Mineral elements in milk and dairy products

Abstract

Mineral elements occur in milk and dairy products as inorganic ions and salts, as well as part
of organic molecules, such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. The chemical form of
mineral elements is important because it determines their absorption in the intestine and their biological
utilization. The mineral composition of milk is not constant because it depends on lactation
phase, nutritional status of the animal, and environmental and genetic factors. The objective of this
research is to point out the research results of chemical form, content and nutritional importance of
individual mineral elements that are present in various milks and dairy products.

Full text

Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 111
Introduction
 Onaverage,mineralelementsaccountfor4%
oftotalbodymassandpartofevery tissue,liquid,
cellandorganinhumanbody.Thereisasufficient
evidence that minerals, both independently or in
properbalancewithotherminerals,havestructural,
biochemicalandnutritional functionsthatare very
important for overall human health, both mental
and physical (Vah čić et al., 2010). Furthermore,
theyactascatalystsformanybiologicalreactionsin
thebody,includingmusclecontraction,transmission
ofnerveimpulsesandutilizationofnutrientsfrom
food (Anonymous, 2010; Vahčić et al., 2010).
Twentymineral elementsareassumedtobe essen-
tialinhumannutrition:sodium,potassium,chloride,
calcium, manganese, selenium, iodine, chromium,
cobalt,molybdenum,fluorine,arsenic,nickel,silicon
and boron (Cashm an, 2002a). Essential minerals
areoccasionallyclassifiedintotwogroups:majorele-
ments(macrominerals)andtraceelements(ormicro-
minerals).Theconcentrationofmajorelements(so-
dium,potassium,chloride,calcium,magnesiumand
phosphorus)inthehumanbodyexceeds0.01%ofto-
*Corresponding author/Dopisni autor: E-mail: szamberlin@agr.hr
Preglednirad-Review UDK:637.046
Mineral elements in milk and dairy
products
Šimun Zamberlin*, Neven Antunac, Jasmina Havranek, Dubravka Samaržija
UniversityofZagreb,FacultyofAgriculture,DepartmentofDairyScience,
Svetošimunska25,10000Zagreb,Croatia
Received-Prispjelo:21.02.2012.
Accepted-Prihvaćeno:24.05.2012.
Summary
 Mineralelementsoccurinmilkanddairyproductsasinorganicionsandsalts,aswellaspart
oforganicmolecules,suchasproteins,fats,carbohydratesandnucleicacids.Thechemicalformof
mineralelementsisimportantbecauseitdeterminestheirabsorptionintheintestineandtheirbio-
logicalutilization.Themineralcompositionofmilkisnotconstantbecauseitdependsonlactation
phase,nutritionalstatusoftheanimal,andenvironmentalandgeneticfactors.Theobjectiveofthis
researchistopointouttheresearchresultsofchemicalform,contentandnutritionalimportanceof
individualmineralelementsthatarepresentinvariousmilksanddairyproducts.

Key words:milk,dairyproducts,mineralelements,nutritionalsignificance
talbodymass,whereastraceelements(remaining14
elements)arepresentinmuchlowerconcentrations,
andtheirdietaryintakemaybelowerthan100mg/
day.Allessentialmineralelementscanbefoundin
milkbecausebydefinitionitcontainsthenutrients
requiredforgrowthoftheyoung(BatesandPren-
tice,1996).Milkanddairyproductsareanimpor-
tant source of dietary minerals in many European
countries,accountingfor10-20%ofdailydietary
intake.However,thecontentofmajorandtraceele-
mentsinmilkdependsuponthecontentofthese
elementsinsoiland cattle feed,whichvariescon-
siderablyamongandwithincountries(Dobrz ański
et.al.,2005;Malbeetal.,2010).Also,thethermal
treatment of milk may have influence on mineral
compositioninthewaythatconcentrationofdietary
mineralsinconsumermilkislowerthanconcentra-
tioninrawmilk,withtheexceptionofiron,which
ishigherinconsumermilk(Malbeetal.,2010).On
theotherhand,inthestudyconductedbyZu rera-
Cosano etal.(1994)the existenceofstatistically
significantdifferenceswere observedonlyforcop-
per and iron with a tendency to decrease slightly

112 Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 (2012)
duringpasteurizationandsterilization.Inmilk,min-
eral elements occur in several chemical forms, in-
cludinginorganicionsandsalts,oraspartsoforganic
moleculessuchasproteins,fats,carbohydratesand
nucleicacids.
 Theobjectiveofthisresearchistopresentthe
research results that have been conducted on the
chemicalforms,contentandnutritionalimportance
ofindividualmineralelementsfoundinvarioustypes
ofmilkanddairy products.However, itshouldbe
emphasizedthatthereareinsufficientresearcheson
thecontentandchemicalform ofmineralsinmilk
anddairyproducts.
Chemical form and distribution of mineral ele-
ments in the soluble and colloidal milk phase
 Thechemicalformofmineralelementsfound
inmilkanddairyproductsisveryimportantdueto
theirabsorptionintheintestineandbiologicalutili-
zation(transport,assimilationincellsandconversion
intobiologicallyactive form).Ofthe totalcalcium
incowmilk,99%ispresentintheskimmilkfrac-
tion.Two-thirdsofthetotalcalciumcanbefoundas
calciumphosphateinthecolloidalphasee.g.casein
micellesorascalciumionsboundtophosphoserine
(approximatelyone-sixthoftotalcalcium).There-
mainingone-ofcalciuminmilkcanbefoundinthe
solublephase.Ioniccalciuminthesolublephaseac-
countsforapproximately10%oftotalcalciumand
theremainingpartofsolublecalciumascalciumci-
trate.Inaddition,asmallquantityofcalcium(0.15
%)isboundtoα-lactalbumin (Cas hman, 2002a).
Ofthetotalphosphorusfoundincowmilk,20%oc-
cursasorganicphosphateboundtocasein,and80%
asinorganicphosphate.Ofthetotalcontentofinor-
ganicphosphate,44%isboundtocaseinmicellesas
calciumphosphateand56%ispresentinthesoluble
phase,mostlyasfreephosphate ions.Incowmilk,
98-100%ofmagnesiumisfoundintheskimmilk
fraction,65%ofwhichinthesolublephase(40%
asmagnesiumcitrate,7%asmagnesium-phosphate
and16%asfreeions).Theremainingpartinthecol-
loidalphaseisboundtocaseinmicelles(50%tocol-
loidalcalciumphosphateand50%tophosphoserine
incasein).Thebalanceofsaltsbetweenthesoluble
andthecolloidalphaseincow,goatandsheepmilk
isimportantfordefinitionoftheirinherentnutri-
tionalproperties.Also,thebalanceisimportantfor
maintainingmineralelementsincheesecurdduring
cheeseproduction(Cas hman,2002a).Insamples
ofgoatmilk,takenfromdifferentherdsinthemid-
dleoflactation,thecontentof calcium,magnesium
andphosphorusinthesolublephasewas33%,66%
and39%,respectively(Fuente etal.,1997).Also,
research resultsofthemineral elementscontentin
Europeangoatbreedsshowthatthecontentofsolu-
blecalciumrangesfrom30%to38%(O’Connor
andFox ,1977;Remeuf,1993).Furthermore,re-
search shows that the contents of magnesium and
phosphorus in the soluble phase of goat milk are
66%and 39%,respectively, whilethecontentsof
calcium, magnesium and phosphorus in sheep milk
in the soluble phase amounts to 21 %, 56 % and
35%(Pelleg rinietal.,1994).Mostzincingoatand
sheepmilk(93%insheepand89%ingoatmilk)and
manganese(93%insheepand89%ingoatmilk)is
presentinthecolloidalphase(Fuenteetal.,1997).
Thedistributionofironandcopperbetweenthetwo
phasesofgoatandsheepmilkshowsgreaterdiffer-
encesthanother researchedmineralelements.For
example,thesolublephase of sheepmilkcontains
29%ironandgoatmilk44%.Incomparison,sheep
milkcontainsahigherlevelofsolublecopper(33%)
thangoatmilk(18%)(Fuenteetal.,1997).
Concentration of major mineral elements in
various milk types and dairy products
 Theaverageconcentrationofmajorelementsin
goatandsheepmilkishigherinrelationtocowmilk
(exceptsodium),andseveraltimeshigherinrelation
tohumanmilk(Table1).Theconcentrationofma-
jorelementsdependsonthespecies,theindividual
animal,themethodoffeeding,lactationstage,and
healthconditionoftheudders(ParkandChuk wu,
1988;Cashman,2006).
MaravalandVignon(1982)observedsignifi-
cant changes in the concentration of mineral ele-
mentsingoatmilkinthefirst7weeksoflactation.
Furthermore,Khanetal.(2006)found significant
influenceofseasonandbreedontheconcentration
ofmostmineralelements insheepmilk.Thecon-
tentofmajor elementsinmilkdiffers significantly
fromthecontentinblood.Comparedtoblood,milk
containsmorepotassium,calciumandphosphorus,
andlesssodiumandchloride.Thisisduetothesodi-
um-potassiumpumpthatregulatesosmoticpressure

Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 113
betweenthecytoplasmofbloodcellsandmilk.At
thesametime,calciumistransportedfromtheba-
salmembranetocytosolandonwardintotheGolgi
apparatusofthealveolarcellsofthemammaryglands
tobeincorporatedintocaseinmicelles(Paulin aand
Bencini,2004).Thetransportofions,lactoseand
wateramongblood,intercellularalveolarliquidsand
milkisveryimportantforosmoticbalanceinhealthy
udder,and itshowsa positivecorrelationwith the
quantityofmilkproduced(Pauli naandBencini,
2004).Thereisaveryhighinverselevelofcorrela-
tion between the lactose content and the concen-
trationofsodium andpotassiumingoat andother
milktypes(Kon aretal.,1971;Park andChukwu,
1988).Particularlyhighlevelofsodiumwasdeter-
minedincowcolostrum.However,thesodiumcon-
centrationinmilkdecreasestoaveragelevelsafew
dayslater.Sodium concentration in milk does not
dependonitsdietaryintake.Itishigherattheend
ofthelactationperiod,whenthequantityofmilkis
reduced.Also,milkskimminghasnoeffect onthe
sodiumcontent(Cashman,2002a).Unlikeother
mineral elements, the potassium concentration in
cowcolostrumislowerthaninmilk,butitincreases
overthenexttwotothreedaysofthelactationperiod
untilanormalvalueisreached.Itdependsondietary
potassiumintake.Researchresultshaveshownthat
chlorideconcentrationisinpositivecorrelationwith
potassium concentration and negative correlation
withlactosecontent.The potassiumconcentration
ingoatmilkdoesnotdependonthelactationphase
(Konaretal.,1971).Thechlorideconcentrationin
colostrumisincreased.However, it decreases toa
normallevelwithintwotothreedays.Towardsend
oflactation,chlorideconcentrationincreasesnotde-
pendingonfoodintake.Ingeneral,asfatcontentin
milkincreases,thecontentofthemajormineralsin
milkanddairyproductsdecreases.
 Ofthe20essentialmineralelements,calciumis
themostcommoninmilk(Table1).Thecalciumcon-
centrationofcowmilkisslightlyhigherincolostrum
andattheendofthe lactation.Removingfatfrom
milkdoesnotaffectthemagnesiumcontent.Itscon-
tentistwotothreetimeshigherincolostrumthanin
milk,butdecreasesfromthefirsttothethirddayof
lactationtoreachitsnormallevel(Table1).
Table1.Concentrationrangesofmajormineralelementsingoat,sheepandcowmilkcomparedtohuman
milk(Pos at i and Or r,1976; Je nn es s, 1980;Par k and Ch ukwu ,1988; Park andC hu kw u,
1989;Conietal.,1999;Park,2006;DeutchenForschungsanstaltfürLebensmittelchemie,2012)

Mineralelement
Milk
Goat Sheep Cow Human
Calcium(mg/100g) 106-192 136-200 107-133 22-41
Phosphorus(mg/100g) 92-148 80-145 63-102 12-17
Magnesium(mg/100g) 10-21 8-19 9-16 3.0-3.4
Potassium(mg/100g) 135-235 174-190 144-178 46-55
Sodium(mg/100g) 34-50 29-31 40-58 12-15
Chloride(mg/100g) 100-198 71-92 90-106 32-49
Table2.Averagecontentof majormineralelementsin driedandconcentratedmilk incomparisonwith
pasteurizedskimmedmilk(mg/100g)(Hollandetal.,1995)
Mineralelement
Milk
Pasteurized
skimmed
Dried
skimmed Evaporated Condensed
Sodium 55 550 180 150
Potassium 150 1590 360 450
Chloride 100 1070 250 300
Calcium 120 1280 290 330
Phosphorus 95 970 260 270
Magnesium 12 130 29 33

114 Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 (2012)
 Themagnesiumcontentinmilkisnotdepend-
ing on its dietary intake (Cas hm an , 2002a). The
contentofcalcium,phosphorusand magnesium in
dairyproductsisshowninTables2to5.Ingeneral,
thehighestquantitiesofcalciumandphosphorusare
found in hard cheeses (Parmigiano, Gouda, Edam
andCheddar-alevelupto10timeshigherthan
inmilk).Thelowestcontentoftheseelementswas
recordedincreamand cottagecheese.Magnesium
contentincheesechangesinthesameway as the
calciumcontent(Table5).
Nutritional importance of major mineral elements
present in milk and dairy products
 The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of
some major elements is shown in Tables 6 and 7.
RDA values present the average daily calorie and
nutrientintakethatisconsideredsufficienttomeet
theneedsofhealthyinfants,childrenandadults.
 Sodium is the major cation in the extracellu-
larfluidsandisanimportant regulator of osmotic
pressure,acid-basebalanceandcellularmembrane
potential.Itisalsoimportantfortheactivetranspor-
tationofsubstancesthroughthecellularmembrane.
The contribution of cow milk to daily sodium in-
takeinhumannutritionislow,butcheeseandsome
creamproductswhichcontainaddedquantities of
salt,canprovidesignificantsourcesofsodium.
 Chloride is the most important extracellular
anion. It is responsible for maintaining electrolyte
balance.Excessiveintakeoftablesalt(sodiumchlo-
ride) increases urinary calcium excretion, which
negatively affects bone condition (Massey and
Whiting,1996;CashmanandFlynn,2003).The
RDAofchlorideisshownintheTable7.
 Potassiumis one ofthemostimportant intra-
cellularcations.It occursincells inconcentrations
30timesgreaterthaninextracellularfluids.Extra-
cellular potassium is important for the transmis-
sionofnerveimpulses,musclecontractionsandthe
maintenance of blood pressure. In addition, it has
beendeterminedthat potassiumintakehasa posi-
tiveeffectonhumanbones.Forexample,theintake
ofalkalinepotassium salts(potassiumbicarbonate)
byhealthyadultssignificantlyreducesurinarycal-
ciumexcretion,evenwithexcessivetablesaltintake
(Morrisetal.,1999).Anadequatedailypotassium
intakeforpeopleisshowninTable7.Thecontentof
sodium,potassiumandchlorideinmilkhasaphysi-
ologicalsignificanceininfantnutrition.Conversely,
excessive intake of these three mineral elements
maycauseclinicalproblemsbecause theycanstart
accumulating,limitingtherenalcapacityofinfants
(Cashman,2002a).
 Calciumaccountsfor1.5-2%ofthetotalbody
massofanadult.Ofthisamount,99%isfoundin
bonesandteethascalciumphosphateandthere-
maining1%inextracellularfluidsandintracellular
structuresaswellasincellularmembranes.
Calcium is responsible for many regulatory
functions, such as normal cardiac rhythm mainte-
nance, blood clotting, hormone secretion, muscle
contraction and enzyme activation (Cashman,
2002a).Milkanddairyproducts(cheeseandyogurt)
areveryrichsourceofcalcium(Tables1,3and4).
ThemajorityofdietaryCa(70%)comesfromdairy
productsbecauseinmilk,caseinmicellesconstitute
the natural vector of Ca (Canabady-Roch ellea
andMellemab,2010).TheRDAforcalcium(Ta-
ble6)isdifficulttoreachwithoutconsumingmilk
and dairy products. In the past, special attention
Table3.Averagecontentofmajormineralelementsinbutter,yogurtanddairyicecream(Hollandetal.,1995)
Mineralelement
Dairyproduct(mg/100g)
Butter Yogurt Icecream
Sodium 750a80 69
Potassium 15 280 160
Chloride 1150a170 110
Calcium 15 200 130
Phosphorus 24 170 110
Magnesium 2 19 13
abuttertowhichsaltwasadded.Butterwithoutaddedsaltcontains11mg/100gofsodiumand17mg/100gofchloride

Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 115
wasdevotedtothe bioavailability ofcalciumfrom
milk.Theaveragecalciumabsorptionfromcowmilk
variesbetween21% and45%.Also, thebioavail-
abilityofcalciumfromcheeseandyogurtequalsto
thosefrommilk.
 CalciumabsorptiondependsonthevitaminD
levelandageofa person.Atthesametime,ithas
beenproventhatcalciumabsorptioninthestomach
isalsoaffectedbylactose.Furthermore,thedairy
productscalciumbioavailabilityisbetterthanofthe
othersources,suchasvegetables.Thiscouldpartly
be due to their contents in highly phosphorylated
fragments of caseins, named caseinophosphopep-
tides(CPPs).Thesepeptidesappearmainlyduring
theelaborationof milkproductssuch ascheeseor
yoghurt, under the action on caseins of milk-en-
dogenous,milk-clottingand/ormicrobialenzymes.
TheymayalsoarisefromαS1-,αS2-andβ-kazeinadi-
gestioninthegut(FitzGera ld,1998;Dupasetal.,
2009).OneuniquefeatureofCPPsistheirabilityto
formCPP-metalioncomplexes,whichwouldpoten-
tiallyincreasethebioavailabilityofcalciumandiron,
notablybymaintaining metalsinasoluble formin
thedistalsmallintestine(Peresetal.,1999;Dupas
etal.,2009).Osteoporosisisaverycommondisease
inwesterncountriesandmostlyaffectswomen.One
ofitscausesinoldageisinsufficientcalciumintake
when young. Maximum bone mass is achieved in
thethirddecadeoflifebyproviding sufficientcal-
ciumintakeatyoungage.Ithasalsobeenproven
thatbonemassisanimportantfactorinosteoporosis
prevention (Pr entice, 1997; Cashman, 2002a).
Despitethedatafromthevariouscalciuminterven-
tionstudies,thereisstillconsiderabledebateonthe
meaningoftheseeffectsofcalciumonbone(Cash-
man,2006).
 Phosphorusisamajorelementwithmanyim-
portantbiologicalfunctionsinthehumanbody. It
occursasorganicorinorganicphosphateinallbody
tissues and fluids, and is the main component of
many biological compounds, including lipids, pro-
teins,carbohydratesandnucleicacids (Cashman,
2002a).
Table4.Averagecontentofmajormineralelementsincream(Hollandetal.,1995)
Mineral
element
(mg/100g)
Cream
Freshcream Sourcream Sterilized
canned UHT
≈10%fat ≈20%fat ≈35-48%fat ≈60%fat ≈20%fat ≈25%fat ≈32%fat
Sodium 49 49 37 18 41 53 33
Potassium 120 120 65 55 110 110 92
Chloride 77 80 51 40 81 78 62
Calcium 99 91 50 37 93 86 66
Phosphorus 82 76 50 40 81 73 57
Magnesium 11 9 6 5 10 10 7
Table5.Averageconcentrationsofmajormineralsinparticularcheesevarieties(mg/100g)
(Hollandetal.,1995)
Mineral
Cheese
Brie Cheddar Cream Cottage Edam Feta Gouda Parmigiano Stilton
Sodium 700 670 300 380 1020 1440 910 1090 930
Potassium 100 77 160 89 97 95 91 110 130
Chloride 1060 1030 480 550 1570 2350 1440 1820 1410
Calcium 540 720 98 73 770 360 740 1200 320
Phosphorus 390 490 100 160 530 280 490 810 310
Magnesium 27 25 10 9 39 20 38 45 20

116 Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 (2012)
Table6.Recommendeddailyallowancesofcalcium,magnesiumandphosphorus
(InstituteofMedicine,2011)
Category Age(years) Mineralelement
Calcium(mg) Magnesium(mg) Phosphorus(mg)
Infants 0.0-0.5 200 30 100
0.5-1.0 260 75 275
Children 1-3 700 80 460
4-8 1000 130 500
Males
9-13 1300 240 1250
14-18 1300 410 1250
19-30 1000 400 700
31-50 1000 420 700
51-70 1200 420 700
>70 1200 420 700
Females
9-13 1300 240 1250
14-18 1300 360 1250
19-30 1000 310 700
31-50 1000 320 700
51-70 1200 320 700
>70 1200 320 700
Pregnancy
14-18 1300 400 1250
19-30 1000 350 700
31-50 1000 360 700
Lactation
14-18 1300 360 1250
19-30 1000 310 700
31-50 1000 320 700
Table7.Recommendeddailyallowancesofpotassium,sodiumandchloride(InstituteofMedicine,2011)
Category Age(years) Mineralelement
Potassium(g) Sodium(g) Chloride(g)
Infants 0.0-0.5 0.4 0.12 0.18
0.5-1.0 0.7 0.37 0.57
Children 1-3 3.0 1.0 1.5
4-8 3.8 1.2 1.9
Males
9-13 4.5 1.5 2.3
14-18 4.7 1.5 2.3
19-30 4.7 1.5 2.3
31-50 4.7 1.5 2.3
51-70 4.7 1.3 2.0
>70 4.7 1.2 1.8
Females
9-13 4.5 1.5 2.3
14-18 4.7 1.5 2.3
19-30 4.7 1.5 2.3
31-50 4.7 1.5 2.3
51-70 4.7 1.3 2.0
>70 4.7 1.2 1.8
Pregnancy
14-18 4.7 1.5 2.3
19-30 4.7 1.5 2.3
31-50 4.7 1.5 2.3
Lactation
14-18 5.1 1.5 2.3
19-30 5.1 1.5 2.3
31-50 5.1 1.5 2.3

Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 117
Ascalciumphosphate,phosphorusisthemost
importantstructuralcomponentofbonesandteeth.
However,excessiveintakeofphosphoruscombined
withreducedcalciumintakemayhavenegativeef-
fectsonbones(Cashman,2006).TheRDAofphos-
phorusisshowninTable6.Milkanddairyproducts
arerichsourceofphosphorusandinwesterncoun-
triesaccountfor30-45%ofthetotalphosphorus
intake(InstituteofMedicine,2004).
 Magnesium plays an important role in many
physiologicalprocesses,suchasmetabolismofpro-
teinsandnucleicacids,neuromusculartransmission
and muscle contraction, bone growth and blood
pressureregulation.Magnesiumisalsoaco-factorof
manyenzymes.Ontheotherhand,magnesiumdefi-
ciencymayalsocauseosteoporosis(Rude,1998).
Therehasnotbeenmuchresearchonthebio-
availabilityofmagnesiumfrommilkforthehuman
bodyinhumannutrition.Studiesofmetabolicbal-
ance have shown that 16-43 % of magnesium is
absorbedfrominfant formulasbasedoncowmilk,
and that lactose facilitates magnesium absorption.
Inwesterncountries16-21%oftotalmagnesiumis
consumedthroughmilkanddairyproducts(Cash-
man,2002a).
Concentration of trace elements
in milk and dairy products
 Unlikethemajorelements,traceelementsare
present in the human body in the concentrations
lowerthan0.01% of thetotalbodymass.Of the
20 essential minerals, 14 are trace elements: iron,
copper,zinc,manganese,selenium, iodine,chromi-
um,cobalt,molybdenum,fluorine,arsenic,nickel,
siliconandboron.Scientificresearchesontestani-
malshaveproventhatsomeoftheaboveelements
(arsenic, nickel, silicon and boron) are essential.
Therefore,itisassumedthattheyarealsoessential
forhumans(Cashman,2002b).Many othertrace
elementsalsooccurinmilk.However,theyarenot
nutritionallyimportant.Theseincludelithium,bro-
mine,aluminium,strontium, silver,lead, tin,vana-
dium,mercury,cadmium,rubidiumandcaesium.
 Manyofthe tracemineralelements aretoxic.
However,their concentrations in milkaretoolow
toposeathreatto human health. Likecontentof
othermineralspresentinmilk,theconcentrationof
trace elements (Table 1 and 8) is not constant. It
dependsonthelactationstage,nutritionalstatusof
the animal, and environmental and genetic factors
(Cashman,2002b).Thecontentoftraceelements
Table8.Concentrationsoftraceelementsingoat,sheepandcowmilkcomparedtohuman milk (Po-
sati and O rr, 1976; J enness , 1980; Par k and C hukw u, 1988; Pa rk  and Chukwu , 1989;
Flynnand Cashman,1997;C oniet al.,1999;Park, 2006;Deut chenForschungsanstaltfür
Lebensmittelchemie,2012)
Milk
Mineralelement Goat Sheep Cow Human
Sulphur(mg/100g) 28 29 32 14
Iron(µg/100g) 36-75 62-100 30-70 26-58
Copper(µg/100g) 11 11-88 2-30 22-77
Manganese(µg/100g) 5.5 5.3 1.3-4.0 700ng
Zinc(µg/100g) 242 415 74-145 0.38
Iodide(µg/100g) 2.1-11 2.0 2.0-6.0 0.5-9.0
Selenium(µg/100g) 0.7 0,9 1.3-1.7 1.0-5.3
Fluoride(µg/100g) - - 11-21 13-25
Cobalt(ng/100g) 270 360 50-130 114
Nickel(µg/100g) 0.3-19 5,4 0.4-6.0 0.4-3.0
Molybdenum(µg/100g) - - 2.4-6.0 1.0
Boron(µg/100g) - - 19-95 -
Bromide(µg/100g) 411-503 - 154-293 100
Chromium(µg/100g) 0.5-15 0,32 1.0-4.0 4.1
Nitrate(µg/100g) - - 20-1240 -
Aluminium(µg/100g) 15 51 46 0.06
-nodata

118 Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 (2012)
ingoatandothermilktypesalsodependsonthespe-
cies,itsindividualcharacteristics,feedingmethod,
lactationstage,andhealthconditionofudder(Park
andChukwu,1989).Sheepmilkcontainsapproxi-
mately0.9% ash,comparedto 0.7%incowmilk
(Park etal.,2007). Aconclusionmaybe thatthe
contentofmineralsinsheepmilkishigherthanin
cowmilk,primarilyduetodifferencesinnutrition
and metabolism (Rincon et al., 1994). To date,
therehasbeenlittle researchontraceelements in
sheepmilk,althoughtheycouldplayanimportant
roleduetotheirpossibly positiveinfluenceonhu-
manhealth.Bycarryingoutdiscriminatoryanalysisof
themineralcompositionin360samplesofrawmilk,
(120samplesofcow,goatandsheep)statisticaldis-
tanceandsignificantdifferenceswereestablishedin
120samplesofcowmilkcomparedto120samples
ofgoatmilk, whilein10 %ofthe casestherewas
acorrespondencebetweenthe samplesofgoatand
sheepmilk(Jay,2000). Theseresultsclearlyshow
aseparationofelementsintermsofthemilk(Jay,
2000;HaenleinandWendorff,2006).
 Increased exposure of dairy animals to grow-
ing environmental pollution has also increased the
need for more research regarding the content of
heavymetalsinmilk.Heavymetals,suchasleadand
platinum,whichcanbefoundinexhaustgases,can
beabsorbedwhenanimalsgrazenearmajortrans-
portationroutes(Ikedaetal.,1996;Raghunathet
al.,1997).Inaddition,negativeeffectsofleadand
cadmiumonhumanhealthweredetected.Traceele-
mentslikecopperandzincareessentialandhavea
roleinmanybiologicalfunctions(Tripathietal.,
1999).However,ifpresentathigherlevels,theycan
have negative effects on human health (Brewer,
2010).Researchresultsshowthattheconsumption
of sheep milk products in Italy leads to an intake
of15%ofthepermissiblecontentofheavymet-
als(Co ni etal.,1999).Thecontentof cadmium,
whichisalsoaheavymetal,issignificantlyhigherin
sheepmilkthanincowmilk,probablyduetodiffer-
encesinnutritionandmetabolismbetweentwospe-
cies(Conietal.,1999;HaenleinandWendorff,
2006;Herwigetal.,2011).
 Researchonothertraceelementsshowsthat,
for example, the iron concentration in milk is re-
ducedby35to50%inthefirstthreedaysoflacta-
tion;afterthatitremainsataconstantlevel,andit
doesnotdependonnutrition.Furthermore,14%of
thetotalironcontentinmilkcanbefoundinmilk
fatboundtothemembraneoffatglobules;24%is
boundtocasein(probablytophosphoserine);29%is
linkedtowheyproteins,while32%isboundtolow
molecularmasscompounds(Cashman,2002b).Bi-
oavailabilityofironfromhumanmilkrangesfrom49
to70%,whichissignificantlyhigherthanfromcow
milk(10to34%).Thereisnoclearexplanationfor
thisdifference.However,itmightbeexplained by
thehighleveloflactoferrin(glycoproteinthatbinds
ironions)presentinhumanmilk.Anotherpossible
explanation may be found in the high content of
lactoseandascorbateinhuman milk, which facili-
tatesironabsorption,andinlowcontentofproteins,
calcium and phosphorus, which inhibit absorption
(Cashman,2002b).
 The average zinc concentration in milk is 3.9
mg/L (Fly nn  and Ca shma n, 1997). However, it
shouldbenotedthattherearegreatvariationsincon-
centration(2.0to6.0mg/L).Zincincowcolostrum
isreducedby50%inthefirstthreedaysoflactation
afterthatfurtherchangeisnegligible.Hardsheep
cheesesarerichsourceofzinc(Samaržijaetal.,
2005)duetoinherenthighconcentrationinsheep’s
milk(Table 1).Zincin nutritionalsoincreasesits
contentinmilk.Inaddition,itwasdeterminedthat
additionofzinctomilkresultsinreducedsomatic
cellcount(Pechovàetal.,2006).Only1to3%of
zincinmilkisrelatedtothelipidfraction,whilethe
remainingpartcanbefoundintheskimmilkfrac-
tion.Also,outof thetotalzinccontent presentin
theskimmilkfraction,95%isboundtophosphoser-
inebycaseinmicellesand5%tocitrate.Thebioa-
vailabilityofzincinhumanmilkismuchhigherthan
incowmilk,becausein humanmilkitisbound to
ligandsoflowmolecularmass(forexample,citrate),
whichfacilitatesabsorption.Also, thebindingofa
largeproportionofzinctocasein in cow milk(10
timeshigherthaninhumanmilk),maycauseitto
beblockedwithinthecaseincurdthatisproduced
intheabdomen,makingitunavailableforabsorption
(Pabόn andLön nerdal,2000).Contrary,research
conducted on rats established a high capacity for
zincabsorption(85to95%)fromhumanandcow
milk,anddairyinfantformula.Itispossiblethatthe
lowconcentrationofzincinhumanmilkcontributes
to better absorption because it is homeostatically
controlled,andsmallquantitiesarebetterabsorbed
thanlarge(Cashman,2002b).

Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 119
 Theconcentrationofcopperinmilkisalsore-
ducedby50 %inthefirstthreedaysof lactation,
butunlikeironandzinc,additionofcoppertoani-
malfeedincreasesitscontentinmilk.Thereislittle
information on the content of absorbed copper in
thehumanbody.Experimentsonratsshowed83%
absorptionfromhumanmilk,76%fromcowmilk,
and86to87 %fromdairyinfant formula (Cash-
man,2002b).
 Manganesecontentishigherincolostrum(100
to160µg/L)thaninmilk(20to50µg/L),reduced
bymorethen50%inthefirstthreedaysoflacta-
tion.Incowmilk67%of themanganeseisbound
tocasein,1%toglobularfatmembranes,14 %to
wheyproteins,and18%to low molecular weight
fraction. Research results show that manganese
absorption from human milk in healthy adults
amounts to 8.2±2.9 % and is significantly higher
thanfromcowmilk(2.4±1.7%),whilemanganese
absorptionfromdairyinfantformulaamounted to
1.7±5.9 %. Nevertheless, the absolute content of
theabsorbedmanganese fromdairyinfant formula
andcowmilkwashigherthanfromhumanmilkbe-
causeofitshigher inherent concentrationinthose
typesofmilk.Ontheotherhand,studiesconducted
onratsdidnotshow any significant differencesin
absorbedmanganesefromhumanandcowmilkand,
alsodairyinfantformula(Cashman,2002b).
 Selenium in plants is affected by the content
andavailabilityoftheelementinsoilwhileselenium
contentofmilkisaffectedbytheseleniumcontent
infeedsanditsavailability(Re ykdaletal.,2011).
Also, processing of milk can diminish selenium
concentration (Navarro-Alarcon and Ca brera-
Vi qu e, 2008). Selenium is linked to the enzyme
glutathioneperoxidase(12%ofthetotalcontent).
Lessthan0.1%oftotalseleniumcontentisbound
tofat(Cashman,2002b).
 Theiodinecontentdependsontheseasonand
dietaryintake;itvariesfrom20to>4000µg/L.The
mostofiodineinmilk(80to90%)isfoundinin-
organicform;another5to13%isboundtopro-
teinsbycovalentbondorweakintermolecularbonds
(Cashman,2002b).
 Thechemicalformofchromiuminmilkisnot
known, although it mostly occurs in triple bond
form.Theaveragecontentofchromiumandcobalt
inmilkdependsontheirdietaryintake.
 Molybdenumcontentinmilkisboundtoxan-
thine oxidase and is dependent on feed. Average
fluorinecontentinmilkis20µg/L(rangingfrom10
to140µg/L).Approximately46to64%offluorine
contentinmilkispresentasfreeion,theremaining
isboundtoproteins(Cashman,2002b).Littleis
knownaboutthechemicalformsofcobalt,arsenic,
nickel, silicon and boron in milk. The amounts of
theseelementsinmilkanddairyproductsareshown
inTables8to12.
 Littleresearchisavailableontheeffectsofthe
lactationstage,nutritionalstatus, andenvironmen-
talandgeneticfactorsonthecontentoftheseele-
ments.
Nutritional importance of trace elements present
in milk and dairy products
 Aswithmajorelements,thebestwaytodeter-
minethenutritionalimportanceoftraceelementsis
Table9.Averageconcentrationofsometraceelementsinconcentratedmilk(Hollandetal.,1995)
Traceelement
Milk
Pasteurized
skimmed
Powdered
skimmed Evaporated Condensed
Iron(mg/100g) 0.05 0.27 0.26 0.23
Copper(mg/100g) traces traces 0.02 traces
Zinc(mg/100g) 0.4 4.0 0.9 1.0
Manganese(mg/100g) traces traces traces traces
Selenium(µg/100g) 1.0 11 3.0 3.0
Iodine(µg/100g) 15 150 11 74

120 Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 (2012)
tocomparetheircontentinmilkanddairyproducts
(Tables8to12)withtherecommendeddailyallow-
ance(Table13).
 Ironasanessentialtraceelement participates
ascatalystinseveralmetabolicreactions.Asacom-
ponentofhemoglobin,myoglobin, citochrome and
otherproteins,ironplaysan important role inthe
transport,storageandutilisationofoxygen.Itisalso
aco-factorofmanyenzymes(BatesandPrentice,
1996).Milkand dairyproductsare poorsourceof
iron.Irondeficiencyinthehumanbodyisoneofthe
mostcommonhealthissues,occurringininfantsand
childrenbecauseoffastgrowthandlowdietaryin-
take.Thisproblemcanbepreventedbyadditionof
irontodairyinfantformulassinceadditionalascor-
bate in infant formulas improves iron absorption
(Bermejoetal.,2002).
Zincisveryimportantforgrowth,sexualdevel-
opment,thehealingofwoundsaswellasnormalfunc-
tioningoftheimmunesystemandotherphysiologi-
calprocesses.Zincisacomponentofthehormone
insulin.Itassistsinthefunctioningofseveralother
hormonesthatareimportant forreproductionand
synthesisofDNA,RNAandproteins(Salgueiroet
al., 2002). It is also a co-factor of many enzymes
that are included in most of metabolic processes.
Dairyproductssuchasmilk,cheeseandyoghurtare
veryimportantinhumannutrition,but an insuffi-
cientsourceofzinc.Itisestimatedthatinwestern
countriesthecontributionofdairyproductstothe
totalzincintakerangesfrom19to31%(Cashman,
2002b).
 Copperisessentialelement importantforthe
absorptionofironandascofactorofenzymesinglu-
cosemetabolismandsynthesisofhemoglobin,con-
nectivetissuesandphospholipids(Solaimanetal.,
2001).Copperdeficiencyinthehumanbodyisvery
rare,occurringonlyincasesoflong-termstarvation.
Milkanddairyproductsareapoorsourceofcopper
(DavisandMertz,1987)(Tablica9).
 Manganese is a specific enzyme co-factor in-
volvedinthesynthesisofmucopolysaccharides,and
a non-specific co-factor for many other enzymes.
Thereareseveralknownmanganesemetaloenzymes
like arginase, glutamine synthetase, phosphoen-
lopyruvatedecarboxilaseandmanganesesuperoxide
dismutase (Aschner and Aschner, 1991). Man-
ganesecanbefoundinsignificantquantitiesinall
foodstuffs.Itsdeficiencyhasnotbeenrecordedasa
causeofdisturbanceordisease.Cowmilkisapoor
source of manganese. Its contribution to the total
manganeseintakeinwesterncountriesislow(1to
3%).Ofthetotaldietaryintakeofmanganeseonly
3to5% aresuccessfullyabsorbed.The remaining
quantitiesareeliminatedfromthebodythroughfae-
ces(Auetal.,2008).
Selenium is the main component of the en-
zyme glutathione peroxidase, which is present in
manytypesoftissues.Incombinationwithvitamin
E,catalaseandsuperoxide dismutase,itactsasan
antioxidant (So me r and Í na m, 2000). After die-
taryintake,seleniumisconvertedintoorganicform,
mostlyasseleno-methionine,whichisthenincorpo-
ratedintoproteins(Petreraetal.,2009).Insome
Table10.Averageconcentrationsofsometraceelementsincream(Hollandetal.,1995)
Traceelement
Contentin100gofcream
Freshcream Sour
cream
Sterilized
canned UHT
≈10%fat ≈20%fat ≈35-48%fat ≈60%fat ≈20%fat ≈25%fat ≈32%fat
Iron(mg) 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.8 1.0
Copper(mg) traces traces traces 0,09 traces traces traces
Zinc(mg) 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.1 0.4
Manganese(mg) traces traces traces traces traces traces traces
Selenium(µg) traces traces traces traces traces traces traces

Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 121
areasofChinawithlowseleniumconcentrationsin
thesoiltherearemanycasesoftheKeshandisease
causedbyseleniumdeficiency.
 Low selenium concentrations in the human
bodyhavealsobeenobservedinNew Zealandand
Finland,countrieswithlowseleniumconcentrations
inthesoil.TheRDAofseleniumisshownin the
Table13.
Iodineisanessentialcomponentofthyroidhor-
mones that are important for the control of basal
metabolismandreproduction.Iodine deficiencyin
thehumanorganismcanresultinenlargementofthe
thyroid gland. On the other hand, a high concen-
trationofdietaryiodinecanleadtoaslowdown in
thyroidglandfunction(Reidetal.,2008;Sor iguer
etal.,2010).Iodineistheonlytrace elementthat
isconsideredtobeexcessivelypresentinmilk,due
inparttotheexcessive use oforganiciodidesalts
andiodophorfordisinfection.TheRDAforiodine
isshowninTable13.Thecontributionofmilkand
dairyproductstototaliodineintakerangesfrom6to
7%inGermanyto37%inGreatBritain(Schöne
etal.,2009).
Molybdenum is also an essential component of
severalenzymes,includingxanthineoxidereductase,
aldehydeoxidaseandsulphiteoxidase,whereitoc-
cursasprostheticgroupofmolybdopterin(Hilleet
al.,2010).Itisnotknownwhetherthehumanbody
needsmolybdenumassuchorasmolybdopterin.
The RDA of molybdenum is shown in Table
13.Milkcontributessignificantlytototalmolybde-
numintake-asmuchas36%inwesterncountries
(Cashman,2002b;Yoshida etal.,2006.).
 It is assumed that chromium is an essential
nutrientinhumannutrition.Lackofchromiumcan
causeproblemswithlactosetolerance.Cobaltisthe
componentofvitaminB12,whichisitsonlyknown
function. Fluorine is accumulated in hard tissues,
suchasbonesandteeth, and althoughitisnotan
essentialelement,itisconsideredimportantbecause
itpreventstoothdecay.TherearenoRDAsbecause
limitingfactorhasnotbeen determined. Itsnutri-
tional function is not yet known. Arsenic, nickel,
silicon,andboronareessentialelementsinanimals,
soitcanbeassumedthatthisisalsothecase with
thehumanbody(Caseyetal.,1995). The nutri-
Table11.Averagecontentofsometraceelementsinbutter,yogurtanddairyicecream(Hollandetal.,
1995)
Traceelement
Contentin100gofproduct
Butter Yoghurt Dairyicecream
Iron(mg) 0.2 0.1 0.1
Copper(mg) 0.03 traces 0.02
Zinc(mg) 0.1 0.7 0.3
Manganese(mg) traces traces traces
Selenium(µg) traces 2.0 1.5
Iodine(µg) 38 63 -
Table12.Averagecontentofsometraceelementsinsomecheesetypes(Hollandetal.,1995)
Traceelement
Contentin100gofcheese
Brie Cheddar Cream Cottage Edam Feta Gouda Parmigiano Stilton
Iron(mg) 0.8 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 1.1 0.3
Copper(mg) traces 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.07 traces 0.33 0.18
Zinc(mg) 2.2 2.3 0.5 0.6 2.2 0.9 1.8 5.3 2.5
Manganese(mg) traces traces traces traces traces traces traces 0,1 traces
Selenium(µg) 3.6a12 1.0 4.0 6.4a5.0a8.0a11 11

122 Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 (2012)
tionalfunctionsoftheseelementsarestillunknown
andtheirRDAshavenotyetbeendefined.Milkand
dairyproductsdonotprovideasignificantcontribu-
tiontotheirtotalintake,exceptforchromium(21%)
andnickel(11%)(Cashman,2002b).
Conclusion
 Althoughthesubjectisveryimportantthereare
nomanyrecentlypublishedpaperswhicharedeal-
ingwithmineralsinmilkanddairyproducts.Essen-
tialmineralelements,includingsodium,potassium,
chloride, calcium, manganese, selenium, iodine,
chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, fluorine, arsenic,
nickel,siliconandboron,canbefoundin all milk
typesanddairyproducts.Theyarepresentinthe
formofinorganicionsandsalts,orarepartoforgan-
ic molecules like proteins, fats, carbohydrates and
nucleicacid.Sodium,potassium,chlorideandiodine
canbefoundinmilkandinfantformulasinachemi-
Table13.Recommendeddailyallowancesofparticulartraceelements(InstituteofMedicine,2011)
Traceelements
Category
Age(Years)
Iron(mg)
Zinc(mg)
Iodine(µg)
Selenium(µg)
Copper(µg)
Manganese(mg)
Fluoride(mg)
Chromium(µg)
Molybdenum(µg)
Infants 0,0-0,5 0.27 2 110 15 200 0.003 0.01 0.2 2
0,5-1,0 11 3 130 20 220 0.6 0.5 5.5 3
Children 1-3 7 3 90 20 340 1.2 0.7 11 17
4-8 10 5 90 30 440 1.5 1 15 22
Males
9-13 8 8 120 40 700 1.9 2 25 34
14-18 11 11 150 55 890 2.2 3 35 43
19-30 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 35 45
31-50 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 35 45
51-70 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 30 45
>70 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 30 45
Females
9-13 8 8 120 40 700 1.6 2 21 34
14-18 15 9 150 55 890 1.6 3 24 43
19-30 18 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 25 45
31-50 18 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 25 45
51-70 8 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 20 45
>70 8 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 20 45
Pregnancy
14-18 27 12 220 60 1000 2.0 3 29 50
19-30 27 11 220 60 1000 2.0 3 30 50
31-50 27 11 220 60 1000 2.0 3 30 50
Lactation
14-18 10 13 290 70 1300 2.6 3 44 50
19-30 9 12 290 70 1300 2.6 3 45 50
31-50 9 12 290 70 1300 2.6 3 45 50

Š. ZAMBERLIN et al.: Mineral elements in milk and dairy products, Mljekarstvo 62 (2), 111-125 123
calformwhichallowsanalmostentireabsorptionin
thehumanbody.Thebioavailabilityofcalciumand
magnesiumhasnotyetbeensufficientlyresearched.
Amongsheep,goatandcowmilkthebioavailability
ofironandzincfromcowmilkisthehighest,how-
ever,significantlylower than in human milk. Very
little information is available on the bioavailability
ofcopper,manganese,selenium,fluorineandother
traceelementspresentinmilkanddairyproducts.
However,itisassumedthatlactose,ascorbate,cit-
rate,phosphopeptidesandlactoferrinhaveasignifi-
cantimpactontheabsorptionofmineralelements.
Furthermore,milkdoesnotcontainsubstancessuch
asphitatesand polyphenols,whichstrongly inhibit
theabsorptionofmineralsinhumanbody.
Mineralni sastav mlijeka
i mliječnih proizvoda
Sažetak
 Mineralni elementi se u mlijeku i mliječnim
proizvodimanalazeuoblikuanorganskihionaisoli,
ilikaodioorganskih molekulakaoštosubjelanče-
vine,masti,ugljikohidratiinukleinskekiseline.Ke-
mijskaformaukojoj su mineralnielementiprisut-
nijevrlovažnajeronjojovisiapsorpcijauželucui
timenjihovobiološkoiskorištenje.Mineralnisastav
mlijeka nije konstantan i ovisi o stadiju laktacije,
hranidbenom statusu životinje, okolišnim uvjetima
i genetskim čimbenicima. Cilj ovog rada je prika-
zati dosadašnje rezultate istraživanja koncentracija,
kemijske forme i prehrambene važnosti pojedinih
mineralnihelemenatakojisuprisutniurazličitimvr-
stamamlijekaimliječnihproizvoda.
Ključne riječi:mlijeko,mliječniproizvodi,
mineralnielementi,prehrambenavažnost
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