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Academic Research & Writing Skills
Part I
Toni Kennedy
Manager Library & Information Services (DOCLIS) with the NSW Department of
Corrective Services
This paper, presented in two parts over two issues, will focus on the writing skills
required for communicating your re-search clearly and effectively.
Academic writing is formal writing. Many novice writers have trouble telling informal
writing apart from formal writing. They resort to informal writing, since it’s easier and
more familiar.
Essays, reports, presentations and research papers are just some examples of
documents written in the academic style. Academic writing, when used appropriately,
presents a polished and professional image. Academic writing skills encompass strong
composition, excellent grammar, and a consistent stylistic approach, providing proper
credits and references.
Are you grappling with how to communicate your research clearly and effectively?
These guidelines will explore ways of developing your skills for presenting a convincing
and cohesive argument, creating a logical structure, and achieving coherence and
cohesion between and within the text.
Part I will focus on the following:
Process Overview
Research
Search Strategy
Boolean Searching
Internet Research
Organising the Information
Taking Notes
Essay Plan/Outline
Example of Note Taking & Essay Planning Process
Process Overview
The following procedure is useful when writing an extended essay or assignment.
Task Product
Read the question and understand what you are
required to do. Think about the subject, the purpose
and the audience.
Essay subject.
Think about what you know about the subject. Write
it down in some way. Diagrams or notes.
Go to the library and find relevant books or articles. Reading list.
Find the books on your reading list and study them. List of materials studied.
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 1
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 2
Make notes on these books and articles.
Record full details of the materials you use for the
reference list.
Notes.
Organise your essay/assignment. Essay plan/Outline.
Type or write your first draft. First draft.
Write up your reference list using the appropriate
referencing system (possibly using software to
assist e.g. Procite, Endnote, Zotero)
Reference list
Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other
members of your class and your lecturer if possible. List of revisions/changes.
Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any
comments that were made in your discussions.
Produce your second draft.
Second draft.
Proofread your draft. Assignment with changes
marked.
Produce a final typed version. Final assignment.
Check everything. Hand in.
esearch
When you have understood the question
ur
ct
Many sources are available in several e
e
d
ou will probably start by looking at
secondary sources, for example
at
to
Have a firm concept of what it is
g for - have it as a
n or something specific?
you
iate database –
vanced
R
or what you are expected to write, you
will need to do some reading to find out
what has been published in your field of
study. It is most unlikely that you will
find the information you need about yo
topic in just one specific section of the
library. You need to think and look as
widely as you can about possible subje
areas that may be relevant to your topic.
formats - as hard copy or on-line via th
Internet. In the last few years there has
been a great increase in the amount of
information that can be found on-line.
Using the Internet, it is possible to
search for the details of books, journal
articles and conference proceedings, as
well as for data such as statistics, maps
and diagrams. The number of journal
titles that you are able to access on-lin
is growing rapidly. Internet gateways
and subject databases can also be goo
starting points for your research.
Y
dictionaries, encyclopaedias and online
databases (indexes and full text) th
you can use to help you to find the
primary sources - the full text of
articles, books, government and
company reports, etc. that you need
read for your essay. Use the library
computer catalogue to find useful
books, audiovisual items and journal
articles for your topic.
Search Strategy
oyou are lookin
sentence
o Are you looking for general
informatio
o What type of 'document' are
looking for - article citation, full
text article, book
o List synonyms for each concept
o Select the appropr
Medline, PsychInfo etc
o Do the search, preferably using the
individual database’s ad
techniques (eg. Boolean or phrase
searching or subject headings)
o Refine the search if necessary
o If you do not find anything
relevant, try a different search
engine
Boolean Searching
the logical
relationship among search terms. On
s for
g
operators:
• AND
can be visually described
by using Venn diagrams, as shown
Boolean logic refers to
Internet search engines, the option
constructing logical relationships amon
search terms extend beyond the
traditional practice of Boolean searching.
Boolean logic consists of three logical
• OR
• NOT
Each operator
below.
OR
e.g. college OR university
records in
which AT LEAST ONE of the search
y
In this search, we will retrieve
terms is present. We are searching on
the terms college and also universit
since documents containing either of
these words might be relevant. OR logic
is most commonly used to search for
synonymous terms or concepts.
AND
e.g. cats NOT dogs
In this search, we retrieve records in
which ONLY ONE of the terms is
present. This is illustrated by the shaded
area with the word cats representing all
the records containing the word "cats".
No records are retrieved in which the
word "dogs" appears, even if the word
"cats" appears there too
Internet Research
Here are a few basic guidelines to
remember:
o Don't rely exclusively on Net
resources
o Narrow your research topic before
logging on
o Know your subject directories and
search engines
o Keep a detailed record of sites you
visit and the sites you use
o Double-check all URLs that you put
in your paper
The following points are guidelines for
evaluating specific resources you find on
the Net. The key to the whole process is
to think critically about what you find on
the Net; if you want to use it, you are
responsible for ensuring that it is
reliable and accurate.
o Authority
o Affiliation
o Audience Level
o Currency
o Content Reliability/Accuracy
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 3
Organising the Information
Taking Notes
B. Hamlet is aware of his own
faults, whereas others are self-
satisfied.
Good notes should be accurate, clear
and concise. They should show the
organisation of the text, and the
relationship between the ideas. The
main reasons why note-taking is
important include:
o When you are reading or listening,
taking notes helps you concentrate.
In order to take notes - to write
something sensible - you must
understand the text.
o Taking notes helps you to make
sense of the text. It does not mean
writing down every word. You need
to actively decide what is important
and how is related to what you
have already written.
o Notes help you to maintain a
permanent record of what you have
read or listened to. This is useful
when you are including information
you have read or heard into your
essay.
When you're reading, first survey the
text to find the main points and the
subsidiary points and how they are
related. Then, reduce the points to
notes. Make sure links and relationships
between the ideas are shown. Good
notes need to be organised
appropriately. Make sure you write down
where your notes have been taken from.
It will save you time when you need to
check your facts or write a reference list.
Essay Plan/Outline
Essay outlines are meant to serve you
and no one else. When you produce your
outline, you should follow certain basic
principles. Here is an example of an
outline for an essay on Hamlet:
Thesis: Despite Hamlet's highly
developed moral nature, he becomes
morally compromised while delaying his
revenge.
I. Introduction: Hamlet's father asks
Hamlet not only to seek vengeance
but also to keep his mind
untainted.
II. Hamlet has a highly developed
moral nature.
A. Hamlet is idealistic.
C. Hamlet does not want to take
revenge without grounds for
acting.
III. Hamlet becomes morally
compromised while delaying.
A. The turning point in Hamlet's
moral decline is his killing of
Polonius.
B. Hamlet's moral decline
continues when he sends
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
to their death.
C. Hamlet already began his moral
decline before the turning point
in the play, the killing of
Polonius.
1. Hamlet treats women badly.
2. Hamlet criticizes others in the
play for acting falsely to get
ahead, but in adopting the
disguise of madness he, too, is
presenting a false face to the
world.
IV. Though Hamlet becomes more
compromised the longer he delays,
killing the king would have been a
morally questionable act.
V. Conclusion: The play Hamlet
questions the adequacy of a
system of ethics based on honour
and revenge.
This is an example of a sentence
outline. Another kind of outline is
the topic outline. It consists of
fragments rather than full
sentences. Topic outlines are more
open-ended than sentence
outlines: they leave much of the
working out of the argument for
the writing stage.
Example of a Note Taking & Essay
Planning Process
The following is an example of a method
that can be used when taking notes.
1. Number all articles that you read
from 1 onwards – they don’t have
to be in any order
2. As you read the articles, make a
list of the topics within the articles
that are useful for your essay. Note
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 4
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 5
the number of the article beside
the topic.
3. The result will be a list of topics
with an index to the articles (i.e.
which article has information on
which topic). The list will also show
which topics are the most popular.
4. Use the resulting topic list to
decide how you will organise the
information. This will direct you to
what articles you need to consult
for the information on each topic
(see examples below).
Note Taking Example: Essay on Terrorism & Corrections
Topic Number
Topic Description Article Number
1 Definitions of terrorism 1,12,15,20
2 Supermax conditions 2, 5, 33
3 Security for terrorist inmates 3, 8, 12, 20
4 Types of terrorism (domestic, international) 3, 7, 11,12, 14
5 Legislation governing terrorist inmates 6,11,21
6 Conditions for inmates in Australia 7, 9, 12, 13, 17
7 Case study of an inmate 7, 13, 16
8 Conditions for inmates overseas 8, 22, 25, 28
9 Human rights concerns 13, 25, 26, 30
Essay Plan/Outline Example Using the Note Taking Method above
1. Introduction What, how, why etc
State overall position/argument in relation to the
question and/or subject
2. Point 1
(heading?) Sub point A (Topic number 5)
Sub point B (Topic number 3)
Sub point C (Topic number 7)
3. Point 2
(heading?) Sub point A (Topic number 1)
Sub point B (Topic number 2)
Sub point C (Topic numbers 8 & 10)
4. Point 3
(heading?) Sub point A (Topic number 4)
Sub point B (Topic number 6)
Sub point C (Topic numbers 9 & 11)
5. Conclusion Restate overall position/argument
Relate position/argument to points 1-3
Note:
Part II of this paper will appear in the June 2009 issue of the Australasian Journal
of Correctional Staff Development. Topics will include: Writing skills: organising
essays; Writing skills: paragraphs; Writing skills: expressing yourself; Reference
List and Useful Links.
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 6
Academic Research & Writing Skills
Part II
Toni Kennedy
Toni Kennedy is the Manager Library & Information Services (DOCLIS) with the NSW
Department of Corrective Services
Continued from Part I which was published in May 2009 issue of this journal
Writing Skills: Organising Essays
Essays are organised differently according
to their purpose. Essays can be divided into
the following main types.
1. The descriptive essay
a. Description of object or place
b. Describing a sequence of events.
c. Describing a process
d. Describing and explaining
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
2. The argument essay
a. The balanced view
b. The persuasive essay
c. The to what extent essay.
3. Compare and contrast essays
a. The contrast essay
b. The compare essay
c. The compare and contrast essays
1. The descriptive essay
a. Description of object or place
Describe essays require you to state the
appearance of something, or to state the
major characteristics of it. Note the word
state i.e. you are not asked to comment on
the subject or to give your personal point of
view on it. Questions are often introduced
by:
Describe ....
Narrate...
Tell....
Introduction
(major aspects of the subject)
description of aspect A
description of aspect B
etc.
Conclusion
b. Describing a sequence of events
Describing a sequence of events is simply
telling a story. State clearly when events
happened or how one event caused
another. Questions may be introduced by:
Give an account of...,
Trace...,
Examine developments in...
Introduction
First situation
then A happened
then B happened
etc.
Final situation
Conclusion
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
c. Describing a process
This is like telling a story but here the
connections between the facts must be
clearly shown and explained. Group the
events into steps or stages.
Examples of such questions are:
Explain/What is the connection between....
Describe the procedures by which...
Definition of process
Main equipment/Main steps
Step One
leads to
Step Two
leads to
Step Three
Conclusion
Summary of process
d. Describing and explaining
Some of the words and phrases which
introduce this type of description are:
Explain the causes/reasons....
Account for....
Analyse the causes....
Comment on (the reasons for)....
Show that....
Show why...
Examine the effect of....
Suggest reasons for....
Why did...?
What are the implications of...?
Discuss the reasons for....
e
ain ways to organise this
type of essay.
es of A.
ur answer by specific
examples."
Example 1:
Introduction to causes of A
Discuss the causes of....
When we are asked to describe or explain
causes, factors, functions or results, th
purpose is to group the facts. Similar
causes are put together, for instance the
economic causes of a situation. There are
basically two m
The question is "Describe the caus
Illustrate yo
Cause 1 + example
Effects 1
Cause 2 with example
Effects 2
Cause 3 with examples
Effects 3
Cause 4 with example
Effects 4
etc.
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
Conclusion
Example
Introduction to causes of A
2:
Causes + examples
Transition
Effect s
Conclusion
2. The argument essay
There are two main methods of presenting
an argument, and in general the one you
actly how the
nts for and against....
ent
any
until the final
paragraph. At its simplest your essay plan
will be as follows:
or refers directly to some comments that
have been voiced on it recently.
choose will depend on ex
essay title is worded.
a. The balanced view something
If the essay title begins with
like: ainst....
Give the arguments for and ag
Assess the importance of....
argume
Examine the
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of...?
Evaluate....
Critically examine the statement that....
To what extent is...true?
Or even just the word Discuss....
Then it is clear that a balanced essay is
required. That is to say you should pres
both sides of an argument, without
necessarily committing yourself to
points of view, which should always be
based on evidence,
Introduce the argument to the reader.
e.g. why it is particularly relevant topic
nowadays
Reasons against the argument
Reasons in favour of the argument
After summarising the two sides,
state your own point of view,
k as you do
and explain why you thin
b. The persuasive essay
This second type of argumentative essay
involves stating your own point of view
immediately, and trying to convince the
reader by reasone
d argument that you are
y title will begin with
out...?
Do you agree that...?
pinion in one direction or another.
The form of the essay will be, in outline, as
follows:
Int s,
and then state your own opinion.
Explain what you plan to prove in the
essay.
right. Perhaps the essa
something like:
Give your views on....
What do you think ab
Consider whether....
Or perhaps the title itself will be so
controversial that everyone will hold a
definite o
roduce the topic briefly in general term
Reasons a rgument.
Dispose briefly of the main objections to
gainst the a
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
your case.
Reasons for your argument
the arguments to support your own view,
with evidence and examples.
Conclusion - Do not repeat your point of
view again.
End your essay with something memorable
uestion.
e.g. a quotation or a direct q
c. The to what extent essay
In this type of essay the topic is a
statement. It is obviously true but tru
never 100%. You must decide how true it
is? Are there some areas where you
disagree with the statement? If so, describe
how far you agree, a
th is
nd your points of
greement. Words used
n are:
ow true....
A possible
Introduction to problem
agreement and disa
in the questio
To what extent....
H
How far do you agree....?
answer structure is:
Aspect 1 - true
Aspect 1 - false
Aspect 2 - true
Aspect 2 - false
Aspect 3 - false
etc
Conclusion
a ‘subtraction’ sum
3. Compare and contrast essays.
a. The Contrast essay
Contrast or distinguish between questions
usually present you with two or more
terms, instruments, concepts or procedures
that are closely connected, and sometimes
e purpose of the essay is to
etween them. The
Introduction to differences between A and B
confused. Th
explain the differences b
question may be of the form:
Contrast....
Distinguish between...
What is the difference between....?
What are the differences between....?
How are ... and ... different?
A suitable answer structure would be:
Contrast A & B in term of first difference s
Contrast A & B in terms of second
difference
Contrast A & B in term third difference s of
etc
Aspect 3 - true
Conclusion
b. The Compare essay
Compare questions usually present you
with two or more terms, instruments,
concepts or procedures that are closely
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
connected, and sometimes confused. The
between them. Words used are:
have in
common?
How are ... and ... similar?
Introduction to similariti s between A and B
purpose of the essay is to explain the
similarities
Compare....
What features do ... and ...
What are the similarities between....?
A suitable answer structure would be:
e
Compare A & B
in terms of first similarity
Compare A & B
in terms of second similarity
Compare A & B
in terms of third similarity
etc.
Conclusion
c. The compare and contrast essay
re similar and different.
Compare and contrast....
here are two main ways to answer such
questions:
Exampl
Introduction to differences and similarities
between A
Compare and contrast essays require you
to indicate areas in which the things to be
compared a
T
e 1:
and B
Difference 1
Difference 2
Difference 3
etc.
Transition
Similari 1 ty
Similari 2 ty
Similari 3 ty
etc.
Conclusion
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
Exampl
Introduction to differences and similarities
between A
Point 1
e 2:
and B
Point 2
Aspect 1 - similarities
Aspect 1 - di erences ff
Aspect 2 - similarities
Aspect 2 - di erences ff
Aspect 3 - similarities
Aspect 3 - di erences ff
etc
Conclusion
xample of a Journal Article Structure
on
Example of a Research Article
on iew arch design, subjects)
n
Writing Skills: Paragraphs
A paragraph usually contains a general idea
ving
On
e .
Paragraphs are used to separate main
phs
Having identified the components of your
to a
is
Introduction the
Point 3
Conclusi
Structure
Introducti
Literature rev
Methodology (Rese
Results
Discussio
Conclusion
in one sentence, and 4 - 5 supporting
sentences which expand this idea by gi
explanation, details and/or examples to
support the main idea. Length can vary.
the page, the paragraph is a solid block of
writing (like this!) To start a new
paragraph, you should leave a whole lin
and start at the beginning of the line after
ideas. A new paragraph signals to the
reader that a new idea is about to be
discussed. The break between paragra
gives the reader time to take in each idea.
written text, use the resulting organisation
of concepts to set up the best possible
sequence for your text. Introduce each
paragraph with a topic sentence which
introduces the topic. There is a pattern
series of paragraphs, which you will find in
the diagram below:
E
Introduction
opic/question: D
T cuss…..
Preliminary topic sentence using key word(s) from
uestion
topic/q
What
Identify the elements/issues that will be examined
Why
Explain why this combination of elements is significant, or
why they are being examined together in this paper
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
How
Prepare your reader for what is to come, by providing a brief
outline of the way you have addressed the question, and
touching on each of your main points in turn by ascribing
them a key word or phrase
Main point
(Heading - optional) Topic sentence incorporating the key word or phrase
ascribed to the single main point covered in this paragraph.
Keep this sentence short, simple, clear and strong.
Support sentences which may be more complex but must
relate in an obvious way to the single main point:
- detail(s)
- example(s)
- explanation(s)
- elaboration
- illustration(s)
Concluding sentence which 'wraps up' the examination of
this particular point and moves towards the next (though you
do not need to contrive a 'link sentence' if you paragraphs are
already logically sequenced)
Conclusion
Concluding paragraph which 'wraps up' the examination of
the topic or argument.
Writing Skills: Expressing Yourself
1. Practise using your own words in
good English to express your
thoughts.
2. Decide on a particular idea that you
have in your mind eg:
o your research topic
(investigative)
o a technical concept
(scientific)
o an observation about a person or
event (detached)
o your views on a current issue
(critical)
o your memories of an experience
(experiential)
o your feelings about a certain
incident (personal)
3. Start writing immediately. Write only
for yourself. Do not be concerned
about grammar or structure, at this
stage. Think of this as brainstorming
- in sentences rather than
diagrammatically. You can re-order
the thoughts later, but now it is
important to give words to what you
are thinking. Write only until you
feel you have no more to say right
now.
4. If you have trouble with this stage
try talking onto a tape recorder,
then use any portions of the tape
that you feel expresses your idea
well, or closely.
5. Practise looking (or listening for)
your most clearly expressed ideas.
What is it that makes them clear?
What makes them communicate?
Try this feature again next time.
6. Read over what you have written.
Keep the best and cross out the
rest. Re-order the points if
necessary. Go from step 2 again to
fill in any gaps in the logical
sequence of your idea.
7. Now you are ready to finally
structure, edit, and polish your
writing according to its purpose. For
example:
Personal journal entry
(informal, unstructured)
Academic journal article
(formal, logical structure)
Report (formal, informative
sequence)
Essay (formal, critical
argument )
Thesis (different chapter,
different purpose)
Review of literature (formal
summary, critique and
juxtaposition)
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
This is also a useful series of steps to go
through if you are preparing a talk or
presentation. Either write or use a cassette
recorder. The value of this exercise is that,
by putting your own words to an idea you
reach a more thorough understanding of
the idea, and can more easily express it
again when required.
A Variation for Non-English Speaking
Writers
Try the above steps using your own
language, if other than English. Take notice
of the differences in the process for each
language. What exactly do you do in your
mind when looking for words in each
language? Once you have an idea of your
own thinking methods, you will have better
control over using words to express
yourself in both languages.
Reference List
At the end of all pieces of academic writing,
you need a list of materials that you have
used or referred to. This usually has a
heading: references but may be
bibliography or works cited depending on
the conventions of the system you use.
The object of your writing is for you to say
something for yourself using the ideas of
the subject, for you to present ideas you
have learned in your own way. The
emphasis should be on working with other
people’s ideas, rather than reproducing
their words. The ideas and people that you
refer to need to be made explicit by a
system of referencing. This consists of a list
of materials that you have used at the end
of the piece of writing and references to
this list at various points throughout the
essay. The purpose of this is to supply the
information needed to allow the reader user
to find the sources used for the essay.
Therefore, at the end of your assignment
you need a list of the materials you have
used - a bibliography or a reference list.
There are many ways of writing a list of
references, which will vary according to the
rules of the institution or journal that you
are writing for. Some examples include the
American Psychological Association (APA),
Harvard and Vancouver.
Useful Links
http://www.ncistudent.net/StudySkills/Writi
ngSkills/Introduction.htm
http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/advise.html
http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/library/instruction/r
esearchinternet.html