological relations, embedded rather than abstracted from their place. ...
... A still under-studied aspect of this process has been the creation of new vehicles for channeling multiple forms of capital into soy production. These emerged from the practices of land-leasing and outsourcing specific operational tasks (such as harvesting or spraying agrochemicals) that were beginning to take shape on the Argentinian Pampas during the 1980s (Gudynas 2008;Urcola et al. 2015;Leguizamon 2016, this volume). Where this process has taken root, the figure of the independent soy farmer has been splintered into multiple characters, as smaller scale landowners lease their farms to companies that hire agronomists, farm managers, planter/harvester operators and other specialized laborers to run the soy production system. ...
... Así, se dieron cambios en el acceso y apropiación de la tierra, un bien de capital y generador de rentas por su posición monopólica, lo cual pone en debate la estructura agraria que ha emergido de este proceso. Como resultado se observa una estructura concentradora y excluyente (Carámbula Pareja, 2015) que, sustentada en el arriendo y/o venta de predios, ha provocado el desplazamiento de pequeños y medianos productores rurales (Urcola et al., 2015). Entre otras razones, por el aumento de los costos de producción, lo cual genera dificultades para competir por la posesión de la tierra. ...
A partir de la mirada crítica de once investigadoras y once investigadores de diferentes países de América Latina, el Caribe y Europa, los textos aquí reunidos exponen, a través de diversos casos de estudio, el carácter exterminista del metabolismo social capitalista, sus impactos destructivos en los territorios y en las comunidades latinoamericanas y caribeñas, y la apremiante necesidad de transitar hacia un metabolismo que, anclado en las necesidades locales, tenga como principio y horizonte a la justicia ambiental.
... Since the 1990s, rural landscape changes have intensified due to the expansion of an agricultural model based on the technological package of soybean crops, with the direct seeding technique and glyphosate-resistant transgenic seeds (Paruelo et al. 2005). This process, called 'soybeanisation' (Urcola et al. 2015), ignores environmental conservation, affecting not only the structure and function of natural ecosystems and landscapes (Paruelo et al. 2005) but also the social dynamics, with important changes in rurality (Sili 2005). The increase in soybean cultivation has replaced other traditional crops (e.g., oat, barley, wheat) and displaced livestock grazing to sectors that are unfavourable for agriculture (Paruelo et al. 2005), such as sierras, whose natural grasslands are often replaced with exotic pastures of high forage quality. ...
Much research has focused on the study of society-nature relations, guided by people's perception of nature, well-being and environmental behaviour in relation to this interplay. The perception of farmers on these topics has been less explored, but it is fundamental to enquire into this issue in order to understand the decisions they make in their production units and how these decisions influence their environment. This research explored the link between farmers' perception of biodiversity, their subjective well-being, and conservation practices in the Tandilia System in the Southern Pampas of Argentina. The information obtained from semi-structured interviews with farmers was analysed through Thematic Analysis. Potential associations between farmers' perceptions of biodiversity, subjective well-being and land management practices were investigated. Although most farmers were aware that agricultural practices negatively affect biodiversity and that contact with nature generates well-being, inconsistent narratives were noted when they talked about their own practices. Their awareness of biodiversity and well-being does not necessarily translate into more sustainable practices.
Abstract in Spanish: https://bit.ly/3zy5pq8
... Fast-lived species would invest relatively little in defenses in favor of early reproduction, whereas slow-lived species invest more resources into longevity and costly defenses. the most modified lands in the country due to the introduction and posterior intensification of agriculture (Urcola et al. 2015). In the region, zoonotic diseases are strongly associated with rural populations, with certain zoonoses being considered occupational diseases of rural workers by the national legislation (Law Num. ...
The relationship between humans, wildlife and disease transmission can be complex and context-dependent, and disease dynamics may be determined by idiosyncratic species. Therefore, an outstanding question is how general is the finding that species with faster life histories are more probable hosts of zoonoses. Ecological knowledge on species, jointly with public health data, can provide relevant information on species that should be targeted for epidemiological surveillance or management. We investigated whether mammal species traits can be good indicators of zoonotic reservoir status in an intensified agricultural region of Argentina. We find support for a relationship between reservoir status and the pace of life syndrome, confirming that fast life histories can be a factor of zoonotic risk. Nonetheless, we observed that for certain zoonosis, reservoirs may display a slow pace of life, suggesting that idiosyncratic interactions can occur. We conclude that applying knowledge from the life history-disease relationship can contribute significantly to disease risk assessment. Such an approach may be especially valuable in the current context of environmental change and agricultural intensification.
... The historical dynamics of the exploitation of the rangeland leads to the conclusion that the economic growth based on the intensification of land use has predominated in the Brazilian Pampa. Similarly, as found by [56] in the Pampa of Argentina, driving social, organizational, and economic changes, as well as the displacement of small producers out of agriculture. Thus, it is necessary to consider future policies that favor the sustainable development, by integrating biome preservation and economic efficiency in rangeland systems. ...
The objective of this study was to analyse the sustainability of different livestock systems
in the Brazilian Pampa biome, from the perspective of the rangeland dilemma. We used the indicator-based framework for evaluating the sustainability of natural resource management systems (MESMIS). These were constructed for social, economic and environmental dimensions, and they were measured across a study suite of 115 establishments, representing the rangeland livestock system (RLS), intensive livestock system, and livestock–agricultural system (ALS). Indicator averages were compared between three systems via ANOVA and Tukey test. The results allocated a higher
level of sustainability to RLS. When the three land-use systems were analysed across the dimensions, significant differences were found in their environmental sustainability, with the ALS presenting poorer results. Within each dimension, there were significant differences in the indicators for production systems, social participation and capital flow. We discussed two main points: the results found through the concept of the rangeland dilemma, by exploring its conditions, in addition to exposing the concept of functional integrity. In conclusion, an approach to develop policies for the Pampa is to recognize the rangeland as a “common good”, to generate income and stimulate the local economy
... El AC se ha utilizado en estudios sociales para definir tipologías de productores rurales (Bouyer et al., 2011;Urcola et al., 2015;Fantappiè et al., 2020). En la presente investigación el AC fue utilizado para analizar el perfil agregado de los extensionistas en México, principalmente la relación entre el tipo de carrera estudiada y las dificultades que presentan estos actores en el desempeño de sus actividades en los programas de extensión rural. ...
La innovación rural sigue siendo un elemento crucial para resolver problemas de baja productividad en la agricultura y pobreza rural, la extensión rural constituye un instrumento de política agrícola que promueve la innovación a través de sus extensionistas. Con el propósito de caracterizar el perfil de estos actores, se realizó una tipología con base en sus atributos profesionales y los problemas que enfrentan. Se empleó la encuesta a extensionistas del sistema de monitoreo y evaluación de la política de extensión rural 2016-2017, ésta recolectó información en diez estados de la república y su tamaño muestral fue de 609 cuestionarios. La metodología utilizó procedimientos estadísticos multivariados, en un primer momento el análisis de correspondencias estimó dimensiones principales, posteriormente se construyeron clústers para definir la tipología. Se detectaron tres estratos que agruparon problema predominante y área de la carrera profesional, ello permite una mejor comprensión de las características de los extensionistas y establecer estrategias de solución de problemas en la política de extensión centrada en el conocimiento de las capacidades y condiciones de uno de sus principales actores.
... The development of agriculture via expanding land areas has been associated with conflicts over land (Vom Hau and Wilde, 2010) in provinces such as Santiago del Estero (Bidaseca and Visser, 2010), demise of family farms, restructuring of social relations and expansion of monocultures 1 (especially soy) in the Pampas and other regions, which according to Pengue (2005) and Gras (2009) place food sovereignty 2 and food self-sufficiency 3 in jeopardy (Gras, 2009;Pengue, 2005). Displacement of small-scale producers (Urcola et al., 2013), deforestation and biodiversity depletion due to agricultural intensification in the Gran Chaco region (Mastrangelo, 2014;Zak et al., 2004), habitat destruction due to deforestation, depletion of soil nutrient stocks and biomass in the Pampas (Viglizzo et al., 2011) are additional problems raised. ...
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities have been shown to derive from external and internal motivations of a company. Little attention has been given to motivations of managers in large farms and agroholdings to undertake CSR activities thanks to individual values and pressure from institutions. We therefore investigate the types of CSR activities conducted by 18 managers in large farms and agroholdings in Argentina. We underline their perception of social issues and their motivations to do CSR activities. The framework developed in this paper shows that given the lack of pressure from national-level formal and other informal institutions, individual values (informal institutions) and international institutions (certification schemes-formal institutions) carry more weight in managers’ decision to do CSR activities. While some of these motivations have an instrumental background, they overlap with normative motivations that underlie the business activity.
... In Argentina and Paraguay, small family farms are consolidated into larger farms, often for soy production, through leasing by capital-endowed individuals. These tenants lease and pool numerous adjacent farms, often without personally residing on-site (Elgert, 2016;Urcola et al., 2015). In Brazil, land concentration is partly attributed to elite capture of land for speculative and productive purposes, enabled by unclear land tenure regulations (Reydon et al., 2015;Sparovek et al., 2019). ...
Given current land degradation trends, Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN, SDG Target 15.3) by 2030 could be difficult to attain. Solutions to avoid, reduce, and reverse land degradation are not being implemented at sufficiently large scales, pointing to land governance as the main obstacle. In this paper, we review dynamics in agricultural land governance, and the potential this may have to enable land degradation or provide solutions towards LDN. The literature reveals agency shifts are taking place, where value chain actors are given increasing decision-making power in land governance. These agency shifts are manifested in two interrelated trends: First, through agricultural value chain coordination, such as contract farming, value chain actors increasingly influence land management decisions. Second, international large-scale land acquisitions and domestic larger-scale farms, both instances of intensified direct involvement of value chain with land management, are overtaking significant areas of land. These new arrangements are associated with agricultural expansion, and are additionally associated with unsustainable land management due to absent landowners, short-term interests, and high-intensity agriculture. However, we also find that value chain actors have both the tools and business cases to catalyze LDN solutions. We discuss how governments and other LDN brokers can motivate or push private actors to deploy private governance measures to avoid, reduce, and reverse land degradation. Successful implementation of LDN requires refocusing efforts to enable and, where necessary, constrain all actors with agency over land management, including value chain actors.
... Nos últimos anos, a agricultura brasileira se industrializou rapidamente, elevando o país à condição do primeiro exportador mundial de soja . Cultivada desde os anos 1960, por agricultores familiares do Cone Sul, a soja começou a se expandir rumo ao norte desde os anos 1980, alcançando o Centro-Oeste do Brasil, a Bolívia, o Norte da Argentina, o Paraguai e a Colômbia (URCOLA et al., 2015;MCKAY e COLQUE, 2016;ELOY et al., 2016), e mais recentemente o centro e norte da Amazônia (SAUER et PIETRAFESA, 2013;ELOY e al., 2019). Além do desmatamento de "novas terras", o processo de "sojitização" atinge também regiões de pós-fronteira, como o sul do Brasil, com a conversão de cultivos menos lucrativos, como pastagens, e a incorporação de Terras Indígenas (NASCIMENTO, 2017). ...
The expansion of agribusiness in all Brazilians regions challenges the future of traditional agricultural systems. This article intends to identify the processes by which traditional farmers maintain agricultural diversity at the soybean frontier in Brazil. The data were obtained from the survey and mapping of agricultural practices and agrobiodiversity with 113 farmers from three indigenous, quilombola and peasant territories of the South, North-East and North of the country. Agricultural diversity in the interstices of soybean plantations (between 66 and 188 crop species and varieties) results from the continuous production of knowledge in experimentation spaces constituted by swidden agriculture. Traditional agricultural knowledge molds a heterogeneous soybean frontier, where the interstices cultivated by communities reveal themselves as islands of agrobiodiversity in a sea of monocultures. Far from being opposed to modernity or the market economy, traditional agricultural knowledge consists of processes of innovation that lie in the ingenious combination of "old" and "modern" practices and varieties. Thus, the concept of dynamic conservation allows to go beyond the common idea of the substitution of local varieties or the erosion of traditional knowledge in the face of agribusiness expansion. On the other hand, even in relatively stabilized traditional territories, the dynamic conservation of agrobiodiversity is threatened by the environmental impacts of soy expansion. Even if traditional ways of practicing agriculture are still operative in the interstices of soybeans, an extra-territorial process of disqualification of local agricultural knowledge underpin these agricultural systems because of the acceleration of rhythms and scales of environmental changes. Thus, measures to recognize, protect and monitor traditional territories are basic conditions for farmers to continue to conserve agrobiodiversity dynamically.
... These results point to the difficulties of accurately assessing some of the impacts of agricultural expansion on human wellbeing. They also highlight the disparities in the ways in which these benefits and costs are distributed among stakeholders, with some of the most vulnerable sectors of the population bearing a disproportionate part of the burden (Urcola et al. 2015, Ezquerro-Cañete 2016. In terms of spatial and land planning, these results corroborate the incompatibility of some land uses and hence the need to articulate sectoral policies in order to ensure coherence when they are finally translated into actions on the ground (Cumming & Spiesman 2006, King et al. 2013. ...
Soybean has undergone the greatest expansion of any global crop, fuelled by the emergence of herbicide-resistant crops. In Uruguay, soybean croplands have increased from virtually zero to more than 1 million ha in 20 years. Uruguay is also implementing its system of protected areas. Here, we assess the presence of pesticides within a Ramsar site and protected area, in a basin dominated by croplands. We consider pesticides as surrogates of the subtle impacts of agribusiness on conservation initiatives and other productions. Pesticides were found in soils, fishes and beehives, both within and around the protected area. Endosulfan was found in all matrices analysed (23 of 80 samples), while glyphosate (0–2.31 mg/kg) and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA; 0–0.61 mg/kg) were found in all soil classes. The study also allowed for a retrospective evaluation of a recent policy banning endosulfan in Uruguay, suggesting that while the protected area has not been immune to the impacts of agribusiness on human health or biodiversity, limiting the use of pesticides reduces or avoids some of them. This has implications for the design of multifunctional landscapes and for the debate on land sharing versus land sparing.
... For example, in GM soybean production, for instance, the use of endosulfan 8 contributes to the pollution of groundwater (Gonzalez et al., 2010). The introduction of pesticides (e.g., glyphosate) for GM soybean cultivation also impacts soil quality (Astoviza et al., 2016;Burachik, 2010;Urcola et al., 2015). ...
As a globally consumed agricultural product, soybeans have long been one of the most important commodities in the current international market. In this regard, the governance of the global soybean supply chain has become one of the central themes in both industry and academia. However, existing scholarly works focusing on sustainability issues and mechanisms for better governance in the soybean chain are rare. Moreover, the relationship among soybean supply chain governance mechanisms remains unclear. In this study, we conducted a systematic review of the existing literature to identify key themes or topics and to develop a conceptual framework to guide future research. Based on our inclusion criteria and by considering the Scopus database, we identified and reviewed 55 articles published between 2000 and 2019. In our analysis, four themes were identified in soybean supply chain management: drivers (e.g., land-use conflict), global value chain governance (e.g., REDD+), consequences (e.g., reduced CO2 emissions) and potential barriers (e.g., low market demand). Finally, a conceptual model was proposed that elaborates the linkage of the themes, and a research agenda was proposed to direct studies in the future.
... El aumento en el tamaño medio de las EAPs de más de 500ha también fue mayor en este grupo de partidos, principalmente en General Pueyrredon, donde aumentó un 50%, mientras que en Tandil casi no hubo variación. Estos resultados muestran una tendencia general de las estructuras agrarias capitalistas donde se manifiesta una reducción de las producciones familiares(Mikkelsen, 2008), siendo el caso de Balcarce, donde las EAPs de menor tamaño tienden a ser alquiladas en su totalidad para producir cultivos anuales(Urcola et al., 2015). Por otro lado, Ayacucho y Mar Chiquita fueron los partidos que menos redujeron la cantidad total y de las pequeñas EAPs, siendo Ayacucho uno de los que menos redujo la superficie ganadera. ...
In recent decades, the increasing and continuous use of land for agricultural crops in the Pampean Region has been deepened, generating consequences in the ecological, economic-productive and socio-demographic dimension. The aim was to analyze the agriculturalisation process in Counties of Mar Chiquita Basin (Buenos Aires, Argentina) characterized by soils with different aptitude for agricultural use. The methodology was based on the analysis of the variation of indicators on the variables that characterize it grouped by dimensions. The results showed two different patterns of the agriculturisation process, mainly determined by changes in the variables of the socio-demographic dimension for agricultural Counties and with greater affectation of the economic-productive dimension for livestock Counties, which showed a greater overall impact of the process and the ecological dimension, although differences in these cases were slight. It requires a comprehensive view of the territorial processes that show their impact on the vulnerability of the system.
... alcançando as regiões Centro-Oeste e Norte do Brasil, e outros países da América Latina (BRANNSTROM, 2009;ELOY et al., 2016;URCOLA et al., 2015;entre outros). A ampla difusão do modelo agroexportador na América Latina repousa sobre a modernização das práticas agrícolas, a financeirização e a globalização da cadeia da soja, e implicou numa nova fase de concentração das terras nas zonas rurais (SAUER & LEITE, 2012;OLIVEIRA & BÜHLER, 2016;OLIVEIRA & HECHT, 2016). ...
Nas últimas três décadas, mais da metade do Cerrado brasileiro foi transformado em monoculturas. Desde os anos 2000, o governo brasileiro busca estratégias para conter a destruição do bioma, incluindo a criação de novas áreas protegidas e o monitoramento da implementação do Código Florestal. Estes processos contraditórios criam “territórios da soja" caracterizados pela coexistência entre monoculturas e comunidades tradicionais inseridas em áreas protegidas. Com base no estudo de caso do Refúgio de Vida Silvestre (REVIS) Veredas do Oeste Baiano, analisou-se em que medida tais normas ambientais restringem ou facilitam a expansão do agronegócio e determinam seus impactos socioambientais nessa nova fronteira da soja. A abordagem metodológica incluiu entrevistas, mapas mentais e percursos comentados junto aos agricultores familiares, e entrevistas com fazendeiros do entorno da UC. Nossos resultados indicam que a descentralização e a flexibilização das regras fundiárias e ambientais têm favorecido o desmatamento e a apropriação de recursos naturais (terra, água) em larga escala pelo agronegócio, criando uma situação de desinformação que favorece desregulação ambiental.
... The recent expansion of agricultural frontiers in Latin America has radically transformed ecosystems, agricultural practices, agrarian structures and social relations in the territories, creating landscapes mainly dominated by soybean monocultures (Oliveira & Hecht, 2016). Since the 1940s soybean farms have been cultivated in the South Cone, which began to expand northward from the 1980s, reaching the Midwest and north regions of Brazil, as well as other Latin American countries (Brannstrom, 2009;Eloy et al., 2016, Urcola et al., 2015. The broad diffusion of the agro-export model in Latin America lies on the modernisation of agricultural practices and global financialization of the soybean chain, which implied in a new phase of land concentration (Sauer & Leite, 2012;Oliveira & Bühler, 2016;Oliveira & Hecht, 2016). ...
Over the last three decades, more than half of the Brazilian savannah (Cerrado) was converted into soybean monocultures. Despite the focus on land grabbing, the academic literature has paid little attention to relationships between agriculture frontier expansion and water grabbing, which conflicts remain invisible in face of growing large-scale irrigated agriculture (LIA) in the Cerrado. Based on the case study of REVIS (Wildlife Refuge) Veredas do Oeste Baiano, west of the Bahia State, this study sought to understand the expansion of the soybean agricultural frontier as concerns water grabbing. We evaluated possible temporal relationships between the intensification of irrigation and changes in water river flow, institutional mechanisms related to water grabbing, and perceptions of the LIA by local communities. We employed three methodological approaches: analyses of time series for discharge and precipitation in the Corrente watershed over the last 40 years; institutional analysis of the environmental norms related to water management in the State of Bahia; and interviews with soybean farmers and peasants around the REVIS territory. Our results indicate a decrease of surface streamflow in the Corrente watershed, which might reflect changes in land-use, instead of climatic factors such as precipitation. After 2011, it is observed an intensification of LIA related to the expansion of soybean crops in the study area. The municipality of Jaborandi, one of the seven most irrigating areas in Bahia, augmented from 11 central pivots in 1989 to 163 in 2014. At least 78 pivots are placed in the territory of REVIS Veredas do Oeste Baiano, a region of many springs. The hydrological analyses corroborated peasants' perceptions, since 90% of the interviewed persons associated the reduction of river water flow with intensification of LIA. Water use permits have been granted in a context of limited smallholder participation, poor hydrological knowledge and/or weak law enforcement, which all provide an ‘easy way in’ for newcomers while giving them the formal state government endorsement. Finally, we conclude that the licensing mechanism of water permit grants has led to an increase in water-related conflicts, while legitimising dispossession of peasants in the current era of global resource grabs.
... Along with an expansion of the area, there was a replacement of crops, with a decrease in winter crops as wheat and linen and summer crops as sunflower and maize and an increase in soybean. The cultivation of soybean is now mainly conducted through non tillage labours, and implies an extensive use of herbicides (Andrade et al. 2015;Urcola et al. 2015). This type of management in the Rolling Pampas modifies the composition and richness of the weed community, with the declining in abundance of some species, and the increase in others (Vitta et al. 2004;de la Fuente et al. 2006). ...
Our aim was to assess the effect of environmental factors on short temporal abundance variations of the two most abundant native rodents of agricultural agroecosystems, Akodon azarae and Calomys laucha. We conducted a 3‐year longitudinal sampling of rodents, and recorded meteorological data such as temperature and precipitation, predation rate by Leopardus geoffroyi, Tyto furcata and Athene cunicularia, vegetation cover and height, characteristics of cropfields and their borders. The effect of these factors on rodent abundance was evaluated through generalized linear mixed models. Abundance variations of both rodent species were explained by characteristics of both cropfields and their borders. At the studied temporal scale, meteorological variables did not have a direct effect on abundance variations, but probably influenced through vegetation characteristics and were expressed in seasonal variations. For A. azarae there was also an effect of predation by L. geoffroyi (positive) and T. furcata (negative), while predation by A. cunicularia did not contribute to explain abundance variations of any species.
... Continued development of its agricultural sector has turned Argentina into a major global producer and exporter of soy and beef since the 1990s (Leguizamón, 2016;Urcola et al., 2015). For example, soybean production increased from hundreds of tons in the early 1970s to approximately 50 million tons in 2010 (Leguizamón, 2014). ...
Agricultural expansion and intensification drive the conversion of natural areas worldwide. Scenarios are powerful tools
to explore possible future changes in agricultural land use, how these may affect the environment, and how policies
may influence land-use patterns. Focusing on Argentina’s prime agricultural areas, the Pampas, Espinal and Chaco,
we developed spatially-explicit future land-use scenarios from 2010 to 2030, considering both agricultural expansion
(i.e., conversions from woodland to either grazing land or cropland) and agricultural intensification (i.e., conversions
from grazing land to cropland). Our simulations were based on an econometric model of net returns, which assumes
economically rational land-use actors. Using this model, we assessed the rates and spatial patterns of future land-use
change under current land zoning in our study region, and contrasted this with a forecast of future land use based on
land-conversion rates from 2000-2010. We systematically tested the impact of economic policies (e.g., taxes or
subsidies), infrastructure improvement (e.g., road paving), and technological innovation (i.e., yield increases) on the
spatial patterns of land-use conversions. Our model suggests future land-use change will mainly happen along
intensification pathways, with deforestation slowing down, if land-use actors would be profit-maximizing. This general
pattern did not change even for policy interventions that impacted profits from agriculture in major ways, cautioning
against overestimating the leverage that economic policies provide for halting deforestation. Improving the region’s
road network would create a strong incentive to expand cropland further into remaining woodlands and over grazing
lands. However, low agricultural profits and higher yields could curb deforestation in marginal areas to some extent.
We also highlight that priority areas for conservation are particularly likely to experience high land-use pressure in the
future. Given the lower-than-expected power of economic policies to alter deforestation patterns in our models, zoning,
if properly enforced, appears to be a more straightforward tool for avoiding unwanted environmental impacts in the
Chaco.
... On the other hand, agricultural expansion into the dry forests of the Chaco ecoregion, both for expanding cropland (i.e., soybean, wheat, maize, and cotton) and for expanding cattle ranching are frequent Grau et al., 2015;Volante et al., 2016). These trends have bolstered Argentina's role as a global player in agricultural production and exports since the 1990s (Leguizamón, 2016;Urcola et al., 2015), contributing in major ways to Argentina's economy, and these trends are likely to continue in the future (Laurance et al., 2014;Ramankutty et al., 2002;Schmitz et al., 2014). Yet, these agricultural land-use changes also led to stark environmental trade-offs (Baldi et al., 2006;Macchi et al., 2013;Mastrangelo and Gavin, 2014;Torres et al., 2014). ...
Agricultural expansion and intensification drive the conversion of natural areas worldwide. This trend will likely continue, particularly in South America, as rising global population, dietary shifts and the increasing importance of biofuels will further accelerate the demand
in agricultural products. Yet, it is not clear where and how much production would need to expand and intensify to meet future demands and how policies may help minimizing
environmental trade-offs. Particularly the latter requires an understanding of the underlying forces that drive agricultural land-use changes and how they play out given different spatial characteristics of regions. In concert with scenario analyses, this offers a framework for planners and decision makers to explore potential impacts from policies, especially in very dynamic regions. Argentina, where agricultural expansion and intensification result in dramatic conversions of natural areas, is a good example of a dynamic human-environment system. The overarching goal of this thesis was to understand the drivers of agricultural land-use change and to explore future trajectories of land-use change, and how economic and conservation policies may impact them in Argentina’s most important agricultural areas. First, this thesis examines drivers of agricultural land-use changes using a net returns model of agricultural production. Then, this thesis evaluates the effects of economic and conservation policies on future land-use changes and on the connectivity of forests by developing scenarios of future land-use change. The results highlight that agricultural intensification in Argentina is driven by economic interventions, whereas agricultural expansion primarily responds to environmental characteristics and zonation programs. In
addition, economic policies may have less power in governing land use changes than previously thought, as results suggest that there are other factors, than profit maximization, influencing land conversions. Future agricultural development would occur in priority areas for conservation in Argentina, but zonation policies, such as the Forest Law, appear to be powerful in limiting potential environmental trade-offs. Results also show that conservation planning does not necessarily need to conflict with economic development in
Argentina, since under similar deforestation rates; landscape planning can preserve forest connectivity in the Chaco. Overall, this thesis highlights that a-priory evaluation of potential future effects of economic and conservation policies on land-use change can help informing spatial and conservation planning to steer development pathways towards desired directions in dynamic agricultural regions.
Text available under: https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/handle/18452/18414
... La disparition de l'élevage, gros employeur de main-d'oeuvre, et la mécanisation de l'ensemble de la filière agricole (augmentation de Ces graphiques montrent que la taille moyenne des exploitations est assez petite 7 dans cette région par rapport à d'autres. Cela explique que le nombre de pooles de siembra y soit très peu élevé (un seul pool a été observé) : en effet, la faible taille des exploitations agricoles Bert et al., 2011 ; Urcola et al., 2015Une autre limite forte au modèle de la concentration des terres est à rechercher du côté de l'identité des propriétaires terriens qui louent leurs terres. L'enquête a en effet Albaladejo et al., 2010triomphalisme de cette nouvelle forme d'agriculture, et la réalité, qui est bien plus nuancée. ...
... As already described, patterns of land ownership and tenure in the Pampas, the major agricultural area in Argentina, have changed rapidly in the last few decades. Tenants now crop more than half of all available agricultural land ( Bert et al. 2011;Urcola et al. 2015), and much of agricultural production has shifted from family-owned enterprises to land rental and contracted specialized services for planting, harvesting, and marketing ( ). This has implications for the management of herbicide-resistant weeds. ...
The evolution of herbicide-resistant weeds is a major concern in the corn-and soybean-producing Pampas region of Argentina, where growers predominantly plant glyphosate-resistant crop varieties and depend heavily on glyphosate for weed control. Currently, 16 weed species in Argentina are resistant to one or more of three different herbicide mechanisms of action, and resistant weed populations continue to increase, posing a serious threat to agricultural production. Implementation of integrated weed management to address herbicide resistance faces significant barriers in Argentina, especially current land ownership and rental patterns in the Pampas. More than 60% of Pampas cropland is rented to tenants for periods that rarely exceed 1 yr, resulting in crop rotation being largely abandoned, and crop export taxes and quotas have further discouraged wheat and corn production in favor of continuous soybean production. In this paper we discuss ways to facilitate new approaches to weed management in Argentina, including legal and economic reforms and the formation of a national committee of stakeholders from public and private agricultural sectors. Nomenclature: corn, Zea mays L., soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.
The socio-economic benefits and environmental spillover effects of the international soybean trade have commanded scientific attention in recent years. This is particularly true for exporting countries, where soybean has promoted the replacement of other agricultural productions and also the transformed native ecosystems. Better understanding of the problem requires spatially disaggregated analysis of these dimensions, with focus on their interactions. This study assessed socio-ecological trends at county scale during the 2001-2010 growing expansion period of soybean cultivation in Argentina. The study sample comprised 126 counties within (1) the Chaco region, one of the largest natural forest regions until the expansion of the agricultural frontier; and (2) the Pampa region, the largest agricultural production area in the country. The relative variation of socio-economic, ecological and agricultural indicators was calculated for examination of patterns of variation and interrelation through uni- and multivariate analyses. Results indicate different patterns and trade-offs among indicators of soybean expansion, socio-economic and ecological. Soybean expansion, which mainly occurred in the Pampa region, was based on the replacement of other crops and pastures as well as the loss of livestock and ecosystem services provision. At the same time, the expansion of soybean promoted immigration and unemployment, and reduced improvements in alphabetization and growth in economically active population density. The pattern of soybean expansion triggered notable trends, mostly in the Chaco region where they were related to deforestation and rangeland loss. Findings of the study highlight the utility of a coupled approach in revealing socio-ecological patterns that may not be possible through more fragmentary analyses.
The dynamics of rural change are often linked to frameworks of ‘rural community resilience’, a body of literature associated with various aspects of society including social capital, community initiatives, and governance. Drawing on emergent literature, this study aims to explore how assemblage approaches may disseminate resilience thinking via dissolving structure-agency and bounce-back-transformative divisions. The paper explores how deliberate, and often policy-orientated actions, are intertwined with ‘non-intentional’ activities and processes that are deeply embedded in daily rural life. The paper further illustrates rural development processes through a case study of the watermelon-producing community of Medgyesegyháza, Hungary: a community that, in recent years, has been praised for its endurance throughout a period of socio-economic turbulence.
The aim is to demonstrate how assemblage theory may explain the emergence of intermingling human and non-human agency. It was observed that the resilience of the rural community assemblage is embedded in daily practices, and emerges from relations between two main components: humans and watermelons. By applying the concept of territorialisation, this paper examines how components of the assemblage become aligned as provisional stability is established. The paper contends that the engagement with non-humans establishes community identity, but changes in relations de-territorialise the assemblage and trigger new contingencies. The precarious nature of human-watermelon relationships have repercussions on stability as they may serve as drivers of change.
Los prestadores de servicios de maquinaria agrícola –contratistas– realizan las labores culturales para la agricultura extensiva de la región pampeana argentina. A través de una encuesta de alcance nacional a 426 contratistas complementada con entrevistas cualitativas, se ha caracterizado el tipo de estructura, los servicios ofrecidos, el nivel de capitalización y la dimensión familiar de sus empresas. Los resultados obtenidos muestran la pérdida del peso explicativo de la identidad de estos agentes del agro frente al creciente volumen y flexibilidad del capital, y el peso de la dimensión familiar para definir las dinámicas empresariales en la Región Pampeana Argentina.
In the past 50 years, South America has emerged as the dominant world producer of soybeans, a crop of no significance in the region before the middle of the 20 th century. As of the crop year 2019/2020, Brazil and Argentina produced 176 million tons which is over half of all world production and these two countries alone will also account for 57 per cent of all Soybeans exported in international trade. How this new agricultural product evolved in these two principal regional producers is the aim of this study. Here we attempt to examine the historical evolution of soybean production in Brazil and Argentina and try to show the unique patterns of production in each of the two crucial states.
Farm production often involves family-owned agribusinesses where decisions are made by households or individuals, not corporate managers. As these decisions have important economic, environmental, and social implications, decision-making processes must be understood to foster sustainable agricultural production. Decision experiments, involving lotteries, targeting farmers in the Argentine Pampas were used to estimate prospect theory (PT) parameters. Results suggest that decisions under risk are better represented by prospect theory than by expected utility (EU) theory: Decision makers treat gains and losses differently and use subjective probabilities of outcomes; they are quite loss averse and are more likely to overweigh probabilities of infrequent events, such as large droughts or floods. Statistical testing revealed heterogeneity in the risk tied to land tenure (land owners vs. renters) and agribusiness roles (farmers vs. technical advisors). Perceptions of risk, probability, and outcomes played a large role in the sustainability of production. Due to a strong desire to avoid losses, decision makers have a greater short term focus: Immediate economic outcomes are more salient, and environmental and social investments are framed as costs rather than long-term gains. This research can help design policies, programs, and tools that assist agribusinesses in managing better contradictions across the triple bottom line to ensure greater sustainability.
En las últimas décadasestán teniendo lugaren Argentina procesos territorialescomo la agriculturización (intensificación y avance de la agricultura sobre otros usos de la tierra) yel desarrollo de planes de ordenamiento territorial rural. En ambos casos los agentes del territorio afectan la evolución de estos procesos y a la vez son afectados por los mismos. Este estudio analizaambos procesos en el Partido de Balcarce (Argentina) bajo el enfoque de campos sociales de Pierre Bourdieu. Se observa que la posición de los agentes dentro del campo no solo está determinada por el volumen total del capital que poseen, sino también por la estructura de dicho capital y por el capital dominante dentro del campo, afectandoesto las relaciones de poder entre agentes. Si bien el capital que rige la evolución de ambos procesos es el económico, se observa queel capital social cumple un rol estratégico dentro del campo de la comunidad rural y el capital simbólico en el campo delordenamiento territorial.
Increased production of commodities in Latin America has transformed the rural landscape with a potential loss of cultural ecosystem services (CES). The aim of our study was to assess the extent and mechanisms by which the agriculturisation process in Balcarce County in the Pampas region of Argentina has affected the supply of CES of the rural landscape and consequently, the well-being of local inhabitants. Data were obtained through exploratory interviews with selected inhabitants of Balcarce County (Argentina). We focused on people's perceptions regarding landscape changes in the last two decades and the rural landscape aspects that provide identity, sense of place and cultural heritage. Interviews were qualitatively analyzed through content analysis. Results showed that twenty years ago the landscape sustained food provision along with CES. Agriculturisation has implied an undeniable increase of commodity production (i.e. soybean) and economic benefits at the expense of a significant loss of natural environments and changes in the rural livelihoods that sustain CES. The sierras (low mountains) emerge as the last remnants of natural environments sustaining identity, sense of place and cultural heritage.
We use a social-ecological systems framework and interview data from key informants to analyze the threshold dynamics underpinning the resilience of the local beekeeping sector, amidst changes in land use (management) and land use changes (conversions) that result from the expansions of the soy and eucalypt frontiers in Uruguay. Our results indicate that while agriculture began displacing grasslands that originally provided high yields of honey, afforestation now compensates those losses through the flowerings of Eucalyptus grandis. By extending the flowering season from six to eight months, beekeepers’ dependency on tree plantations has increased. However, forestry enterprises are now shifting to plant more productive species that do not flower similarly, anticipating a threshold crossover to which the beekeepers may be unable to adapt. In conclusion, resilience of this environmentally sensitive livelihood has been suppressed primarily by land use changes that have introduced new costs and challenges into honey production. However, threshold dynamics that appear as multifaceted challenges faced by beekeepers occur also elsewhere in the system. Certain outcomes of the threshold dynamics similar to feedback loops in social-ecological systems were identified, including considerations of out-migration and change in occupation, of which ultimate impacts remain unclear. Most beekeepers still cope with the remaining viability, but it appears that the current resilience level does not allow for further harmful impacts. This case example of coupled social and ecological interactions through a livelihood lens gives rise to future research in evolving new dimensions to govern social-ecological systems in Uruguay and beyond.
Taking into account an anthropological point of view, this article is focused on social groups that have been playing an important role in the Argentinean agro-industrial model during the Nineties. People from the "Asociación Argentina de Productores en Siembra Directa" (Aapresid), representing the "Innovative rural businessmen" constructed a professional identity according to a particular way of regarding this industrial sector, his recent evolution, and, most important, its future. Considering the ethnographic material produced between 2004 and 2006, we analyzed the identity of this businessmen, which focuses on the new role of the knowledge in the current agroindustrial model, the land status, the networked organizational innovation, the emerging leadership in the new context and the relationship with the established/settled social categories of this sector.
La révolution biotechnologique, associée à la simplification des itinéraires de culture, redéfinit profondément les rôles des différents acteurs intervenant dans le processus de production, et ce d'autant plus que l'émergence d'une agriculture hypermoderne s'accompagne du cantonnement d'agricultures moins efficaces à des fonctions de préservation de l'environnement. En nous appuyant sur les statistiques agricoles et sur des études de terrain précises, nous caractériserons les nouveaux profils des producteurs émergents dans différents contextes mondiaux (Europe, mais aussi Amériques, Afrique et Asie). Nous montrerons qu'une séparation des tâches liées à la production entre plusieurs acteurs est en train de se mettre en place, le propriétaire de la terre, l'investisseur, la personne qui réalise les travaux et l'agronome chargé du suivi des cultures pouvant être des personnes différentes. Cette transformation sera mise en perspective avec les transformations impliquées par les deux précédentes révolutions agricoles afin de mieux cerner les superpositions de profils d'agriculteurs observables, mais aussi la manière dont la puissance publique peut encadrer ces évolutions
In the last decade of the twentieth century, the trend of economic concentration of the agrarian production of the pampas region was strengthen, expressed in a mayor reduction of the sectorïs firms. Even when there is no census data to quantify it after the 2001-2002 crisis, there are several signs that imply that this process continues in the present. Big lessee capitals appear on the leading roll, managing to obtain economies of scale by taking a large tract of land, which allows them to displace their smaller rivals thanks to their capacity to propose the owners a bigger rent or better conditions to pay it. This paper offers the results of an investigation about one of the juridical forms that this process adopts: the setting up of Financial Trust Funds (FTF). The growth of this kind of financial tool since 2004 has been impressive, and it was partially used in the agrarian sector. After systematize the information of the FTFs placed in the market in the 2004-2008 period, this paper focus its attention on the ones that finance agrarian activities. It estimates the weight they have in the capitalization of the sector, analyzing the productive strategies and characteristics of those that have per purpose the sowing in leased lands, allowing us to offer concrete figures about the microeconomic base of the sector's concentration.Durante la última década del siglo XX, la producción agropecuaria de la región pampeana ve reforzada su tendencia a la concentración económica, reduciéndose de forma muy significativa el número de EAPs. Si bien no existen relevamientos censales que den cuenta de lo ocurrido tras la crisis de 2001-2002, numerosos indicios señalan que este proceso continúa en la actualidad. Aparecen como protagonistas del mismo grandes capitales arrendatarios que logran, al tomar superficies lo suficientemente amplias, obtener economías de escala que les permiten desplazar a rivales menores merced a su posibilidad de ofrecer arriendos superiores. En este artículo se ofrecen los resultados de una investigación sobre una de las formas jurídicas que adopta este proceso: la constitución de Fideicomisos Financieros. Esta ha sido una herramienta financiera de muy alto crecimiento desde 2004, y parcialmente se ha volcado al sector agrario. Luego de compilar la información sobre la totalidad de FF colocados en el período 2004-2008, se procedió a tipificarlos, con especial atención en aquellos que financiaron al agro. Se estimó así el peso que han tenido en su capitalización, y se analizan las estrategias y características productivas de aquellos que tienen por objeto la siembra en campos de terceros, lo que permite aportar cifras concretas sobre la base microeconómica de la concentración económica en este sector.
The Argentine Pampas, one of the main agricultural areas in the world, recently has undergone significant changes in land use and structural characteristics of agricultural production systems. Concerns about the environmental and societal impacts of the changes motivated development of an agent-based model (ABM) to gain insight on processes underlying recent observed patterns. The model is described following a standard protocol (ODD). Results are discussed for an initial set of simplified simulations performed to understand the processes that generated and magnified the changes in the Pampas. Changes in the structure of agricultural production and land tenure seem to be driven by differences among farmers’ ability to generate sufficient agricultural income to remain in business. In turn, as no off-farm or credit is modeled, economic sustainability is tied to initial resource endowment (area cropped). Farmers operating small areas are economically unviable and must lease out their farms to farmers operating larger areas. This leads to two patterns: (a) a concentration of production (fewer farmers operating larger areas) and, (b) an increase in the area operated by tenants. The simulations showed an increase of soybean area, linked to the higher profitability of this crop. Despite the stylized nature of initial simulations, all emerging patterns are highly consistent with changes observed in the Pampas.
Agricultural growth has long been recognized as an important instrument for poverty reduction. Yet, measurements of this relationship are still scarce and not always reliable. The authors present additional evidence at both the sectoral and household levels based on recent data. Results show that rural poverty reduction has been associated with growth in yields and in agricultural labor productivity, but that this relation varies sharply across regional contexts. GDP growth originating in agriculture induces income growth among the 40 percent poorest, which is on the order of three times larger than growth originating in the rest of the economy. The power of agriculture comes not only from its direct poverty reduction effect but also from its potentially strong growth linkage effects on the rest of the economy. Decomposing the aggregate decline in poverty into a rural contribution, an urban contribution, and a population shift component shows that rural areas contributed more than half the observed aggregate decline in poverty. Finally, using the example of Vietnam, the authors show that rapid growth in agriculture has opened pathways out of poverty for farming households. While the effectiveness of agricultural growth in reducing poverty is well established, the effectiveness of public investment in inducing agricultural growth is still incomplete and conditional on context. © The Author 2009. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: [email protected]
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This paper explores the economic, social and environmental context, drivers and impacts of increased demand for Argentine soy-based biodiesel. It is based on extensive stakeholder interviews in Argentina, including those in government, academia and the third sector; as well as participant observation with communities in soy cultivation areas; and review of relevant academic and grey literatures. Given Argentina's history of political instability and relatively weak levels of environmental protection, there is reason to be sceptical of the likely effectiveness of biofuel sustainability certification as applied to Argentine soy. Direct contracts between feedstock producers and biodiesel retailers may be a more reliable approach to minimise adverse environmental and social impacts than certification alone.
Using a model based on a trade-off between moral hazard incentives and gains from specialization, this paper explains why farming has generally not converted from small, family-based firms into large, factory-style corporate firms. Nature is both seasonal and random, and the interplay of these qualities generates moral hazard, limits the gains from specialization, and causes timing problems between stages of production. By identifying conditions in which these forces vary, we derive testable predictions about the choice of organization and the extent of farm integration. To test these predictions we study the historical development of several agricultural industries and analyze data from a sample of over 1,000 farms in British Columbia and Louisiana. In general, seasonality and randomness so limit the benefits of specialization that family farms are optimal, but when farmers are successful in mitigating the effects of seasonality and random shocks to output, farm organizations gravitate toward factory processes and corporate ownership. Copyright 1998 by the University of Chicago.
Synergistic combinations of climatic and land use changes have the potential to produce the most dramatic impacts on land cover. Although this is widely accepted, empirical examples, particularly involving deforestation in Latin America, are still very few. The geographic extent and causes of deforestation in subtropical seasonally dry forests of the world have received very little attention. This is especially true for the Chaco forests in South America, which are being lost at an alarming rate, sometimes higher than those reported for tropical forests. On this basis, the aims of this study were to analyze the changes in land cover that have occurred during the last three decades of the 20th century in the Chaco forests of central Argentina, and to explain the factors that have driven those changes. Results show major land cover changes. Approximately 80% of the area that was originally undisturbed forest is now occupied by crops, pastures, and secondary scrub. The main proximate cause of deforestation has been agricultural expansion, soybean cultivation in particular. This appears as the result of the synergistic convergence of climatic, technological, and socioeconomic factors, supporting the hypothesis of a multiple-factor explanation for forest loss, while providing one of the very few existing analyses of changes in subtropical forests of the world.
The paper describes and, as far as possible, explains variations in policies, programs, and institutions that influence agricultural growth, agrarian relations, and rural welfare across developing countries and over time. It evaluates the impact of distorted policy patterns on agricultural production and rural poverty and identifies conditions under which policy reforms meant to bring about greater efficiency and equity are likely to be initiated and sustained. It draws upon a broad range of literature to show how material conditions, missing markets, and government policies affect static welfare outcomes, patterns of accumulation, state formation, and the establishment of political institutions. It suggests ways to improve policy advice and proposes directions for future research.
This paper is a short summary of the main classes defined in the ade4 package for one table analysis methods (e. g., principal component analysis). Other papers will detail the classes defined in ade4 for two-tables coupling methods (such as canonical corre-spondence analysis, redundancy analysis, and co-inertia analysis), for methods dealing with K-tables analysis (i. e., three-ways tables), and for graphical methods. This package is a complete rewrite of the ADE4 software (Thioulouse et al. (1997), http://pbil. univ-lyon1.fr/ADE-4/) for the R environment. It contains
Increased levels and volatility of food prices has led to a surge of interest in large-scale agriculture and land acquisition. This creates challenges for policy makers aiming to establish a policy environment conducive to an agrarian structure to contribute to broad-based development in the long term. Based on a historical review of episodes of growth of large farms and their impact, this paper identifies factors underlying the dominance of owner-operated farm structures and ways in which these may change with development. The amount of land that could potentially be available for expansion and the level of productivity in exploiting available land resources are used to establish a country-level typology. The authors highlight that an assessment of the advantages of large operations, together with information on endowments, can provide input into strategy formulation at the country level. A review of recent cases of land acquisition reinforces the importance of the policy framework in determining outcomes. It suggests that transparency and contract enforcement, recognition of local land rights and ways in which they can be exercised, attention to employment effects and technical viability, and mechanisms to re-allocate land from unsuccessful ventures to more productive entrepreneurs are key areas warranting the attention of policy makers.
The main objective of this study is to identify the new patterns of land acquisitons in Argentina. However, data on land purchased and sold is not readily available and generating it would take a long and complex effort. On the other hand, circumstantial evidence and the general knowledge of the agricultural sector suggest that there have not been a large number of acquisitions of large tracts of agricultural land.
After reviewing briefly the regional and systematic syntheses in agricultural geography published to date, the author characterises the activity and contribution to this problem of the Commission on Agricultural Typology of the International Geographical Union. First the general concept of agricultural typology is presented and discussed, then the criteria, methods and techniques accepted to identify types of agriculture are explained, and finally the practical application of agricultural typology in modelling the spatial organisation of agriculture and in planning agricultural development is discussed, based on a few examples.
This paper contributes to explain the cross-country heterogeneity of the poverty response to changes in economic growth. It does so by focusing on the structure of output growth itself. The paper presents a two-sector theoretical model that clarifies the mechanism through which the sectoral composition of growth and associated labor intensity can affect workers' wages and, thus, poverty alleviation. Then, it presents cross-country empirical evidence that analyzes, first, the differential poverty-reducing impact of sectoral growth at various levels of disaggregation, and, second, the role of unskilled labor intensity in such differential impact. The paper finds evidence that not only the size of economic growth but also its composition matters for poverty alleviation, with the largest contributions from unskilled labor-intensive sectors (agriculture, construction, and manufacturing). The results are robust to the influence of outliers, endogeneity concerns, alternative explanations, and various poverty measures.
This research aims to identify the specific characteristics of small farms in developed countries and the factors which influence their survival and growth. Using the case of France, we employ statistical and econometric analysis of data from the Farm Structure Survey (N=70,000) for the period 2000-2007. The principal findings suggest that small farms are no more likely than other farms to employ “alternative” strategies to the predominant model of increasing farm size, nor are they more likely to diversify on-farm activities or operate under quality-labelled production systems, with the notable exception of organic agriculture. However, where small farms do adopt or practice these activities, they are seen to have a favourable effect in ensuring their survival and growth. In contrast, we are unable to conclude that pluriactivity of farm households has a positive impact on the survival of small enterprises. The effect of geographic location on small farms is largely expressed in their concentration in mountainous or disadvantaged regions. Overall, the trajectory of small farms is marked by farm exit, principally as the result of farmers retiring at the end of their careers. The small farm sector is also revitalised by both larger farms declining and thus being reclassified as small farms, as well as the progressive entry into agriculture of small farm holders whose income was previously derived largely off-farm.
This paper suggests that inequality in the distribution of landownership adversely affected the emergence of human-capital
promoting institutions (e.g. public schooling), and thus the pace and the nature of the transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy, contributing
to the emergence of the great divergence in income per capita across countries. The prediction of the theory regarding the adverse effect of the concentration of landownership on education
expenditure is established empirically based on evidence from the beginning of the 20th century in the U.S.
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