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Perceived Physical Health, Psychological Distress, and Social Support Among Prison Officers
Abstract
This research examines perceived physical health, psychological distress, and social support among prison officers in the United Kingdom. The study found that prison officers reported poor perceived physical health and a high level of psychological distress. There were significant correlations between measures of perceived physical health and a measure of psychological distress (indicating that as perceived physical health decreased, psychological distress increased). There was some evidence that social support from within the prison moderated the relationship between perceived physical health and psychological distress, whereas social support from significant others did not. Future research and clinical implications of these findings are considered.
... Support refers to being able to rely on another person, having someone to talk to, being important to another, or having a role model (Harvey, 2014). Support can be provided by colleagues, management and through supervision (Lambert et al., 2021). ...
... Support can be provided by colleagues, management and through supervision (Lambert et al., 2021). Support provides a network of beneficial connections with others, providing guidance, direction and feedback, in turn boosting self-esteem and confidence, leading to increased job performance and job satisfaction (Brough & Williams, 2007;Cohen et al., 2000;Harvey, 2014). Support can also aid as a positive resource for dealing with workrelated stress and pressures, providing a 'stress-buffering' function (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). ...
... A review of the full text papers retrieved from this search focused on: the demands, stresses and burnout experienced in the role (Brough & Williams, 2007;Finney et al., 2013;Keinan & Malach-Pines, 2007;, the relationship between perceived support, stress, job satisfaction and organisational trust and commitment (Lambert & Hogan, 2009;Lambert et al., 2021;Harvey, 2014;Liu et al., 2013; and coping strategies and resources (Jaegers et al., 2020;Sygit-Kowalkowska et al., 2017). These studies were not included in the review as they did not formally answer the research question. ...
Prison is an integral part of the criminal justice system. When we consider prison, we tend to focus on incarcerated prisoners and their needs. The pressures experienced by prison officers, taking care of prisoners, have continued to intensify, causing prison officers to experience high levels of work-related stress, mental and physical ill health and concerns for their own safety. It is therefore surprising the support and supervision needs of prison officers, working with prisoners within prison environments, have been overlooked. A systematic search of literature was conducted using eight electronic databases: Medline, Social Policy and Practice, AMED, PsycINFO, Pub Med, EMBASE, ASSIA and Sage publications. Grey literature was also searched in addition to reference lists of retrieved full articles. All searches were conducted during May 2021. This systematic review did not yield any studies that met all the inclusion and assessment criteria. Although one paper explored the support and supervision practices for prison officers working within specialist prison environments; there were no papers on the support and supervision needs of typical prison officers, working within typical prison environments. The result of this review highlights a major gap in the current literature and in our understanding of the emotional support and supervision needs of all prison officers. It is now imperative that these needs are identified and understood with the aim of providing a planned and consistent model of care, combining emotional wellbeing training, support and supervision that is beneficial and meaningful for all prison officers. In doing so, it is hoped, to increase prison officer morale, reduce physical and mental ill health and lead to greater job satisfaction and retention of prison officers, ultimately, providing a more restorative and supportive prison environment.
... Particularly high levels of burnout and mental health problems have been found in prison officers [1][2][3][4] and their frequent exposure to violence means that post-traumatic stress disorder is common [5]. Recent studies using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) [6] to assess the mental health of staff working in two separate prisons in England found that 57% [7] and 95% [8] of respondents, respectively, met the criteria for mental health problems at a level at which some intervention is recommended. Although these studies had small samples, their findings give cause for concern for the well-being of correctional staff. ...
... Support from managers or co-workers was not a significant predictor of mental health status. This is surprising as the protective effects of social support in correctional settings has been previously highlighted [7,10,17,23]. As with control and change, however, the extent of support available to officers, particularly from managers, may be insufficient to benefit their mental health. ...
... In accordance with the findings of other research conducted in UK prisons, the caseness rate of mental health problems found in this study was considerably higher than many other 'highly stressed' occupational groups, including other emergency and security services [6,7,22]. Symptoms such as depression, insomnia, anxiety and social dysfunction will not only impair the quality of life of prison officers, but also have serious implications for the well-being of co-workers and the prison population. ...
Background:
Research findings indicate that working as a prison officer can be highly stressful, but the aspects of work that predict their mental health status are largely unknown.
Aims:
To examine, using elements of the demands-resources model, the extent to which work pressure and several potential resources (i.e. control, support from managers and co-workers, role clarity, effective working relationships and positive change management) predict mental health in a sample of UK prison officers.
Methods:
The Health and Safety Executive Management Standards Indicator Tool was used to measure job demands and resources. Mental health was assessed by the General Health Questionnaire-28. The effects of demands and resources on mental health were examined via linear regression analysis with GHQ score as the outcome.
Results:
The study sample comprised 1267 prison officers (86% male). Seventy-four per cent met 'caseness' criteria for mental health problems. Job demands, poor interpersonal relationships, role ambiguity and, to a lesser extent, low job control and poor management of change were key predictors of mental health status.
Conclusions:
The findings of this study can help occupational health practitioners and psychologists develop structured interventions to improve well-being among prison officers.
... The literature suggests that social support is important for staff to cope with the strains and frustrations that arise from working in a prison (Keinan and Maslach-Pines 2007;Lambert et al. 2016). Social support is a resource that can provide care, guidance, and encouragement for officers in doing their job and prevent or reduce work stress (Harvey 2014;Neveu 2007). A lack of social support can make officers feel isolated and increase the effects of other job demands at work (Lambert et al. 2016). ...
... Using cross-sectional data is highly common in correctional staff studies (Armstrong and Griffin 2004;Cullen et al. 1985;Dollard and Winefield 1998;Hartley et al. 2013;Harvey 2014;Higgins et al. 2012;Gerstein et al. 1987;Griffin 2006;Grossi et al. 1996;Keinan and Maslach-Pines 2007;Lambert 2004;Lambert and Hogan 2009;Lambert andPaoline 2005, 2008;Lambert et al. 2006Lambert et al. , 2016Misis et al. 2013;Paoline et al. 2006Paoline et al. , 2015Neveu 2007;Slate and Vogel 1997;Tewksbury and Higgins 2006;Triplett et al. 1996;Van Voorhis et al. 1991;Wells et al. 2009;Worley 2011, 2016). While not longitudinal, these studies and the current study are guided by theory on the proposed direction of the causal direction of the relationships between the independent and dependent variables. ...
... Additionally, as was the case in the current study, the scope of the participants has been limited in past studies, ranging from a single correctional facility to a handful of ones (Cullen et al. 1985;Gerstein et al. 1987;Grossi et al. 1996;Harvey 2014;Hartley et al. 2013;Higgins et al. 2012;Lambert 2004;Lambert andHogan 2009, 2010;Lambert et al. 2016;Lambert andPaoline 2005, 2008;Misis et al. 2013;Paoline et al. 2006Paoline et al. , 2015Tewksbury and Higgins 2006;Triplett et al. 1996;Worley 2011, 2016). This is not to imply that the current and past results are suspect. ...
While most correctional officers are professional in their interactions with inmates, some employees cross the line and engage in boundary violations, which potentially put everyone at risk. Using questionnaires collected from 501 correctional officers employed by the Texas Department of Criminal Justice, this study examined the relationship between correctional officers’ perceptions of boundary violations and work stress. Ordinary Least Squares regression results indicated that higher levels of work stress were reported by respondents who perceived that coworkers behaved inappropriately with inmates, who reported higher role strain, who feared victimization, and who reported closely following organizational rules. Female officers and officers who viewed inmates as amiable rather than manageable were also found to experience high levels of work stress. The findings suggest that correctional supervisors are likely to be more effective than line staff in developing and sustaining a culture of professionalism and civility, which can lessen the stressors for those working behind prison walls.
... Prior research on correction officers' psychological distress has predominately identified the impact of social support and other work-related factors (e.g., shift, overtime, etc.) on officers' physical and behavioral health (e.g., Bourbonnais et al., 2007;Dollard & Winefield, 1995, 1998Goldberg et al., 1996;Harvey, 2014;Liu et al., 2013;Peeters et al., 1995). Yet, along with the routine stress, correction officers work in potentially dangerous environments and face an elevated risk of exposure to violence. ...
... Departments should also consider implementing routine, mandated screenings for psychological distress and adopting other early intervention systems (Harvey, 2014). Mandated screenings would need to be implemented with caution, care, and consideration of ethical and practical concerns (e.g., confidentiality, backlash). ...
... Prior research on correction officers' psychological distress has predominately identified the impact of social support and other work-related factors (e.g., shift, overtime, etc.) on officers' physical and behavioral health (e.g., Bourbonnais et al., 2007;Dollard & Winefield, 1995, 1998goldberg et al., 1996;Harvey, 2014;Liu et al., 2013;Peeters et al., 1995). Yet, along with the routine stress, correction officers work in potentially dangerous environments and face an elevated risk of exposure to violence. ...
... Departments should also consider implementing routine, mandated screenings for psychological distress and adopting other early intervention systems (Harvey, 2014). Mandated screenings would need to be implemented with caution, care, and consideration of ethical and practical concerns (e.g., confidentiality, backlash). ...
Correction officers work in an occupational context where they are often exposed to violence; however, prior research assessing the relationship between violence exposure and officers’ mental health has been limited. The current study sought to better understand the impact of direct and indirect exposure to violence and suicide on psychological health outcomes. Analyzing data from a random sample of 317 correction officers in Massachusetts, findings indicate that personally knowing other officers who died by suicide is associated with greater anger, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Increased strain-based work–family conflict and departmental discipline were also associated with elevated symptomatology. However, other types of violence exposures, including being assaulted, witnessing staff assaults, and suicides among the incarcerated population, did not predict any outcomes. Furthermore, family support did not serve as a stress buffer for officers exposed to violence, but higher levels of family support were associated with decreased PTSD.
... Most staff in English prisons are employed by Her Majesty's Prison and Probation Service (HMPPS), though nurses and doctors are employed by the National Health Service (NHS), and some employees are contract workers (such as maintenance workers). Prior to the pandemic, the available evidence suggested that prison staff in England had low wellbeing and a high burden of mental health issues (7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12). Factors associated with lower wellbeing included the demanding workload, high risk of violence and workplace injury, exposure to prison resident self-harm, and an oppressive work environment (13,14). ...
... Only 4.4% of staff scores indicated possible mental illness. This contrasts with other cross-sectional studies examining staff wellbeing from prior to the pandemic which, using the General Health Questionnaire, estimated 56.6-95% of UK prison officers met criteria for potential mental illness (7)(8)(9)(10). These studies all found prison staff wellbeing to be lower than that of the general population. ...
Background
COVID-19 is likely to have had an impact on the mental wellbeing of prison staff because of the high risk for infectious disease outbreaks in prisons and the pre-existing high burden of mental health issues among staff.
Methods
A cross-sectional study of staff within 26 prisons in England was carried out between 20th July 2020 and 2nd October 2020. Mental wellbeing was measured using the Short-version of Warwick-Edinburgh Wellbeing Scale (SWEMWBS). Staff wellbeing was compared to that of the English population using indirectly standardised data from the Health Survey for England 2010–13 and a one-sample t-test. Multivariate linear regression modelling explored associations with mental wellbeing score.
Results
Two thousand five hundred and thirty-four individuals were included (response rate 22.2%). The mean age was 44 years, 53% were female, and 93% were white. The sample mean SWEMWBS score was 23.84 and the standardised population mean score was 23.57. The difference in means was statistically significant (95% CI 0.09–0.46), but not of a clinically meaningful level. The multivariate linear regression model was adjusted for age category, sex, ethnicity, smoking status, occupation, and prison service region. Higher wellbeing was significantly associated with older age, male sex, Black/Black British ethnicity, never having smoked, working within the health staff team, and working in certain prison regions.
Interpretation
Unexpectedly, prison staff wellbeing as measured by SWEMWBS was similar to that of the general population. Reasons for this are unclear but could include the reduction in violence within prisons since the start of the pandemic. Qualitative research across a diverse sample of prison settings would enrich understanding of staff wellbeing within the pandemic.
... Tako je uočeno da kod osoblja osiguranja s vremenom dolazi do porasta neuroticizma koji je vidljiv već nakon tri do četiri godine radnoga staža (Suliman i Einat, 2018). S porastom psihološkog distresa kod zatvorskog osoblja povezana je i lošija percepcija tjelesnog zdravlja (Harvey, 2014), češće bolovanje (Lambert, Edwards, Camp i Saylor, 2005) te veća želja za davanjem otkaza (Setti i Argentero, 2015). ...
... It has been noted that, over time, security personnel experience an increase in neuroticism, which is evident after 3 to 4 years of service (Suliman and Einat, 2018). Increased psychological distress among prison staff is also associated with a lower perception of physical health (Harvey, 2014), more frequent use of sick leave (Lambert, Edwards, Camp and Saylor, re 2005) and a greater desire to quit (Setti and Argentero, 2015). ...
Prison system staff are exposed to high levels of stress, which can result in the development of mental disorders and reduced work efficiency in the long run. Therefore, it is important to develop prevention programs and explore their effectiveness and acceptability to prison staff, because this population is reluctant to admit difficulties. Mindfulness-based programmes have proven useful in working with different populations. The aims of this study were tot investigate acceptability, appropriateness, quality of delivery, programme reach and implementation outcomes of the Stress-Focused Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy Programme with prison staff. Employees (N=36) from four penal institutions in Croatia participated in eight two-hour group workshops over two months. Before the course, immediately after the course and two months after
the course, questionnaires were used to measure the dimensions of mindfulness, general psychopathology, and stress and burnout. At the end of the course, different aspects of course implementation quality were examined. The results showed that the staff was highly involved in the course, satisfied with the course and found it useful. Upon course completion, they reported being more observing and less judging, and less prone to respond automatically to their experiences (dimensions of mindfulness), having fewer problems and symptoms, greater well-being and functioning, as well as lower levels of stress and burnout. All changes were maintained during the follow-up period.
... In general, prison staff themselves are at a higher risk of psychological distress than the general population (Harvey, 2014;Kinman et al., 2017). In terms of protective factors, Harvey (2014) determined that staff accessing support in the prison was helpful. ...
... In general, prison staff themselves are at a higher risk of psychological distress than the general population (Harvey, 2014;Kinman et al., 2017). In terms of protective factors, Harvey (2014) determined that staff accessing support in the prison was helpful. In relation to emotional support, Kinman et al. (2017) found working relationships and role clarity were helpful for staff but managerial support was not (Kinman et al., 2016). ...
Purpose
Imprisoned mothers are at increased risk for poor psychological health and psychological distress when separated from their children, so staff need to be highly skilled to support the women. However, there is a paucity of research focusing on staff experiences around sensitive issues such as mother-child separation. This study aims to understand the challenges faced by staff and how these might be addressed.
Design/methodology/approach
This qualitative interview study explored the views and experiences of 24 prison-based staff in England working with female prisoners separated from their infants.
Findings
Staff emphasised the challenges of working with separated mothers, specifically the emotional impact of this work, and the impact of the wider criminal justice system on their sense of agency.
Originality/value
A focus on the experience of separation highlights the broader problem of incarcerating women in general. Reducing the number of mother-child separations would mitigate the impact on both women and staff.
... visors; poor quality training and development opportunities; high role demands exacerbated by time pressures; role ambiguity; and multiple competing priorities between prisoners and managers and between values such as the delivery of care versus maintaining the safety and security of the prison (Bevan, Houdmont & Menear, 2010;Finney, Stergiopoulos & Hensel, 2013, Holmes & MacInnes, 2003Kinman, Clements & Hart, 2017;Lambert et al., 2012;Liebling, 2011;Liebling, Crewe & Hulley, 2011;Schaufeli & Peeters, 2000). Consequently, prison officers have been found to be at increased risk of psychological distress, burnout, post-traumatic stress disorder, and depression compared with the general population (Clements & Kinman, 2021;Denhof & Spinaris, 2013;Harvey, 2014), with many prison staff reluctant to seek support due to fears of appearing weak (Crawley, 2004;Nichols et al., 2024). Furthermore, Kinman, Clements & Hart (2019), found high levels of presenteeism (working when sick) among prison officers. ...
The challenges of prison work and the impact on the well‐being of prison officers is widely publicised. However, less is known about the well‐being of prison governors, and what may impact this: the focus of this research. Semi‐structured interviews (n = 63) with prison governors across England, Scotland and Wales, analysed using thematic analysis, indicated core themes around poor well‐being, limited work‐life balance and feelings of disenchantment. The well‐being climate was underpinned by challenges within the occupational culture including the relentless workloads, a so‐called ‘macho culture’, competing expectations, a dissonance between responsibility and autonomy, and a lack of role understanding between staff within prisons and those working from HM Prison and Probation Service headquarters. The challenges were exacerbated, but not caused, by Covid‐19 and a lack of perceived value among staff, but mitigated to a degree by individual coping and some access to governor‐specific support. Implications and future directions are discussed.
... While scholars often point to occupational stressors as the primary cause of CSP strain, research also argues that supportive social networks play a key mediating role in helping prison staff deal with work-related stress (Dollard & Winefield, 1995;Namazi et al., 2021b). The key relationships are between frontline correctional staff, who 'watch each other's backs' and depend on each other for safety (Harvey, 2014;Martin et al., 2012;Schultz, 2023Schultz, , 2024. Support from managers and other supervisors is not always correlated with individual wellbeing (Coulling et al., 2024;Isenhardt et al., 2019), although Lambert et al. (2023) argue a supportive supervisory framework is associated with better health outcomes. ...
Correctional Service Providers (CSP), including Correctional officers (COs), are key front-line figures in prisons globally, with responsibility for a wide range of daily prison operations. Over the past decade, research on prison staff has massively grown. However, the portrait this scholarship draws is concerning. Research focusing on the physical, mental, and social wellbeing of prison staff consistently paints a picture of a deeply unhealthy group of people, with above-average levels of physical health concerns. Likewise, recent literature suggests correctional employees are facing a mental health crisis, with high prevalence of mental health disorders and self-harming behaviors, even when compared to other law enforcement personnel. Further, scholars have expressed concerns about the social and cultural wellbeing of staff, factors that directly impact daily prison operations. We conduct a broad overview of the literature on correctional worker health and wellness, identifying key themes and major areas of concern. We conclude by identifying key challenges and proposing areas for future research.
... While role strain can serve as a significant job demand, various types of social support can help correctional officers perform their job duties while alleviating work strains and frustrations (Harvey 2014;Lambert and Hogan 2010;Neveu 2007). If a correctional officer does not feel supported, it is likely he or she will experience feelings of isolation that may increase the negative effects of job demands at work and result in negative work outcomes (Lambert et al. 2016). ...
For prisons and jails to run effectively and efficiently, correctional officers need to follow institutional policies and rules. Failure to follow the rules could lead to deviant acts of officer-on-inmate brutality, inappropriate staff-inmate relationships, as well as a variety of other unprofessional behaviors that could undermine the prison regime. In this exploratory study, we collected 501 questionnaires from prison officers in Texas to examine the dynamics of rule-following. Using the job demands-resources model to guide in the interpretation of our analyses, we found that older officers, as well as female officers, were significantly more likely than their peers to follow institutional rules. Officers with high levels of family and supervisor support were also likely to follow the rules; however, respondents who experienced role strain were significantly less likely to adhere to agency policies and procedures. Our findings have important implications for the contemporary management of prisons and jails. ARTICLE HISTORY
... At the same time, and peculiarly, Schaufeli et al. point to an emerging John Wayne syndrome in this professional group, expressed in the belief that asking for social support is associated with incompetence [59]. The key role of support from superiors and management staff in protecting the well-being of prison officers is highlighted in studies [60]. There are also studies showing that in other occupational groups, actively cooperating superiors are a protective factor against alcohol consumption for employees [61]. ...
Objectives:
The specific job demands of the Prison Service (PS) may affect the health of officers. The job demands-resources model (JD-R) model was used to design a survey of the consequences of working subject to particular job demands. The aim was to gain an insight into the relationship between job demands, personal resources, occupational stress and burnout and selected health consequence indicators (such as behaviors associated with the consumption of alcohol, stress symptoms).
Material and methods:
A total of 1732 PS officers in Poland were surveyed. The following tools were used as part of the survey: the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ II), the Multidimensional Inventory for Assessing Coping Responses (COPE), the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and a form with a respondent's particulars. Path analysis using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was performed.
Results:
The assumed hypotheses were partially confirmed by the results. Out of 4 job demands categories only work pace turned out not to be a significant predictor of burnout and stress. For alcohol related behaviors, stress level was the only significant predictor, both as a direct and indirect effect taking into account job demands. It transpired that support from superiors rather than support from colleagues or self-efficacy was a significant moderator in the emotional demands - stress relationship. Limitations of the study and perspectives for its continuation are also presented herein.
Conclusions:
Based on the obtained results it may be concluded that job demands and support from superiors do have an impact on stress in the PS group. This is also consistent with available reports in literature. At the same time stress is a significant predictor of alcohol related behaviors. Coping through the use of psychoactive substances was not a significant factor in statistical analyses and it has still not been subject to sufficient scientific analysis. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2023;36(6).
... Social support reers to the level o assistance, aid, and help a person receives rom others (Harvey, 2014;Lambert, Altheimer, & Hogan, 2010). Social support is a positive actor or most people. ...
Correctional officers are a valuable and expensive resource for prisons. Working as a correctional officer is a unique experience; it involves controlling incarcerated individuals, and this results in demands that can wear on officers, increasing chances of suffering depression. Social support has been postulated to help buffer the negative effects of working in a prison and reduce depressive symptomatology. Using data from 501 correctional officers employed in a Southern prison system, this study examined the relationship between the three types of social support – family, coworker, and supervisor – on depression symptoms measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CESD) scale. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression results indicated both family support and supervisor support were significantly related to the level of depression symptoms; coworker support, however, had a nonsignificant association. The results indicate efforts should be made to raise family support and supervisor support.
... COs are at risk of mental and physical health problems including symptoms of burnout, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, suicide, poor physical health, sleep problems, and chronic pain (Carleton et al., 2019;Spinaris et al., 2012;Harvey, 2014;James et al., 2017;Lambert, Hogan et al., 2015;Milner et al., 2017). These health problems have been associated with poor workplace outcomes like reduced performance, turnover, absenteeism, and poor treatment of prison residents (Downden & Tellier, 2004;Lambert et al., 2015;Spinaris et al., 2012). ...
Correctional officers (COs) work in high-stress environments, frequently experience critical incidents and have shown high levels of burnout. The current review synthesizes and evaluates literature on determinants of CO well-being. The review followed the Joanna Briggs Institute approach for mixed-method systematic reviews. Eligible studies measured subjective or psychological well-being in frontline COs. Studies of disorder absence or nonfrontline COs or associated professions were excluded. Searches of psychology and criminal justice databases including PsycINFO (EBSCOhost) and Criminal Justice (ProQuest) were completed in June 2021, and data were synthesized using a convergent segregated approach. A total of 29 studies were included and explored individual, interpersonal, and organizational determinants of well-being. Key themes identified by thematic synthesis of qualitative research included job satisfaction, personal growth, and coping. COs can experience well-being, however, further research into determinants of CO well-being is required.
... Criminal justice and profession-specific journals have given some attention to prison workers' wellbeing, including their experiences of work-related stress (Carlson, Anson, and Thomas 2003;Harvey 2014;Lovell and Brown 2017;Ricciardelli, Power, and Medeiros 2018;Steiner and Wooldredge 2015), work-life balance (Kinman et al., 2017) and impacts of the job role on family relationships (Akoensi 2018). 1 The most prominent study of UK prison workers' wellbeing is Liebling's longitudinal quality of life survey, which has been generating data since 2006 (Liebling and Arnold 2004;Liebling, Price, and Shefer 2011: 210). As part of this, a baseline study in HMP and YOI Grampian, the UK's first "community-facing" prison, found low staff wellbeing, poor organisational structure and leadership, and unclear boundaries between staff and prisoners, in spite of its innovative policies and practices (Schmidt et al., 2015). ...
Prison workers occupy a niche role. Balancing the care and welfare of prisoners while simultaneously restricting their freedoms is a stressful job, laced with danger, that occurs entirely within the bounded context of the prison. Here, wellbeing and professionalism are closely linked and articulated through a range of policies. This article explores the perceptions and experiences of staff in relation to a range of wellbeing and training policies in the Scottish Prison Service (SPS). We interviewed 10 SPS employees, some working directly with prisoners and others in more centralised policy development and support roles. Thematic analysis found a high degree of contentment with such policies but highlighted tensions between their implementation and specific challenges of the prison context. Emerging themes included: supporting wellbeing within the complex dynamic of the prison world; addressing inherent tensions borne out of the underlying threat of violence; and the impact of professionalization. We conclude that while the prison service aspires to offer employees wellbeing and professionalization opportunities similar to those in other sectors, there is a need for such policies to more clearly reflect the unique context of prison work. This might involve co-design of policies and more careful consideration of the pressures, tensions and idiosyncrasies of that rarefied environment.
... Several studies with correctional officers have linked social support with reduced work-related stress and W-FC (Obidoa et al., 2011); improved physical and psychological functioning (Harvey, 2014); and decreased burnout (Lambert et al., 2015a(Lambert et al., , 2015bUseche et al., 2019). Conversely, low social support among correctional officers has been linked to increased levels of stress and burnout (Triplett et al., 1996), and declined psychological and physical well-being (Armstrong & Griffin, 2004). ...
This cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the association between the direct and indirect effect of traumatic incident exposure at work on correctional supervisors’ experience of work-to-family conflict and depressive symptoms. The moderating role of coworker and supervisor social support was also examined. 156 correctional supervisors (i.e., lieutenants, captains, counselor supervisors) working in a Northeastern state participated in an online survey designed to assess perceptions of their work environment as well as health and family life. Structural equation modeling was used to conduct mediation and moderation analyses. Inmate assaults on inmates and staff were the most common exposures to work-related trauma among correctional supervisors. Correctional supervisors reported being more affected by traumatic incidents directed to self and/or peers (i.e., inmate assault on self/staff). The effect of traumatic incident exposure directed to inmates was associated with greater depressive symptoms for correctional supervisors [β = .31, p < .05]. The effect of traumatic incident exposure directed to self and/or peers was directly associated with greater work-to-family conflict [β = .26, p < .05]. Work-to-family conflict mediated the association between effect of traumatic incident exposure directed to self and/or peers and depressive symptoms [β = .13 (95% CI .016–.35)]. Social support moderated the association between the effect of traumatic incident exposure at work and depressive symptoms. Findings support the need for interventions addressing the adverse effect of traumatic incident exposure at work on correctional supervisors’ family life and mental health.
... Prisons are unique and challenging environments for both prisoners and staff. The impact on prisoner mental health from being imprisoned has rightly been the focus of much research (Birmingham, 2003;Douglas et al., 2009;de Viggiani, 2006;Jordan, 2011;MacDonald, 2018), but more recently focus has broadened to investigate the impact of this environment upon prison staff and their mental health (Barry, 2020;Harvey, 2014;Kinman et al., 2019;Viotti, 2016). Initial findings indicate higher rates of work-related stress and more severe physical health conditions amongst prison staff when compared to public servants in other professions such as firefighters or nurses (Dugan et al., 2016;Johnson et al., 2005;Viotti, 2016). ...
Purpose
Prisons are uniquely challenging working environments. Staff are often exposed to direct and indirect trauma, impacting negatively on their mental well-being. Due to the limited research into prison staff experience, this paper aims to explore what staff find most challenging, how they cope, what support they would like and rewarding aspects of their work.
Design/methodology/approach
This service development project was facilitated through a staff well-being event. A qualitative approach was used and 74 staff members provided anonymised responses. An inductive and data-driven approach was used to analyse the data, and the trustworthiness of the analysis was considered using criteria established by Lincoln and Guba (1985).
Findings
Thematic analysis identified six themes, namely, the challenging nature of the work, interactions with prisoners, staff interactions, inadequate resources, staff support and development and coping strategies. Key findings include managing distress, self-harm and violence and limited resources presenting challenges. Role variety and opportunities to support prisoners were reported as positive. A variety of coping strategies were identified. Wider availability of supervision and reflective practice was suggested by staff.
Practical implications
Recommendations for increased staff support are made. Suggestions for future research investigating methods to increase rewarding aspects of work within prisons are given.
Originality/value
This analysis adds to the limited body of qualitative research investigating prison staff experiences; in particular, aspects of the work that they find rewarding such as the role variety and opportunities to make positive changes to prisoners’ lives. Novel coping strategies were identified, including cognitive reframing and behavioural strategies for managing stress, which could be encouraged to increase resilience.
... Social support refers to the quality of interaction among the people within a group and their feeling about being cared for and supports [25]. It is also defined as a connection with other people that able to provide assistance and support [26]. Moreover, there are various types of social support such as support from the people within an organization (e.g., supervisor, coworker, administrative staff), and support from family and friends [27], [28]. ...
International experience helps people to obtain an excellent human capital which significantly plays a crucial role to predict individuals’ accomplishment both in academic and career. Therefore, this study purports to explore the psychological capital, social support, and career capital among Indonesian students who study in Taiwan. The participants consist of 120 students who were randomly selected and completed the online questionnaires. The findings of this study revealed that Indonesian students who study in Taiwan achieve an above average on their career capital, social support, and psychological capital. Furthermore, there were high and medium relationships among the three variables. It also demonstrated that students’ social support fully mediated the relationship between students’ career capital and psychological capital. Based on the research findings, conclusions and practical implications were provided.
... Prison officer health is generally poor (Obidoa et al., 2011), and studies have revealed high rates of obesity and hypertension among prison staff that places them at risk of chronic disease (Morse et al., 2011). In contrast, examinations of physical health as a predictor of psychological health are limited (Harvey, 2014). In comparison with manufacturing workers, prison officers have higher prevalence and intensity of lower extremity musculoskeletal disorders involving injury to muscle, ligaments, tendons, and/or nerves (Warren et al., 2015). ...
Prevalence and predictors of depression, a debilitating medical illness, are unknown among officers working in jails. We conducted a cross-sectional survey with jail officers at four facilities, utilizing age, ethnicity, gender, musculoskeletal back disorder, global physical health and mental health, and psychological well-being as predictor variables. Descriptive analyses detailed prevalence, and hierarchical regression models identified depression predictors. The prevalence of depression among jail officers was high and strongly influenced by job burnout over and above other health indicators. Mitigation of workplace stressors and identification of targeted interventions are needed to reduce risks for depression among jail officers.
... At an organizational level, CO stress can contribute to unsafe practices within the corrections facility, higher staff turnover, higher job absenteeism, and poor job performance (Brower, 2013;Finney et al., 2013;Trounson et al., 2018). At a personal level, workplace stress has serious deleterious effects for COs, with officers experiencing high levels of stress-related health problems, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, gastrointestinal problems, and hypertension (Dowden & Tellier, 2004;Harvey, 2014;Morgan, 2009). In addition, research targeted specifically at the mental health of COs working in prisons has indicated that COs have high prevalence of anxiety, psychosomatic disorders, substance use, and psychological distress (Bourbonnais, Jauvin, & Dussault, 2007;ghaddar, Mateo, & Sanchez, 2008;Morgan, 2009). ...
This review and meta-analysis evaluated the effectiveness of well-being interventions offered to correctional officers within prison settings. A search strategy was developed and 11 databases were searched to identify eligible studies. Articles were screened against preset eligibility criteria, and quality was assessed using the Downs and Black Checklist. Nine studies were identified, including four single-group design and five quasi-experimental designed studies. Interventions comprised a mixture of crisis interventions, psychoeducational programs, and an exercise program. For those studies with sufficient data, a meta-analysis was conducted to examine intervention effects on stress and psychopathology. Fixed-effects meta-analysis showed that treatment had no effect on stress or psychopathology. Of those studies that could not be included in the meta-analysis, there were mixed outcomes. These findings highlight the need for more rigorous study designs and suggest further research is needed to examine the theoretical mechanisms in the development of interventions within correctional settings.
... These trauma symptoms may result in a sense of frustration, cynicism, disillusionment, and disparagement about their practice (Clarke & Roger, 2007;Clarke, Simmons, & Wydall, 2004;Collins & Nee, 2010;Deane & Barnett, 2011;Farrenkopf, 1992). Similarly, prison officers also report experiencing burnout (Xanthakis, 2009), personal distress (Harvey, 2014), and trauma symptoms (Tait, 2008), which perhaps indicate that these negative effects are not unique to the therapeutic encounter. ...
This study explored professionals’ perceptions of providing psychological therapy in prison settings. Eight professionals affiliated with counselling as well as counselling psychology, clinical psychology, and forensic psychology were interviewed using a semi-structured interview method.
Prisons have been termed “social institutions” (Crewe, 2009; Garland, 1990; Sykes, 2007), and this study examined the delivery of therapy within this social realm. A social constructionist paradigm was used to understand how social and discursive practices shaped participants’ accounts (Adler, 1997; Giddens, 1987; Burr, 1995, Gergen, 1985, 1999). Social constructionism allowed for critical engagement that challenged taken-for-granted practices (Adler, 1997; Berger & Luckman, 1966; Burr, 1995; Gergen, 1985, 1999).
Participants’ accounts were analysed using a social constructionist informed thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006, 2012). Four superordinate themes were constructed including: “Performing Therapy,” “Humanising the Client,” “Frames Inside Frames,” and “A Challenging but Rewarding Experience.” This inquiry found that psychological therapy was entwined with the socio-political ideals governing the prison landscape, which resulted in several tensions between penal-ways-of-knowing and therapeutic-ways-of-knowing.
The tensions and conflicts present in this study have significant implications for establishing and maintaining ethical practices in prison, particularly surrounding discursive power. The findings indicated that stigmatising practices not only mean practitioners work with the "spoiled identity" (Goffman, 1963) of a 'prisoner,' but they must also ensure that stigma and discrimination are not imported into therapy.
Working as a practitioner in custodial environments is complex and challenging (Farrant, 2012; Harvey, 2011a, 2011b; Tite, 2013). Therefore, this investigation has highlighted the vital necessity to understand the professional development needs of prison-therapists and the needs for establishing collaborative ways of working in a prison milieu.
... W zachodnich opracowaniach ocenia się, że zdrowie fizyczne i psychiczne personelu więziennego pozostaje na niższym poziomie w porównaniu z populacją ogólną [15]. Wykonywanie pracy w zakładach karnych wiąże się z pogorszeniem zdrowia fizycznego i dobrostanu psychicznego [16]. ...
Background:
The purpose of the work was to assess the level of health, estimate the number of accidents during service and to identify the use and perceived effectiveness of the prevention of occupational stress in Prison Service (PS).
Material and methods:
The questionnaire survey was carried out in 2015 at the Central Prison Service Training Center in Kalisz and in selected prisons and detention centers for the group of 250 officers. The questionnaire, which had been constructed for the purpose of the cooperation with the Occupational Safety Body of the Central Board of the Prison Service, was used. There were questions about the frequency of headaches, hypertension, sleep disorders, taking painkillers, accidents during service and prevention of occupational stress.
Results:
For frequent headaches, sleep disorders and hypertension complain 9-14% of officers. Every 8th officer in the period of 5 years preceding the survey had an accident during his service. Participation rate in the stress prevention and interpersonal training workshops accounted for 70%, and most officers consider them to be effective. The lack of the possibility to make holidays in accordance with the schedule represents the percentage share of 10% of the sample tested, and every 20th of the PS must stop it due to the situation in the service. It was revealed that preferences in the area of applied coping strategies turned out to be slightly differentiating between officers undertaking and not undertaking activity in the field of occupational stress prevention.
Conclusions:
Officers serving in the multi-shift system and with a longer service period should be covered by greater prevention from the PS work medicine. Conducting training in the prevention of occupational stress should take place at the beginning of the service. Med Pr 2018;69(4).
... Social support in this study refers to the encouragement, assistance, support, help, and a network of interconnections with other human beings such as family and friends (Harvey, 2014;Lambert, Minor, Wells & Hogan, 2016). Outside the workplace, the individual primary support comes from family and friends (Adams, King, & King, 1996). ...
... These concerning health trends have led to a notable increase in research exploring the antecedents of correctional officer stress and its impact on officer health (e.g. Brower, 2013;Dowden & Tellier, 2004;Finn, 1998;Harvey, 2014). However despite this surge in research, there continues to be a lack of scientific attention directed towards understanding the impact of workplace environmental factors (Clemente, Reig-Botella, & Coloma, 2015) on correctional officer health and well-being. ...
Correctional officers work in a highly challenging environment and are at a heightened risk of a range of negative stress-related health conditions. This study examines how correctional officer responses to adversity moderate the association between perceived workplace adversity and psychological well-being. The aim was to assess the degree that perceived workplace adversity predicts correctional officer psychological well-being and the subsequent impact on negative organizational outcomes such as absenteeism, presenteeism and job dissatisfaction. Hundred and seventy four officers completed an online questionnaire including measures of perceived workplace adversity, officer responses, psychological well-being and organizational impact. Structural Equation Modelling revealed that a heightened perception of workplace adversity predicted lower psychological well-being and in turn increased negative organizational impacts. Analyses indicated that using an interpersonal/solution focused response style moderated the relationship between perceived workplace adversity and psychological well-being, reducing its negative impact on well-being and in turn the frequency of negative organizational impacts. These findings offer insight into how officers’ perceptions of their working environment and how they respond to workplace adversity influence their psychological well-being and the organizations that employ them.
... Recognition has also been given to the emotional distress and bereavement experienced by officers who work with suicide-related behaviour with research highlighting the prospect of officers developing post-traumatic stress disorder (Snow & McHugh, 2002;Wilstrand, Lindgren, Gilje, & Olofsson, 2007;Wright, Borrill, Teers, & Cassidy, 2006;Wurst et al., 2011). However, emotional distress and the development of PTSD is not inevitable as coping strategies, locus of control, social support and previous experience have been found to mediate the negative effects of suicide-related behaviour and therefore require further exploration (Harvey, 2014;Wright et al., 2006). ...
Suicide-related behaviour amongst adult male offenders within the Prison Service is currently at record levels. However, the impact of this behaviour on prison officers has been largely overlooked. Therefore, the purpose of this paper aims to develop an understanding of prison officers’ experiences of working with suicide-related behaviour. As limited research has been conducted in this area, semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore participants’ thoughts, feelings, coping strategies and avenues of support. Nine prison officers were interviewed and thematic analysis was applied to transcripts. Thematic analysis identified five themes: prison officer culture limiting support, feeling unqualified, under-resourced, minimising negative emotions and positivity. The results highlight the specific challenges faced by officers when working with suicidal behaviour, alongside more general challenges facing public services in the current times. Recommendations are made about how organisations could mediate these challenges and better support staff.
... Incluso, algunas investigaciones han encontrado que hasta un tercio de estos trabajadores podría verse afectado por estas problemáticas (Kalra et al., 2016). Más aún, las consecuencias pueden afectar al trabajador más allá del ámbito estrictamente laboral, como lo muestran diversos estudios de problemas médicos y psicológicos, tales como trastornos psicosomáticos, problemas cardiovasculares, síntomas de depresión y ansiedad o un mayor riesgo de cometer intentos de suicidio o de autolesiones (Härenstam, Palm, & Theorell, 1988;Harvey, 2014;Sui et al., 2014;Roberts, Jaremin, & Lloyd, 2013;Stöver, 2017). Tales riesgos profesionales y los daños de naturaleza psicosocial asociados suponen una amenaza para la calidad de vida del operario; pero, además, conllevan un impacto psicosocial que se extiende más allá del propio trabajador, y que afecta sus relaciones interpersonales (por ejemplo, conflicto familiar y divorcio) y a la propia institución penitenciaria (como la disminución de la calidad de la atención que presta a la población reclusa) (Armstrong, Atkin-Plunk, & Wells, 2015;Lambert, Barton-Bellessa, & Hogan, 2015;Lambert, Minor, Wells, & Hogan, 2015). ...
La utilización de estrategias controladas para la regulación interpersonal (ECRI) del afecto de la población reclusa puede afectar al bienestar de los operadores de prisiones. Según estudios previos, las ECRIs orientadas a mejorar el afecto de otros incrementan el bienestar del agente que las ejecuta. Al contrario, las ECRIs orientadas a empeorar el afecto deterioran su bienestar. Estos resultados se explican, según el Modelo de Fuerza de la Autorregulación y el Modelo de Conservación de Recursos, a partir del equilibrio entre el consumo de recursos de auto-regulación ligados a la ECRIs y los efectos diferenciales de dichas estrategias sobre los procesos de recuperación de este tipo de recursos. El presente estudio, basado en un diseño cuasi-experimenta, evalúa la eficacia de un programa de formación en ECRI orientado a la mejora del bienestar. Los resultados reflejan un mayor nivel de bienestar y un menor nivel de ECRIS orientadas al empeoramiento en los participantes en la formación (N= 21), cuando se comparan el un grupo de control (N= 18). No se encontraron diferencias significativas para las ECRIs de mejora. Los análisis de regresión jerárquica muestran que los cambios en las ECRIS de empeoramiento predicen negativamente los cambios en el nivel de bienestar.
... First, the sample was recruited via online support groups on social media sites and, therefore, might not be representative. For example, the stress-ameliorating effect of social support has been widely evidenced (Grav, Hellzen, Romild, & Stordal, 2012); moreover, in several studies involving highly stressed professionals, including prison officers, social support was inversely related to burnout (Harvey, 2014;Sánchez-Moreno, de La Fuente Roldán, Gallardo-Peralta, & de Roda, 2014). Second, the cross-sectional nature of the study precludes drawing causal inferences; future research might use longitudinal designs to better delineate the direction of relationships between study variables. ...
The study assessed the role of personality on burnout in prison officers. About 120 U.K. prison officers completed questionnaires assessing three dimensions of burnout, the “big five” personality variables, and locus of control. Neuroticism predicted emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment, and locus of control predicted all burnout dimensions. Prison officers higher in neuroticism and with an external locus of control might be at greater risk for burnout. Future studies might examine whether stress-management interventions alleviate officer burnout, with particular attention to officers whose personality profile places them “at risk.”
... Incluso, algunas investigaciones han encontrado que hasta un tercio de estos trabajadores podría verse afectado por estas problemáticas (Kalra et al., 2016). Más aún, las consecuencias pueden afectar al trabajador más allá del ámbito estrictamente laboral, como lo muestran diversos estudios de problemas médicos y psicológicos, tales como trastornos psicosomáticos, problemas cardiovasculares, síntomas de depresión y ansiedad o un mayor riesgo de cometer intentos de suicidio o de autolesiones (Härenstam, Palm, & Theorell, 1988;Harvey, 2014;Sui et al., 2014;Roberts, Jaremin, & Lloyd, 2013;Stöver, 2017). Tales riesgos profesionales y los daños de naturaleza psicosocial asociados suponen una amenaza para la calidad de vida del operario; pero, además, conllevan un impacto psicosocial que se extiende más allá del propio trabajador, y que afecta sus relaciones interpersonales (por ejemplo, conflicto familiar y divorcio) y a la propia institución penitenciaria (como la disminución de la calidad de la atención que presta a la población reclusa) (Armstrong, Atkin-Plunk, & Wells, 2015;Lambert, Barton-Bellessa, & Hogan, 2015;Lambert, Minor, Wells, & Hogan, 2015). ...
Según estudios previos, el uso de estrategias controladas para la regulación interpersonal (ECRIs) del afecto de otros orientadas a su mejora incrementa el bienestar de quien las emplea, mientras el uso de ECRIs para empeorar el afecto lo deteriora. El consumo y recuperación de recursos de auto-regulación de cada ECRI explican estos resultados. Mediante un diseño cuasi-experimental se evalúa la eficacia de la formación en ECRIs para mejorar el bienestar en operadores de prisiones. Los resultados reflejan mayor bienestar y menor uso de ECRIS de empeoramiento tras la formación (N= 21), al comparar con el grupo control (N= 18). No hubo diferencias para las ECRIs de mejora. Los cambios en las ECRIS de empeoramiento predicen negativamente cambios en el bienestar.
Previous research show a positive relationship between using IARS to improve other people’s affect and the level of wellbeing of the agent implementing them, whereas using IARS to worsen other’s affect can worsen the agent’s wellbeing. These results can be explained as the balance between the self-control resources drained and recovered by each IARS. We evaluate the efficacy of a training program to increase prison officers’ wellbeing and focused on IARS. Results, based on a quasi-experimental design, revealed a higher level of wellbeing and a lower increased on worsening strategies among the training participants (N=21), compared with a control group (N=18). Results were not significant for improving strategies. Changes in the use of IARS negatively predicted changes in wellbeing.
Prison staff experience multiple stressors in the course of their working lives and existing literature consistently emphasises the negative wellbeing implications of prison work. There is a gap in existing research regarding the types of wellbeing support that are appropriate and positively impactful for this occupational group. This article presents original findings following the delivery of an innovative wellbeing activity across two prisons in England which involved groups of prison staff engaging in an 8-week creative writing course. The activity brought together prisoner-facing and support staff resulting in an important opportunity to collaborate, reflect and enhance role appreciation. The core benefits of the course were improvements in personal and professional wellbeing and an opportunity to ‘detox’ negative prison working cultures.
Correction officers are constantly exposed to situations of violence precarious work labor conditions, which are associated to the emergence of occupational disorders. This study aims toinvestigate the conditions and the work process of correction officers and the consequences on the workers’ mental health and social and family life. The study was conducted in prisons located in the Brazilian Northeastern region. Interviews with 5 prison wardens, 19 correction officers and 9 relatives of these workers were conducted. Evident social devaluation of the profession was observed, which associated with precarious work conditions, make these workers vulnerable in the following dimensions: subjective, evidenced by the suffering associated with daily work; family, related to fear and coping strategies developed; labor, due to the unpredictability of work; social, resulting from the invisibility and devaluation of their work; and programmatic, characterized by low visibility in the scope of public policies.
Previous research has shown that victimization can negatively affect perceptions regarding workplaces, especially among those who face a higher risk of interpersonal violence, such as correctional officers. Several studies have also indicated that perceived danger or fear can influence workers’ perceptions of the work environment, including turnover intent. However, the mechanisms that can help explain the link between inmate-on-staff victimization and turnover intent have been understudied. This study uses data from a sample of 269 correctional officers from four prisons in South Korea to explore the mediating role of fear in this relationship. The role of aftermath concerns as a mediator has received strong statistical support from our regression models, showing that victimization influences turnover intent through concerns in response to victimization. Our study highlights that it is critical to consider the potential mechanisms of victimization to prevent correctional officers from leaving their jobs.
Work–family conflict occurs when the demands of work make it challenging for employees to fulfill family obligations. Given that not all workers have a partner and/or children, but likely have a personal life that includes friends, hobbies, leisure and recovery activities, and extended family, some scholars now examine work–life conflict. For correctional officers, the unique occupational setting of the prison, which includes a high level of environmental adversity, leads to work–life conflict in a variety of forms: emotional strain, time-based conflicts, and engagement in behaviors that are incompatible with the needs of others and one's personal relationships outside of the prison. In light of this challenging intersection of occupational and personal life, this narrative review brings together these strands of empirical work; it provides a summary of literature addressing the antecedents and outcomes of work–family and work–life conflict among correctional officers and provides direction for future efforts. Together, studies indicate that aspects of the organization and the work environment conspire to make the management of these two domains difficult and as a result, job performance and personal life suffer. Empirical studies of CO work–life conflict are needed that examine person-environment fit, the proximal and distal factors resulting from such conflict including outcomes within the organization, and effects of work–life conflict on the families of COs, among others. Inadequate supports exist for staff facing conflict between work and personal life.
Despite compelling arguments that prison work influences officer mental health, little attention has been devoted to directly and rigorously assessing this relationship. Even less attention has been attributed to the potential impact of critical incident exposure on mental health outcomes among officers. Drawing from a longitudinal sample of correctional officers from three prisons in Minnesota, the current study develops and then tests a resiliency‐fatigue model by examining the impact of the accumulation of work‐related critical incident exposures on symptoms related to posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety. As critical incident exposures accumulate, mental health symptoms are found to become more pronounced. The analyses also reveal evidence that mental health symptoms only increase to problematic levels once the accumulation of critical incidents reaches or surpasses an inflection point. The results underscore the importance of understanding the diverse groups affected by prisons and have downstream implications for incarcerated persons, as well as for prison systems more broadly.
Background
Correctional officers face widespread workplace violence and the resulting overwork that can profoundly damage their physical and mental health.
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the mediating role of overwork in the relationship between workplace violence and the manifestation of physical and mental health issues among correctional officers.
Methods
This study enlisted 472 eligible participants. Cross-sectional data were obtained using the Chinese version of the Workplace Violence Scale (WVS), while the physical and mental health of correctional officers was evaluated through relevant scales. Analysis involved descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, and tests for mediation models.
Results
The study found significant correlations between workplace violence, overwork, and various mental health variables (depression, anxiety, stress, suicidal ideation, and insomnia), with correlations ranging from 0.135 to 0.822 (p < 0.01). Mediation analysis revealed that workplace violence directly impacts correctional officers’ physical and mental health (p < 0.001) and also has an indirect effect through overwork (p < 0.023). These findings underscore the substantial impact of workplace violence on the health of correctional officers, both directly and indirectly.
Conclusion
Workplace violence and overwork significantly contribute to the physical and mental health challenges faced by correctional officers. Overwork acts as a mediator in the relationship between workplace violence and these health issues. The study suggests addressing workplace violence and mental health issues among correctional officers by increasing their numbers, improving the work environment, and implementing enhanced welfare policies.
Correctional officers work in a stressful environment and are exposed to elevated levels of critical incidents. Such exposure can lead to negative psychological outcomes like burnout. However, positive psychological experiences including well-being and posttraumatic growth are also possible under such adverse conditions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore predictors of burnout, well-being, and posttraumatic growth in a sample of correctional officers ( N = 142). The results of multiple regression analyses indicated that age, workplace adversity, and resilience were significant predictors of correctional officer burnout. A sense of workplace belongingness and the use of adaptive coping strategies were significant positive predictors of well-being and posttraumatic growth. Trait resilience and the receipt of social support were additional significant positive predictors of well-being. These results highlight the importance of individual, interpersonal, and organizational factors in promoting positive health outcomes, preventing negative health outcomes, and providing avenues for staff support.
This article presents the results of an opportunistic, cross-sectional, self-report survey of the well-being of staff working in prisons throughout the UK. The survey was completed by 594 participants in the early part of 2021 at the height of the Covid-19 pandemic. Self-report measures indicated concerning levels of burnout and 43.4% of participants were above the established cut-offs on the Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) scale. Eighty-one per cent reported that their mental and physical health had deteriorated and many said emotional support was lacking. Further research is required to establish how typical and persistent these concerns are
Введение: авторами рассматривается проблема предубеждений со стороны персонала учреждений пенитенциарной системы к психологии и ее созидательным возможностям. Цель: на основе обобщения теоретических материалов и анализа практики деятельности пенитенциарных учреждений показать, что в условиях постоянного воздействия количественных и качественных факторов пенитенциарной среды на личность сотрудников от них требуется поддержание состояния постоянной готовности к агрессивным действиям со стороны лиц, находящихся в местах лишения свободы, что без профессионального психологического сопровождения может влиять на процесс адаптации, действия в экстремальных ситуациях и создавать риск развития профессиональных деструкций. Результаты: отношение к неопределенности авторами рассматривается как личностная особенность, лежащая в основе адаптационных процессов и процессов восприятия экстремальности деятельности. На примере специфической профессиональной деятельности сотрудников уголовно-исполнительной системы показано, как проблема предубеждений в отношении психологии повышает экстремальность пенитенциарной деятельности, риск последующих негативных последствий, в частности при адаптации к службе. Выводы: показана схожесть процессов адаптации к служебной деятельности и экстремальным условиям, а также делается акцент на необходимости работы с предубеждениями в отношении психологического сопровождения деятельности сотрудников.
Introduction: in the article, the authors consider the problem of prejudice against psychology and its creative possibilities on the part of the staff of penitentiary institutions. Purpose: based on the generalization of theoretical materials and analysis of the practice of activity in penitentiary institutions to show that in conditions of constant impact of quantitative and qualitative factors of penitentiary activity on the personality of employees, they should be ready for aggressive actions of inmates. Without professional psychological assistance, employees’ adaptation process and behavior in extreme situations can be affected and risks of developing professional destructions can be created. Results: the attitude to uncertainty is considered by the authors as a personality trait underlying adaptation processes and processes to perceive extreme conditions of work. Having considered specific professional activity of penitentiary system employees, the authors show how the problem of prejudice against psychology increases extremity of service and what subsequent negative consequences can be, in particular in the adaptation period. Conclusions: the similarity of the processes of adapting to service activities and extreme conditions is shown, and the emphasis is also placed on the need to work with prejudice against psychological support of employees’ activities.
There is scant research on job rotation and stress; however, as workplaces undergo major transformation due to the pandemic, this topic takes on significance in the emerging hybrid work environment. Literature illustrates that job rotation is known to enhance employee interest, reduce physical stress on employees involved in physical jobs, improve employees' skills and confidence, and provide relief from exhaustion due to repetitive tasks as well as due to psychologically negative jobs. However, learning new skills, performing new tasks, and reporting to new people can hinder employee performance and cause stress that negatively impacts employee well-being. This conundrum needs more insight given the current changes brought on due to the pandemic, which has led to more hybrid and/or virtual workplaces, changes in work organization, and altered working styles. Therefore, the way job rotation is conducted and organized needs an overhaul too.
The article analyzes the state of the mentoring system during personnel adaptation within the penitentiary system. Mentoring is a fundamental method of working with a mentee to introduce them into the activities of a closed occupational group. However, nowadays, mentoring in institutions of the penitentiary system is often of a formal nature. This does not allow institutions to use the full potential of mentoring to replenish a closed occupational group with high-quality human capital. A mentee should be introduced into professional relations not only at the formal, but also at the informal level, since informal communications play an important role when a closed occupational group accepts a new member. The purpose of the article is to identify the main features of mentoring, its functions that allow achieving personnel related, strategic and social results in functioning of the penal enforcement system. To achieve this goal, an expert survey was conducted with the senior officers of correctional institutions, which allowed identifying practical aspects of implementing personnel adaptation using the mentoring institute. The modern institution of mentoring is reflected in the functions of labor adaptation, which are implemented by a mentor through interaction with a mentee. The performance effectiveness of the functions of adaptation is determined not only by the achievement of high labor activity indicators by a new employee, but also by the construction of effective communications that should be arranged with colleagues, as well as with people in detention. The result of the study will be an understanding of the features of an effective mentoring system for a closed occupational group of the penitentiary system and possible ways to improve it.
In the course of their duties, correctional employees face exposure to a variety of potentially psychologically traumatic events (PPTEs). Recent research points to an array of consequences of work experiences on the psychological well-being of correctional staff, including the development of mental health disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder, general anxiety disorder, and major depressive disorder. Drawing on an open-ended survey response among provincial and territorial correctional employees (n = 269) in Canada, we consider the experiences of correctional employees who self-report an anxiety, mood, or other mental health disorder, with a particular focus on how such experiences are tied to work conditions and occupational environments. Findings demonstrate that, for many, mental health struggles are intimately tied to both operational and organizational factors – the former referring to job duties and the latter referring to social relations of work. How mental health status is navigated is intimately shaped by occupational norms and meanings tied to mental health, namely stigma. Despite the perceived link between work and mental health outcomes, mental health suffering is understood and responded to as a private problem – with fallout on the personal lives and welfare of staff. We discuss the implications of training paradigms and general understandings of mental health responsibility.
The workplace challenges of correctional officers have been well documented. Yet little is known about how such stressors impact the wellbeing of correctional officers from minority cultural-subgroups. This study explored Indigenous Australian correctional officers’ social and emotional wellbeing (SEWB) when managing workplace adversity. Specifically, the study sought to identify culturally-specific stressors, protective factors and associated response tendencies to gain a more robust understanding of the factors that impact Indigenous officers’ wellbeing in the workplace. In total, 15 Indigenous Australian correctional officers from the Northern Territory participated in the study through focus groups or semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis of participant data revealed that Indigenous correctional officers’ SEWB is influenced by four broad categories: cultural connection, morale, social functioning and somatic health. Results are discussed in terms of common themes, future research and implications for assisting the SEWB of Indigenous officers.
Correctional workers are at increased risk for a variety of mental disorders relative to the general population. The increased risk appears associated with frequent exposures to a variety of potentially psychologically traumatic events; however, the Job Demand-Control model and the Job Demand-Control-Support model posit operational (job content) and organizational (job context) stressors as increasing risks for mental health challenges. In the current study, we explore the potential impact of operational and organizational stress on correctional worker mental health, identifying specific stressors that might be modifiable. Data were drawn from the reports provided by 158 participants completing a large survey that elected to respond to either of two open text boxes inviting feedback related to their mental health. Qualitatively mapping our results onto the Job Demand-Control-Support model indicates participants perceive themselves as experiencing iso-strain as a function of being in a high demand, low control, and low social support work environment complicated by under-recognized caregiving. Participant reports suggest increased consultation by management and increased training may help to mitigate the perceived negative impact of the current workplace on their mental health.
Private security staff play an important role in protecting society, including those who work in private prisons. Working in a private prison is a demanding job. Staff are responsible to ensure that the correctional facility is safe, secure, and humane. Past research has found that organizational trust, in terms of supervisor and management trust, influences private prison staff in many outcome areas, such as job involvement, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job stress, feeling at risk at work, and job burnout; however, there is a dearth of research on how workplace variables may contribute to organizational trust. The current study examined how the major forms of social support (family, coworkers, supervisor, and management) were related to supervisor trust and management trust among 160 staff at a private U.S. prison. Based on ordinary least squares (OLS) multivariate regression, the results indicated coworker, supervisor, and management support each had significant positive effects on supervisor trust, with supervisor support having the largest effect. In another OLS multivariate regression analysis, family, supervisor, and management support had significant positive effects on management trust, with management support having the largest effect. The findings suggest that private prison administrators should consider increasing all four forms of social support in order to raise both supervisor and management trust. It would be a valuable investment in staff.
Introduction
The correctional workforce experiences persistent health problems, and interventions designed with worker participation show favorable outcomes. However, participatory intervention research often leaves workers out of the health needs assessment, the basis of interventions subsequently developed. This omission risks failure to detect factors contributing to the health and is less likely to result in primary prevention interventions.
Methods
Partnering with a correctional supervisors' union, we followed Schulz and colleagues' community‐based participatory research (CBPR) methods for participatory survey design and used Healthy Workplace Participatory Program (HWPP) tools to develop a tailored survey to assess workforce health and contributing factors. Utilizing the HWPP Focus Group Guide, we generated key themes to adapt the HWPP All Employee Survey, a generic workforce health assessment, to become thorough and contextually‐relevant for correctional supervisors.
Results
Content analysis of focus group data revealed 12 priority health concerns and contributors, including organizational culture, masculinity, work‐family conflict, family support, trauma, positive job aspects, health literacy and efficacy, health/risk behaviors, sleep, obesity, and prioritizing work and income over health. Twenty‐six measures were added to the generic survey, mainly health‐related antecedents including knowledge, attitudes, norms, and motivation.
Conclusion
Findings yielded new insights about supervisors' lived experiences of work and health, and resulted in a customized workforce survey. CBPR methods and HWPP tools allowed us to identify health issues that we would not have detected with conventional methods, and provide opportunities for interventions that address root causes of poor health. We share challenges faced and lessons learned using CBPR with the correctional workforce.
The effectiveness of penitentiary activities, assuming the authoritarianism of the management system, is largely determined by the individual and personal characteristics of unit heads of the penal system, who need to show their managerial abilities as fully as possible, but not every leader has a sufficient amount of such abilities. If he/she does, he/she cannot always demonstrate them to the fullest extent. In this case, there can be serious miscalculations, leading to certain socio-psychological and criminological consequences. Among them, the instability of the socio-psychological climate in a team, provoking a high employee turnover, which does not allow forming the key personnel of a unit, as well as a high risk that subordinate employees, projecting the style, manner of communication and affects of the management, begin to show socially disapproving and even self-destructive forms of behavior, such as various forms of aggression towards oneself and others, neglect of safety requirements at work and in everyday life, unlawful actions against convicts, etc. One of the most important factors in the prevention of these phenomena is the system of work with a personnel reserve for managerial positions. The arsenal of diagnostic tools for the study of 65 employees working in the penal system, who are middle managers in the personnel reserve, included a set of methods: a) analysis of documents; b) expert assessment of the employee’s personality; c) psychological testing, which allows obtaining a generalized psychological profile of a personality according to the estimates of five “traits of an adequate personality”, motivators of socio-psychological activity, the style of behavior self-regulation, levels of legal consciousness and faith in people, as well as self-assessment of professional development opportunities and career prospects. The generalized characteristics of the respondents show that 88% of them meet the requirements for penitentiary activities. The respondents have an average level of emotional intelligence development with a tendency to lower; their style of behavior self-regulation is accentuated due to their relatively poorly developed independence; 95% of respondents have a high and medium level of legal consciousness development; 70% of them are distinguished by their distrust of people; the leading motivator of their socio-psychological activity is success achievement. All surveyed employees see opportunities for their professional development, although about 30% of them have concerns about promotion opportunities in this system. Based on the results obtained, the resources of success and the four most important areas of work with the personnel reserve were identified.
Job satisfaction is one of the most researched phenomena. But I am not aware of a study that assesses job satisfaction in Czech prisons despite the fact that it is a specific job with high physical and mental demands in a potentially dangerous environment. The purpose of this paper is to create a model describing job satisfaction and verify the anticipated relationship between job satisfaction and turnover of Prague correctional officers. While the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intentions has been confirmed, the anticipated strong relationship between supervisor support and correctional officer job satisfaction has not been confirmed. Descriptive statistics have also revealed the surprising fact that the employees with the lowest tenure have the weakest turnover intentions.
The article presents the results of a psychological survey of 90 employees, who determined the level of organizational stress and a degree of development of two professionally important qualities - stress tolerance and resilience. Three psychodiagnostic methods were used: 1) K. McLean scale of organizational stress in N. Vodopyanova's adaptation; 2) the method of studying stress tolerance as a socio-psychological quality of a person; 3) S. Muddy test of resilience. It was found that about 75% of employees deferred by a low overall level of organizational stress and at the same time they had a high level of stress tolerance and resilience; 17% of employees demonstrated a high level of organizational stress, 6% of which was characterized by a low level of stress tolerance. The consistent patterns are established as a result of the correlation analysis: the more active and productive an employee is, the higher his resilience and vice versa; the older the employee, the lower his control indicator; with increasing work experience, flexibility in employee behavior increases. The results of a comparative analysis by gender mark significant differences in the overall level of stress tolerance (higher among women) and the ability of self-knowledge (more developed among men). The psychological conditions for increasing stress tolerance and resilience on an individual level, as well as social and psychological conditions for reducing organizational stress are described.
This study explores the impact of working in correctional settings on custody personnel, examining in particular the differences between quality of professional life issues in substance abuse treatment environments versus general custody settings. The article describes research findings regarding the relationship between differing professional environments and subjective perceptions of physical and psychological health for custody personnel working in Substance Abuse Treatment units located in three separate prisons: the Substance Abuse Treatment Facility (SATF) at California State Prison, Corcoran; California Rehabilitation Center; and R.J. Donovan Correctional Facility. To carry out this study, the authors surveyed 120 custody staff members from treatment units and general population facilities, using three instruments. Also examined were a number of documented indicators of well-being, including inmate disciplinary problems, inmate random urinalysis results, staff sick leave, and occupational injuries. Along with the findings, implications of this research for national policy concerning prison-based substance abuse treatment are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relative effect of three sets of variables, namely, organizational characteristics, task characteristics, and extraorganizational variables, on job satisfaction and burnout. A total of 266 prison guards from four prison facilities in Israel were administered questionnaires containing scales of intraorganizational conflict, ambiguity, management support, and task charac teristics, as well as measures of family role conflict, community support and appreciation of the employee's job, job satisfaction, and burnout. The results suggest that both intraorganizational variables and external variables account significantly for the two criteria. Extraorganizational support and appreciation was the single best correlate of job satisfaction, while management support was the major correlate of burnout. The results are discussed in terms of their practical implications for organizational diagnosis and intervention, and in particular the importance of dealing with extraorganizational factors in OD practice.
Purpose
– To compare the experience of occupational stress across a large and diverse set of occupations. Three stress related variables (psychological well‐being, physical health and job satisfaction) are discussed and comparisons are made between 26 different occupations on each of these measures. The relationship between physical and psychological stress and job satisfaction at an occupational level is also explored.Design/methodology/approach – The measurement tool used is a short stress evaluation tool which provides information on a number of work related stressors and stress outcomes. Out of the full ASSET database 26 occupations were selected for inclusion in this paper.Findings – Six occupations are reporting worse than average scores on each of the factors – physical health, psychological well‐being and job satisfaction (ambulance workers, teachers, social services, customer services – call centres, prison officers and police). Differences across and within occupational groups, for example, teaching and policing, are detailed. The high emotional labour associated with the high stress jobs is discussed as a potential causal factor.Research limitations/implications – This is not an exhaustive list of occupations and only concerns employees working within the UK.Originality/value – There is little information available that shows the relative values of stress across different occupations, which would enable the direct comparison of stress levels. This paper reports the rank order of 26 different occupations on stress and job satisfaction levels.
The impact of dealing with a death in custody was explored in 49 prison officers who had dealt with such an event in the period 3-7 months prior to the study. A 36.7% incidence rate of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was identified. Optimism, avoidance problem solving style, prior experience of suicide and level of involvement in the incident were direct mediators of the impact of the event for the total sample, while perceived control, emotional support and other aspect of problem-solving style had an indirect effect. Separate analysis of the PTSD and non-PTSD groups showed that the only mediator for the PTSD group was prior experience. For the non-PTSD group a range of variables mediated the impact. It is argued that this provides a case for preventive rather than treatment interventions.
The wealth of literature on stress in the correctional workplace focused on correctional officers, frequently ignoring treatment personnel employed in these same institutions. This study advanced the literature on correctional workplace stress by: (1) testing for differences in workplace stress between correctional officers and treatment personnel, (2) examining personal and environmental factors to determine whether distinct precursors to stress existed for these two groups, and (3) utilizing multiple measures of stress. Self-report survey data from 3,794 employees in ten adult prisons in a southwestern state demonstrated that both groups of employees reported moderately high levels of job stress and stress-related health concerns. Apart from perceptions of safety, sources of stress as well as protective factors against stress were similar for both groups with environmental factors demonstrating the most robust impact.
This literature review presents an overview of occupational stress and burnout in correctional institutions, based on 43 investigations from 9 countries. First, the prevalence of various stress reactions among correctional officers (COs) is discussed: turnover and absenteeism rates, psychosomatic diseases, and levels of job dissatisfaction and burnout. Next, empirical evidence is summarized for the existence of 10 specific stressors in the CO's job. It appears that the most notable stressors for COs are role problems, work overload, demanding social contacts (with prisoners, colleagues, and supervisors), and poor social status. Finally, based on 21 articles, individual-oriented and organization-oriented approaches to reduce job stress and burnout among COs are discussed. It is concluded that particularly the latter (i.e., improving human resources management, professionalization of the CO's job, and improvement of the social work environment) seems to be a promising avenue for reducing job stress and burnout in correctional institutions.
The demand-control/support model of work stress was tested in a sample of 419 correctional officers. The results suggest a link between certain work characteristics (high demands, low control, and low support) and strain symptoms (e.g., psychological distress, job dissatisfaction) as well as with negative affectivity (NA). On the other hand, other job characteristics (high demands and high control) were associated with positive behavioral outcomes (seeking feedback, looking at work as a challenge). Workers in high-isolation strain jobs with the greatest work exposure showed higher levels of strain and NA than workers with less experience working in the same job. Results suggest that work experience may affect long-term personality evolution. It is concluded that studies that control for the nuisance aspects of trait NA may underestimate the impact of the work environment on strain.
To introduce the UK SF36 Version II (SF36-II), and to (a) gain population norms for the UK SF36-II in a large community sample as well as to explore the instrument's internal consistency reliability and construct validity, and (b) to derive the Physical Component Summary (PCS) and Mental Component Summary (MCS) algorithms for the UK SF36-II.
Postal survey using a questionnaire booklet, containing the SF-36-II and questions on demographics and long term illness.
The sample was drawn from General Practitioner Records held by the Health Authorities for Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Northamptonshire, and Oxfordshire.
The questionnaire was sent to 13,800 randomly selected subjects between the ages of 18-64 inclusive.
Scores for the eight dimensions of the UK SF36-II and the PCS and MCS summary scores.
The survey achieved a response rate of 64.4% (n = 8889). Internal consistency of the different dimensions of the questionnaire were found to be high. Normative data for the SF-36 are reported, broken down by age and sex, and social class. Factor analysis of the eight domains produced a two factor solution and provided weights for the UK SF36-II.
The SF36-II domains were shown to have improved reliability over the previous version of the UK SF36. Furthermore, enhancements to wording and response categories reduces the extent of floor and ceiling effects in the role performance dimensions. These advances are likely to lead to better precision as well as greater responsiveness in longitudinal studies.
Theories of medically unexplained illness based on the concepts of dissociation, conversion, and somatization are summarized. Evidence cited in support of these theories is described and the conceptual strengths and shortcomings of each approach are considered. It is argued that each of these approaches adds to the understanding of unexplained illness but that none is able to provide a comprehensive explanation of the phenomenon. An integrative conceptual model of unexplained illness based on cognitive psychological principles is then presented. This model attempts to combine existing theoretical approaches within a single explanatory framework, extending previous theory by explaining how compelling symptoms can exist in the absence of organic pathology. The clinical and empirical implications of the model are then considered.
The relationship between social and community ties and mortality was assessed using the 1965 Human Population Laboratory survey of a random sample of 6928 adults in Alameda County, California and a subsequent nine-year mortality follow-up. The findings show that people who lacked social and community ties were more likely to die in the follow-up period than those with more extensive contacts. The age-adjusted relative risks for those most Isolated when compared to those with the most social contacts were 2.3 for men and 2.8 for women. The association between social ties and mortality was found to be independent of self-reported physical health status at the time of the 1965 survey, year of death, socioeconomic status, and health practices such as smoking, alcoholic beverage consumption, obesity, physical activity, and utilization of preventive health services as well as a cumulative index of health practices.
This chapter begins with a history of the theoretical perspectives on the importanceof social relationships for health and well-being. It then presents a seriesof models that explain how social factors can influence health and discusses thechallenges facing the field in regard to the development of measurements andinterventions. The chapter concludes with an overview of the remainder of thevolume.
This study examined the relationship between social support and burnout among correctional staff at a private midwestern correctional facility for juveniles tried as adults. Research on correctional staff burnout often calls for social support to help combat the problem; however, there has been no published research on whether different types of social support influence the different dimensions of job burnout. As such, the analyses examined the effects of family-and-friends support, coworker support, management support, and supervisor support on emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and ineffectiveness. The results revealed that different types of social support influenced different dimensions of burnout. Each dimension of job burnout was influenced by at least one type of social support. Furthermore, the effects of some types of social support were unique to specific dimensions of job burnout, and none of the types combined to influence any dimension of job burnout in a uniform manner. The results point to the need to develop different forms of social support to deal with the different dimensions of burnout.
The purpose of this research is to examine occupational stress among correctional supervisors. Although a number of studies have focused on correctional officers, the systematic study of correctional supervisor stress has been neglected. This article draws on a sample of 329 correctional supervisors in one state to provide a quantitative and qualitative examination of correctional supervisor stress. Results indicate that overall stress levels are low. Furthermore, reported levels of stress do not vary along gender, race, educational level, and institution. However, three variables are significant predictors of low levels of stress: high levels of job satisfaction, high levels of social support, and an internal locus of control. Recommendations and avenues for future inquiry are presented.
Physical symptoms are fascinating phenomena to examine. We all experience them, use them as signals to guide our behavior, and usually assume that they accurately represent underlying physiological activity. At the same time, we implicitly know that bodily sensations are often vague, ambiguous, and subject to a variety of interpretations. It is not surprising, then, that there is often a disparity between what we think is going on in our bodies and what is objectively occurring. In short, phenomena such as physical symptoms are the stuff of psychology. My own research into physical symptoms started by accident several years ago. In a hastily devised experiment dealing with the effects of noise on behavior, I had to write a post-experimental questionnaire that would be long enough to allow the experimenter time to calibrate some equipment for a later portion of the study. I included some physical symptoms on the questionnaire as fillers. The experiment was a total failure, with the exception of the symptom reports. People's perceptions of symptoms were easily influenced by our manipulations, even though their actual physiological state had not changed. And so began the present inquiry. Despite the pervasiveness, importance, and sheer amount of time and money devoted to discussing and curing common physical symptoms and sensations, very little empirical work has been devoted to examining the psychological and perceptual factors related to sensory experience. Occa sional papers have tested a specific theory, such as cognitive dissonance, wherein physical symptoms served as an interesting dependent measure."
This study describes sources of occupational stress in the prison officer's job and investigates their relationships with tedium—defined as a general experience of physical, emotional, and attitudinal exhaustion. Custodial personnel from four maximum security Israeli prisons participated in the study (N = 201). The measured sources of stress incude role conflicts of several types, fear and danger, role overload, role ambiguity, job scope, working conditions, and several types of social support. The variables making the largest unique contributions to the variance in tedium are role overload, management support, and societal support. The relationships between job tenure, sources of stress, and tedium are also explored, and the practical implications of the findings are discussed.
A number of previous studies have examined the impact of stress on correctional officers. Findings in several of these previous studies indicate that peer support is positively related to increases in work stress. This, however, tends to contradict theoretical assumptions about the ability of support systems to offer coping mechanisms for stress. This research examines the question of methodological precision by assessing the indice used to measure "peer support." The finding described here is that, while "peer support" has been used as a reliable indicator, it well may be an invalid one when measuring work stress.
Based on a survey of line staff in a southern correctional system, we analyzed how various stressors, coping factors, and status characteristics influenced three types of stress: work stress, job dissatisfaction, and life stress. The stressors of role problems and perceived dangerousness were positively related to multiple forms of stress. While supervisory support mitigated both work stress and job dissatisfaction, the effects of other coping factors were variable. Black and educated officers had higher levels of dissatisfaction, while female officers experienced more stress on the job. Taken together, the independent variables in our framework accounted for a large amount of the variance of work stress, a moderate amount of job dissatisfaction, and a relatively low amount of life stress. Apart from the specific findings, the data suggest that theoretical models of officer stress must incorporate coping factors and specify how the dimensions of an officer's occupational role and personality differentially impact on distinct types of stress.
Burnout among correctional staff was examined within a person-environment framework. Total exhaustion and number of bad day scores were expected to be related to sets of personal (e.g., age, length of employment) and environmental (e.g., relationship with coworkers, role ambiguity) variables. Results of regression analyses supported this prediction and also suggested that burnout was more closely linked to the working environment than characteristics about the staff. Surprisingly, this experience was best explained by the staffs' relationship with inmates. It appears that altering the staffs' social networks and self-expectations would not reduce burnout, while enhancing contact with inmates and clarifying work roles would.
Studies have described the stressful and hazardous nature of working within the correctional environment as well as the way in which female officers encounter additional workplace pressures associated with their entry into a nontraditional occupation. This study advances the literature on gender and stress by examining the gendered influence of multiple environmental variables on the job stress of correctional officers. Contrary to expectations, there were few differences between male and female officers in the effects of workplace stressors on their level of job stress. Work-family conflict proved to have the greatest impact on stress for both male and female officers, whereas concerns regarding organizational support for equal treatment policies affected stress only among male officers.
The number of private correctional facilities operated by corporate security businesses has increased rapidly over the past 30 years. There has been a parallel increase in literature, both pro and con, comparing the efficiency and effectiveness of private and public prisons; however, employees of private correctional facilities have been largely ignored. This is a serious oversight in light of the fact that employees are the backbone of these facilities. Organizational support is an aspect of the work environment that may have significant effects on employees. Supervisory support and management support are the two dimensions of organizational support. Multi-variate analysis found that both forms of organizational support are important. Specifically, supervisory support and management support were found to have negative effects on job stress and positive effects on job satisfaction and organizational commitment among employees at a private correctional facility.
The congruence between male prison officers' (POs) perceptions of job-related stress and wives' perceptions of their husbands' stress was examined. A Sources of Stress Questionnaire (SSQ) and the GHQ were administered to a random sample of POs. Their wives were asked to identify the sources of stress in their husbands' job, and to complete the GHQ. The results of two measures of congruence are reported. Firstly, separate factor analyses of the SSQ for the POs and their wives revealed similar factor structures and, secondly, the pattern and magnitude of the stress reported by the couples varied within factors. Wives reported greater stress originating from the violent nature of their husbands' job, and less stress originating from living in a prison village than their husbands. It is suggested that the wives' accurate perceptions arise as the result of subjective assessments, communication of which is facilitated by particular features of the work and work environment.
A daily event-recording method, referred to as the Daily Interaction Record in Organizations (DIRO) was employed for assessing the influence of three types of social interaction on negative affect at work. For this purpose, 38 correctional officers (COs) completed forms, for a l-week period, that described their social interactions and stressful events at work. Moreover, the forms measured the negative feelings of COs both at the beginning and at the end of the workday. The results showed that each type of social interaction had a different effect on negative affect at the end of the day. Instrumental support showed an adverse effect on negative affect because this type of support appeared to induce feelings of inferiority, which in turn led to negative affect. Rewarding companionship appeared to have a positive effect, whereas intimate support showed no effect at all on negative affect. It is concluded that a micro-analytic approach offers interesting possibilities for fine-grained analyses of daily occurring social interactions and psychological mechanisms involved in social support as related to negative affect.
The present review examined the predictors of job stress in correctional officers and marked the first meta-analysis of this topic area. Twenty studies were selected for inclusion, producing 191 individual effect size estimates. Overall, the findings revealed that work attitudes (i.e., participation in decision-making, job satisfaction, commitment, and turnover intention) and specific correctional officer problems (i.e., perceived dangerousness and role difficulties) generated the strongest predictive relationships with job stress. Furthermore, both favorable (i.e., human service/rehabilitation orientation and counseling) and unfavorable (i.e., punitiveness, custody orientation, social distance, and corruption) correctional officer attitudes yielded moderate relationships with job stress, with the country of study emerging as a critical moderating variable. The weakest correlates of job stress were demographic variables and job characteristics (e.g., security level). The implications of these findings are discussed and directions for future research are provided.
The study investigates whether work stressors, coping styles, and work-related social support predict burnout among prison officers (N = 476). It was hypothesized that coping and social support would mediate the effects of work stressors on burnout and that these effects would be moderated by temperamental endurance. Results of structural equation modeling showed that emotion-oriented coping was positively related to emotional exhaustion, and negatively to personal accomplishment. Task-oriented coping was positively related to personal accomplishment. Social support from work was negatively related to emotional exhaustion. The effects of work stressors on burnout were mediated by work-related social support and by emotion-oriented coping. Additionally, some of these mediating effects were moderated by endurance. Work-related social support was negatively related to depersonalization only among participants with strong endurance. High level of work stressors predicted high emotion-oriented coping only among individuals with weak endurance.
Using self-report data from a sample of correctional officers at a medium security prison, this article examines two questions. First, are there similarities in the particular sources of stress for correctional officers and those described in the organizational literature as sources of stress among employees of other organizations? Second, given the particular sources of stress identified, what are the most effective coping mechanisms utilized by correctional officers? The analysis reveals that correctional officers experience many of the same organizational level stressors as those identified within the broader occupational literature, as well as those unique to their profession. Additionally, correctional officers appear to utilize personal coping mechanisms for successfully reducing overall levels of job stress. Those same coping mechanisms, however, do not appear to mediate the effects of organizational sources of stress. The findings support the inclusion of the broader occupational literature on stress and coping in correctional officer stress research. Additionally, the findings suggest the need for administrators of correctional facilities to develop resources to assist officers in dealing with stress.
Measures of general job stress (Job Stress Index—JSI; Sandman, 1992) and appraisal of specific job-related stressors (SSOSQ; Anson et al., 1997) were administered to 413 juvenile correctional officers (JCOs) and to eighty-four of their supervisors. JCOs evaluated their work environment as more stressful on the JSI than workers in the normative sample on every job stress dimension except ‘time pressure’. The highest stress intensity score was in the area of ‘competence of others’, however, the highest score relative to workers in other vocations was for ‘physical demands and danger’. JCOs who had been employed longer and had higher educational attainment had higher JSI scores; no JSI differences were found as a function of JCO race or gender. Supervisor rankings of sources of stress for themselves were virtually identical to those of JCOs, although overall stress intensity ratings were significantly lower for supervisors. On the more job-specific SSOSQ, lack of support by agency, long hours, and inadequate tools for the job eclipsed physical danger as stressors. On this measure, non-Caucasians and those with longer tenure on the job had higher stress scores, particularly in the area of physical danger; females versus males reported higher stress stemming from lack of support by agency and everyday job duties. Supervisors rated JCOs' work environment as more stressful than JCOs did themselves, but rankings of stressors by JCOs, supervisors, and by adult officers in Anson et al.'s sample were not significantly different, indicating generalizability to a wide range of correctional settings. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for development of stress management interventions oriented around increasing officers' autonomy and sense of control.
In an era in which rising costs, shrinking budgets, and personnel shortages are common, it is increasingly important to provide a positive work situation to ensure worker stability. Research indicates that job burnout is a negative response that is harmful to the employee and to the organization. Depersonalization, emotional exhaustion, and feeling a lack of accomplishment at work are all dimensions of job burnout. This study examined the association of job involvement, job stress, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment with burnout among correctional staff. The findings highlight the significance of these variables in relation to burnout. Specifically, job satisfaction had an inverse relationship with emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a sense of reduced accomplishment at work, whereas job stress had a significant positive relationship with depersonalization and emotional exhaustion. Job involvement also had a positive association with emotional exhaustion, whereas commitment to the organization had no relationship with any of the three dimensions of burnout
Social support is defined as information leading the subject to believe that he is cared for and loved, esteemed, and a member of a network of mutual obligations. The evidence that supportive interactions among people are protective against the health consequences of life stress is reviewed. It appears that social support can protect people in crisis from a wide variety of pathological states: from low birth weight to death, from arthritis through tuberculosis to depression, alcoholism, and the social breakdown syndrome. Furthermore, social support may reduce the amount of medication required, accelerate recovery, and facilitate compliance with prescribed medical regimens.
A description is presented of the development of a new scale to measure social support which is called the Significant Others (SOS) Scale. The scale measures different functional resources of social support that may be provided by a number of significant role relationships within an individual's social network. Preliminary results from a sample of mature students show that the scale has good six-month test-retest reliability, and significantly distinguishes between depressed and non-depressed respondents. Details of a short form of the scale currently being developed are also presented.
Six theoretical models of social support in relation to perceived job stress, burnout, and health were tested both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Participants at Time 1 were state correctional officers (N = 262) who completed questionnaires in which multiple indicators of each construct were assessed. Time 2 participants (N = 177) were those officers from the Time 1 sample who completed the questionnaire again three months later. Structural equation analyses revealed that only one of the six models was supported by cross-sectional results. In this model a direct negative relationship between the WORKPLACE SOCIAL SUPPORT and BURNOUT latent variables was specified, along with direct, positive relationships between the JOB STRESS and BURNOUT latent variables and the BURNOUT and POOR HEALTH latent variables. However, none of the six models was supported by the longitudinal results. Thus, cross-sectional results were consistent with a model in which social support on the job influences positive health only through its direct and negative effect on burnout symptoms, but such causal connections were not validated longitudinally.
Three alternative models of the role of workplace social support in ameliorating the effect of occupational stress on burnout symptoms were tested. Correctional officers (N = 166) completed a variety of questionnaire measures of job stress, the Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors, and the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Analyses showed no support for either the direct or buffering models of social support. Rather, the data were consistent with the indirect model of social support in the workplace. Among the job stress indices, role ambiguity, work load, and direct contact with inmates were found to be independent predictors of burnout symptomatology. The findings suggest a preventive rather than remedial effect of workplace social support in reducing occupational stress and burnout.
This study estimates the relationship between social support and physical and psychological adjustment, using measures that afford a qualitative assessment of social support. Qualitative indices of social support in family (Family Relationships Index) and work (Work Relationships Index) environments were derived from available social climate measures. Respondents were a randomly selected community sample of 267 male and 267 female adult family members. Results support hypotheses that qualitative measures of support in family and work environments predict psychosomatic complaints and depression after variance due to negative life change and quantitative measures of social support is accounted for. While the work environment is a more important source of support for men than women, the family environment provides an especially potent source of support for unemployed women.
In vitro long-term depression (LTD) is thought to be a model for the loss of cortical responsiveness to an eye deprived of vision during the critical period. Using whole cell recording, the present study investigates the mechanisms of LTD in vitro across layers in developing rat visual cortex. LTD was induced in layers II/III, V, and VI but not layer IV with 10-min 1-Hz stimulation paired with postsynaptic depolarization. LTD in layers II/III and V could be blocked by the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist D-aminophosphonovaleric acid (D-AP5) but not by 100 microM (2S)-amino-2-[(1S,2S)-2-carboxycycloprop-1-yl]-3-(xanth-9-yl) propanoic acid (LY341495), a metabotropic glutamate receptor inhibitor. In contrast, LTD in layer VI was blocked by 100 microM LY341495 and (RS)-1-aminoindan-1,5-dicarboxylic acid (AIDA) but not D-AP5 and partially blocked by application of guanosine 5'-O-(2-thiodiphosphate) thilothium salt (GDP-beta-S) in patch pipette, suggesting an involvement of postsynaptic group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). These results indicate that LTD in developing rat visual cortex varies with layer: LTD was absent in layer IV, suggesting a unique plasticity mechanism at geniculocortical synapses; LTD in layers II/III and V depends on NMDA receptors but not mGluRs, and LTD in layer VI requires mGluRs but not NMDA receptors.
This study aimed to assess whether patients with medically unexplained symptoms (MUS) attending cardiology and neurology out-patient clinics were less satisfied with their consultation than patients whose presenting symptoms were explained by an organic diagnosis. The multidimensional nature of satisfaction and its relationships with emotional distress and illness perception were also assessed within the two groups.
A prospective cohort study was carried out at a large inner city teaching hospital.
New attenders at cardiology and neurology out-patient clinics participated in the study.
The Satisfaction Questionnaire, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), the Health Anxiety Questionnaire (HAQ) and the Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ) were used in the study.
There were no overall significant differences in satisfaction between organic and MUS patients. Factor analysis yielded four factors: satisfaction with information, satisfaction with style of doctor-patient interaction, satisfaction with clinic environment, and satisfaction with patient's health. Levels of internal consistency were good, with Cronbach's alphas between .74 and .95 for the four subscales.
When considering patients with MUS, these findings emphasize the need to examine healthcare satisfaction from a detailed and multidimensional perspective. Relationships between satisfaction dimensions, clinic specialties and measures of psychological well-being and of illness perception show interesting patterns. These findings raise both theoretical and service delivery questions concerning communication strategies.
In spite of the apparent clinical importance of somatization, the concept does not have a single meaning. The focus of the present article is therefore not on scrutinizing existing diagnostic categories but rather on the different dimensions that relate to somatization and on the relevance of psychological models such as social learning theory, stress coping, illness cognition, and self-regulation models for explaining more carefully the predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors of (different types of) somatization. This combined approach could lead to the definition of more homogeneous and, therefore, clinically more meaningful subgroups of somatization.
Little is known about whether illness perceptions affect health outcomes in primary care patients. The aim of this study was to examine if patients' illness perceptions were associated with their self-rated health in a 2-year follow-up period.
One thousand seven hundred eighty-five primary care patients presenting a new or recurrent health problem completed an adapted version of the illness perception questionnaire and the Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36) at baseline and 3, 12, and 24 months' follow-up. Linear regressions were performed for (1) all patients, (2) patients without chronic disorders presenting physical disease, and (3) patients presenting medically unexplained symptoms (MUS).
Negative illness perceptions were associated with poor physical and mental health at baseline. They most strongly predicted changes in health status at follow-up for the whole group of patients. Patients presenting with MUS had more negative illness perceptions and lower mental and physical components subscale of the SF-36 scores at all time points.
Patients' perception of a new or recurrent health problem predicts self-reported physical and mental health up to 2 years after consulting the general practitioner and offers an obvious starting point for addressing nonbiomedical aspects of illness.
This study investigated the experience of stress for 143 mostly male New Jersey correction officers, including officers from both state and county, of all ranks, and with varying lengths of service. Each filled in a questionnaire eliciting information regarding perceptions of stress in themselves and others, situational and temporal experience of correctional stress, consequences in terms of physical health, emotional and interpersonal relations, and job performance, perceptions of sources of correctional stress, and coping techniques utilized. While objective indicators such as physical illnesses and high divorce rates suggested that the job was indeed a stressful one, the correction officers presented a tough, “macho” image, denying their stress and its consequences, although they were more willing to report stress-related problems in their fellow workers. While they identified officer-inmate interaction as their major situation of stress, they attributed their problems in this area to administrative malfunctions which place them in a classic double-bind predicament in relation to rule enforcement. Their powerlessness in this situation is rendered especially stressful by the macho working personality which the job requires of them.