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Female hospitality executives and their effects on firm performance
Abstract
While increased gender diversity at operational and managerial levels in the hotel industry can be observed, women represent only a small minority in top management positions and at the highest levels of executive leadership. This paper explores gender compositions in executive management teams of hotel firms and provides comprehensive longitudinal empirical data, which shows how increases of female hotel executive managers impact the financial performance of their hotel organizations. The authors determine the threshold needed for the female managers to exert influence in their hotel-executive management teams and explore the different percentage ranges of gender diversity and their impact on hotel performances below and above the threshold or critical mass point. The findings of this study have implications for hotel firms in terms of making more informed decisions on gender diversity-related program and affirmative action policies.
... Previous studies have found that gender diverse management teams provide a wider range of relevant knowledge, skills, and competencies, which leads to higher performance (Gröschl and Arcot, 2014;Menicucci et al., 2019). Furthermore, it was also found that female CEOs are better equipped to lead female workers through their ability to better communicate with one another (Flabbi et al., 2018). ...
... The current study thematically analyzes peerreviewed articles published between 2010 and 2020 to describe how hospitality and tourism organizations may become more gender diverse in their top management teams along with the outcomes of doing so. While diversity as a whole and diversity management have been extensively reviewed (e.g., Kalargyrou and Costen, 2017;Manoharan and Singal, 2017;Sourouklis and Tsagdis, 2013), gender diversity has not been subjected to a review of its own in the hospitality and tourism context, despite the abundance of research on this specific topic (Costa et al., 2017;Gröschl and Arcot, 2014;Menicucci et al., 2019). ...
... Leadership in both general business and hospitality have been defined in a variety of ways. Top management, similarly, has included the board of directors, top chief executives, or a combination thereof in the past literature (e.g., Dezső et al., 2016;Gröschl and Arcot, 2014;Hambrick et al., 2015;Song et al., 2020). Generally, it is understood the board of directors represents the owners or shareholders while the chief executives represent the business and the strategic decisions within it. ...
Due to women still accounting for less than a quarter of hospitality and tourism executive-level positions, the purpose of this paper was to identify antecedents to and outcomes of gender diverse hospitality and tourism top management teams, describe potential mediators and moderators to these relationships, and provide directions for future research. A systematic review of gender diversity in hospitality and tourism top management teams (TMTs) was conducted between the years 2010 and 2020, resulting in 26 articles used for the thematic analysis. Antecedents, outcomes, mediators, and moderators of gender diverse hospitality and tourism TMTs were identified. The results indicated female role models, organizational structure, and organizational support as antecedents, while financial performance, business growth, and human resource outcomes were consequences. The resource advantage theory is proposed as an explanation for each of these relationships. This study fills a gap in previous literature by conducting a review of gender diversity, identifying critical gaps, and proposing an overarching theory.
... Nonetheless, 1999 marked the beginning of a trend in studies putting forward the argument that greater gender homogeneity within workgroups would lead to stronger group cohesion and member commitment while reducing interpersonal conflicts and turnover rates-in short, better performance through heterogeneity [56,57]. Gender AA regained attention as a topic of study after 2015 following the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 17 goals which includes gender equity, further explaining the new growth in papers published. ...
... Several authors also contend that public and private organizations differ in the drivers or motivations to initiate AA [22,31,56,64,65,74]. While the former responds to legal compliance [25,70], the latter can be motivated by the potential benefits of heterogeneity in management [12,50,54,61,75] or even understand this "as part of a design to achieve political goals" [33]. ...
... Then again, self-competence and perceived stereotyping affects AA targets' perceived performance [69]. The opposite is also true, because whenever non-targeted groups feel discriminated and undervalued, such feelings affect both the individual's performance and that of the organization overall [24,31,56,69,77,83]. ...
Gender affirmative action (AA) in management remains a controversial topic among scholars, practitioners, and employees. While some individuals may support the use of AA policies as a means of increasing representation of women, others are not supportive at all, further understanding gender AA as an unacceptable violation of merit—even when targeted by it. With the aim of analyzing how scholars have approached the subject, we systematically reviewed 76 published articles (SCOPUS database), covering the extant literature on gender AA and management. Findings indicate a consensus regarding the common antecedents of attitudes towards gender AA with prior experiences with AA and diversity management (DM) (as well as general perceptions of AA). Performance and satisfaction appear as the predominant outcomes. In addition, while investigating the differences among AA, equal employment opportunity (EEO) and diversity management (DM), scholars are mainly focused on the effectiveness of AA as a means of increasing the inclusion of minorities in general. We conclude that despite marginal studies on employees’ attitudes toward gender AA, there is a gap in the literature, particularly an absence of research on the bivalent position of meritocracy (or merit violation) as both an antecedent and outcome of attitudes towards AA, which deserves further scrutiny.
... For example, female executives in the hospitality industry are often more cautious and risk-aware in their investment decisions than their male counterparts (Ozdemir & Erkmen, 2022). Moreover, a diverse gender composition in TMTs has been associated with a more robust adoption of corporate social responsibility practices in hotels (Quintana-García et al., 2018) and has been found to positively influence financial performance (Gröschl & Arcot, 2014;Marco, 2012). The impact of female leadership permeates through the human resources domain, with women in leadership positions able to significantly influence gender composition across various organizational levels (Ali et al., 2021;Russen et al., 2021). ...
... These findings demonstrated the value of female leadership in achieving positive results for T&H organizations, where decision-making often involves strategic social responsibility considerations and a balanced approach to risk management, which are crucial for long-term success. However, as Gröschl and Arcot (2014) Employee-level outcomes of WiL have been identified, including reduced job stress and increased job satisfaction and retention intention (Boyol et al., 2019). WiL also influences employees' attitudes towards female leaders, impacting perceptions of emotional leadership and leader effectiveness (Koburtay & Syed, 2019;Litwin et al., 2019;Xiong et al., 2022). ...
... Many studies find mixed impacts of WOCBs on accounting performance because they use different measures of WOCBs (Farag & Mallin, 2017;Gordini & Rancati, 2017) and accounting performance (Haslam, Ryan, Kulich, Trojanowski, & Atkins, 2010;Solakoglu, 2013;Muravyev, 2017). Furthermore, a few studies provide evidence for an inverted N-shaped relationship (or inverted U-shaped, if we ignore the lower part of the women proportion on board, which shows negative relationship) between women board members and accounting performance (Pathan & Faff, 2013;Gröschl & Arcot, 2014;Wu, Yao, & Muhammad, 2017). Indeed, several studies supporting the critical mass theory (Torchia et al., 2011) find that the relationship between WOCBs and accounting performance has changed from negative to positive in firms that have increased their WOCBs proportion from below to equal or more than 30% (e.g., Joecks et al., 2013;Arena et al., 2015;Elmagrhi, Ntim, Malagila, Fosu, & Tunyi, 2018;Wiley & Monllor-Tormos, 2018). ...
... Indeed, several studies supporting the critical mass theory (Torchia et al., 2011) find that the relationship between WOCBs and accounting performance has changed from negative to positive in firms that have increased their WOCBs proportion from below to equal or more than 30% (e.g., Joecks et al., 2013;Arena et al., 2015;Elmagrhi, Ntim, Malagila, Fosu, & Tunyi, 2018;Wiley & Monllor-Tormos, 2018). It is worth noting, however, that the critical mass of WOCBs for a positive impact on corporate outcomes is still an ongoing theoretical and empirical debate because existing studies from different contexts have shown different results, such as critical mass being 20% rather than 30% (e.g., see Gröschl & Arcot, 2014). ...
This paper provides an up-to-date and comprehensive systematic literature review (SLR) of the existing research on women on corporate boards (WOCBs) and corporate financial and non-financial performance. The aim is to synthesise and extend current understanding of both the existing (i) theoretical (i.e., economic, psychological and social) perspectives and (ii) empirical evidence on the (a) multi-level (i.e., individual-, social-, firm- and country-level) antecedents of WOCBs, and (b) the effects that WOCBs have on a wide range of corporate financial and non-financial performance. We achieve this by adopting a three-step SLR approach to analyse/review one of the largest SLR datasets to be employed to date, consisting of 634 mixed, qualitative, quantitative and theoretical studies conducted in over 100 countries from more than 10 disciplines (e.g., accounting, finance, economics and governance) from 1981 to 2019 and published in 270 top-ranked journals. Our findings are as follows. First, a large number of existing studies are descriptive and/or they draw on single rather than multi-theoretical perspectives. Second, existing studies have focused on firm-level rather than country-level antecedents of WOCBs. Third, observable methodological limitations include the dearth of qualitative, mixed-methods and cross-cultural/country studies. Finally, we outline opportunities for future WOCBs research.
... In 2012, the World Bank noted the significant growth in the number of women participating in the labor market (See Figure 1). Within the hospitality industry women's involvement has dramatically changed (Santero-Sanchez, Segovia-Perez, Castro-Nunez, Figueroa-Domecq, & Talon-Ballestero, 2015), leading to an increase in female positions at both operational and managerial levels (Groschl & Arcot, 2014) Women represent between 60% and 70% of the hospitality workforce, however, less than 40% are in managerial positions and only 5-8% are members of Boards of Directors (Baum & Cheung, 2015). These gender differences are reinforced in the education system with 60-70% of students in hospitality programs being female (Schoffstall, 2015), a turnaround from comparable statistics in the 1980s (Ewert, 2012). ...
... However, there is a noticeable horizontal segregation (i.e. the concentration of women and men in professions or sectors of economic activity) and vertical segregation (i.e. the under-representation at the top of occupation-specific ladders) of female employees in the field (Campos-Soria, Garcia-Pozo, & Sanchez-Ollero, 2015). Groschl and Arcot (2014) and Bird, Lynch, and Ingram (2002) reported that women only occupy a small percentage of top management positions and executive leadership levels. ...
The aim of this study was to explore whether Taiwanese hospitality workers’ gender moderates the relationship between perceived ethnic diversity levels within their workplace and work-related outcomes at an individual employee level. Data were collected from 371 employees across 26 hotels in Taiwan. The results supported mediation effects of job satisfaction and affective commitment on the relationship between perceived ethnic diversity and employees’ turnover intention. Gender moderated the relationships between perceived diversity and job satisfaction, affective commitment and the relationships between job satisfaction and turnover intention. This study highlights the importance of ethnic diversity impacts on employee work outcomes within Asian hospitality organizations, specifically in Taiwan.
... Nevertheless, research on CEO demographics and experience-related attributes in the hospitality literature is sparse. Although not directly studying the impact of CEO attributes on firm performance, a handful of studies on hospitality executives provide some evidence of the association between personal attributes, such as gender (Gröschl & Arcot, 2014) and tenure (Upneja & Ozdemir, 2014), and firm performance. More studies are needed to better understand how CEO attributes affect hospitality firm performance. ...
... When the CEO is a woman, the firm has lower risk levels than when the CEO is a man (Khan, Walayet, & João Paulo, 2013). Gröschl and Arcot (2014) explored the composition of top management teams (TMT) in the hotel industry and found that different proportions of female executives in a TMT have different impacts on firm performance. When 10%-20% of TMT members are female, female executives have a positve influence on the firm's financial performance. ...
Drawing on upper echelons theory, we explore demographic and other attributes of CEOs in the hospitality industry and their impact on firm performance. Our results, based on a sample of 1,427 CEO firm-years of publicly traded companies over a period of 24 years, show that a typical CEO in the hospitality industry is male, in his mid-50s, with no graduate degree and no prior CEO experience, but has worked in operations and has an average tenure of approximately 9 years. Our analyses show that while there is some relationship between CEO attributes and firm performance, the sign and significance of this relationship depends on the specific firm performance measure used. Our study contributes to the literature in corporate governance and hospitality by systematically examining the effect of CEO demographics and other attributes on firm performance in the hospitality industry. We draw implications for CEO search committees of hospitality firms and outline avenues for future research.
... Diversity practices as a theme dominated the research that was reviewed for this paper, with 13 articles (23%) of the review publications. Areas of study included best practices in diversity (Madera, 2013), the business case for diversity (Gröschl and Arcot, 2014;Singal, 2014), diversity management practices and programs (Gröschl and Doherty, 1999;Iverson, 2000;Kim, 2006;Woods and Sciarini, 1995), and Chinese students' perception of diversity management (Yap et al., 2015). Trends in publication show that the number of diversity management articles in the general management literature far exceeds the number of diversity management publications in the hospitality literature, however within the general management literature there is call for researchers to understand diversity management in combination with other HR practices (Kulik and Roberson, 2008). ...
... Finally, the ways in which diversity affects the bottom-line, not only in terms of intermediate outcomes like employee or customer satisfaction, but also organizational financial performance, must be investigated. Studies capturing the diversity-financial performance relationship is rare in hospitality literature (see, Gröschl and Arcot, 2014;Singal, 2014). The two available studies have used Standard and Poors' ExecuComp database and publicly traded firms in the United States as their sample. ...
With demographic shifts, international labor mobility, and the blurring of geographical boundaries, workforce diversity and diversity management have assumed an important role in hospitality operations. More importantly previous research has established the role diversity plays on outcomes such as innovation and firm performance. Yet reports of research on diversity and its management in the hospitality industry are fragmented, underdeveloped, and inconsistent. To assess the current state of this research, we provide a systematic review of the available research on the different dimensions of diversity, and on topics related to diversity management. Using articles found in hospitality journals, we identify current themes explored by scholars as well as gaps and limitations. We provide suggestions for topics, themes and methodologies for future research and highlight the importance of research that can inform managerial practice. Our review indicates that there is greater need for theory development, empirical data-driven research, and expansion of contexts in hospitality-diversity research, especially in terms of geographical regions covered by extant studies.
... In 2012, the World Bank noted the significant growth in the number of women participating in the labor market (See Figure 1). Within the hospitality industry women's involvement has dramatically changed (Santero-Sanchez, Segovia-Perez, Castro-Nunez, Figueroa-Domecq, & Talon-Ballestero, 2015), leading to an increase in female positions at both operational and managerial levels (Groschl & Arcot, 2014) Women represent between 60% and 70% of the hospitality workforce, however, less than 40% are in managerial positions and only 5-8% are members of Boards of Directors (Baum & Cheung, 2015). These gender differences are reinforced in the education system with 60-70% of students in hospitality programs being female (Schoffstall, 2015), a turnaround from comparable statistics in the 1980s (Ewert, 2012). ...
... However, there is a noticeable horizontal segregation (i.e. the concentration of women and men in professions or sectors of economic activity) and vertical segregation (i.e. the under-representation at the top of occupation-specific ladders) of female employees in the field (Campos-Soria, Garcia-Pozo, & Sanchez-Ollero, 2015). Groschl and Arcot (2014) and Bird, Lynch, and Ingram (2002) reported that women only occupy a small percentage of top management positions and executive leadership levels. ...
This study investigates employees’ perceptions of hygiene and motivation factors in Taiwanese hotels. Using a comparative importance–performance analysis approach, the study also examines the differences between the perceptions of employees in low- and high-diversity organizations. The results reveal that employees in hotels with a high level of organizational diversity reported higher levels of employee job satisfaction than did employees in hotels with low levels. The authors discuss the theoretical and empirical implications of their findings.
... In the specific case of Spanish firms, the study of Minguez-Vera (2014) showed that gender influences firm performance and that this effect is greater in service-sector firms. In line with the above, the studies of Chen et al. (2021), Gröschl and Arcot (2014), Menicucci et al. (2019), Repetti (2020) or Song et al. (2020) concluded that female representation in management teams has a positive impact on hotel performance. Finally, the control variables were not statistically significant so, despite presenting a positive coefficient, we cannot confirm their relationship with firm performance. ...
... Nevertheless, hotels face challenges in retaining their female employees due to longer and odd working hours and work-life balance issues (Karatepe & Uludag, 2008;Mooney & Ryan, 2009). The retention strategies and advancement programs executed by hotels have been yielding unsatisfactory outcomes, leading to an outflow of talented women employees (Gröschl & Arcot, 2014), and consequently making it imperative to examine the work-experiences and career advancement prospects for female employees. ...
This study aims to provide an insight into the factors that affect workplace experiences and opportunities for career progression of female employees in the Indian hotel industry. It provides a much-needed perspective on the work-life of women in the Indian hotel industry. The study had two phases: a systematic literature review was conducted for the first phase and the second phase included conducting semi-structured in-depth interviews. The findings of this study reveal that working in the hotel industry remains an ultimate choice for women where they have the opportunities to connect and socialize, enjoy and learn amidst the various challenges and barriers faced. The issue of gender is irrelevant for the women who set their standards and want to achieve their goals. Women show resilience and work against all odds with self-motivation to reach these goals.
... In these studies, they found that women favoured the efficiency of intellectual capital and its disclosure. In tourism research, previous studies have found that female managers are significantly related to the performance of hotel companies, considering that they bring a wide range of valuable knowledge, skills, and competences into the company (Gröschl & Arcot, 2014;Menicucci et al., 2019). Some others such as Yeh and Trejos (2015) found an inconsistent effect between gender diversity and tourism performance. ...
The aim of this research is to explore the intellectual capital in the hotel industry paying particular attention to the gender of the manager. A model is proposed that includes the determinants of the intellectual capital of hotels and the moderating effect of the general manager's gender. Our findings show the positive influence of turbulent environments and dynamic capabilities on intellectual capital development. The subsequent relationship between intellectual capital and hotel performance is U-shaped rather than linear. Furthermore, this relationship is more likely to be positive in hotels managed by women, due to their ability to enhance human, social and organizational capital. The analysis technique used is Partial Least Squares based on variance (PLS-SEM) on a sample of Spanish hotels in 2020.
... Diversity management refers to "utilizing the organizational culture and human resource management (HRM) practices to increase or maintain the variety of the human capital on some given aspects and ensure that the variety in the human capital on these given aspects does not hinder the achievement of organizational objectives (Olsen andMartins 2012, p. 1161). Research studies on diversity management in the hospitality and tourism field have focused on various aspects related to diversity management including the business case for diversity (Singal 2014), disability inclusion (Gröschl 2007, Kalargyrou andVolis 2014), ethnic minority (Manoharan et al. 2014), gender diversity (Gröschl and Arcot 2014) and language diversity (Dawson et al. 2011). Gröschl and Doherty (1999) presented one of the earliest studies on diversity management focusing specifically on the hospitality and tourism industry. ...
In environments characterized by extreme cultural diversity, the ability to understand the cultural makeup of the workforce would equip businesses with knowledge required for innovation and enhancing performance. So, managing culturally diverse employees is a key challenge, especially in the hospitality and tourism industry, where people with diverse cultural backgrounds from all over the world interact with each other. This paper is a conceptual research that outlines the concept of cultural diversity in the hospitality industry. In addition, it outlines the benefits and challenges regarding culturally diverse workplace. Furthermore, it addresses diversity management practices and why cultural intelligence is essential when managing employees. Keywords: hospitality sector, multiculturalism, diversity management, cultural intelligence
... Gender equity interventions to address this gender gap have been developed over the years, and are synthesised in a recent systematic review of organisational-level interventions that advance women in leadership [5]. Rationale for gender equity interventions range from a social justice position [6][7][8][9], where emphasis is on the provision of equal opportunities for men and women, to organisational performance as the context for change [10][11][12]. Organisational performance highlights the loss of talent and lack of diversity in approaches and decision-making, leading to a less than optimal capacity for improvement in healthcare outcomes [13][14][15][16][17]. In recent years, the responsibility of change has shifted from the individual to organisational action-on supporting women as a collective group, transforming strategy to recognise the deeply entrenched and seemingly intractable structural barriers and biases in policy, process and practice [5,18,19]. ...
Background:
Few studies address how to prioritise organisational interventions that advance women in leadership. We report on the relevance, feasibility and importance of evidence-based interventions for a large healthcare organisation. This study supports the first stage of implementation in a large National Health and Medical Research Council funded initiative seeking to advance women in healthcare leadership.
Methods:
An expert multi-disciplinary panel comprised of health professionals and leaders from a large healthcare network in Australia participated. The initial Delphi survey was administered online and results were presented in a Nominal Group Technique workshop. Here, the group made sense of the survey results, then evaluated findings against a framework on implementation criteria. Two further consensus surveys were conducted during the workshop.
Results:
Five priority areas were identified. These included: 1. A committed and supportive leadership team; 2. Improved governance structures; 3. Mentoring opportunities; 4. Leadership training and development; and 5. Flexibility in working. We describe the overall priority setting process in the context of our findings.
Conclusions:
With evidence and expert input, we established priorities for advancing women in healthcare leadership with a partnering healthcare organisation. This approach can be adapted in other settings, seeking to advance women in leadership.
... The hospitality sector is the third largest UK employer and represents 3.2m jobs (UK Hospitality Workforce, 2018) with women accounting for approximately 60% of its workforce (Gröschl and Arcot, 2014;Remington and Kitterlin-Lynch, 2018). As a major tourist destination and culturally diverse mega city, London's hospitality sector is divers, comprising 64% migrant workers (People 1 st , 2017) and women represent more than half of all applicants for hospitality jobs (Riley, 2019). ...
Women are historically under-represented in senior management positions in almost all industries. Despite the UK hospitality industry being a major employer of women, there is a clear lack of women in management positions. This research aims to gain insight into the factors enabling women to access senior positions in the UK hospitality industry. Using the gendered organizations perspective, the study analyses female managers’ perceptions about their career advancement within this sector. It identifies key enablers and strategies to facilitate women’s career advancement. The findings reveal that despite improvements in career opportunities for women within the UK hospitality organizations, there is still a long way to go in terms of employment policies and practices that enable women’s career progression, which includes family-friendly practices; proactive and transparent gender equality measures; support networks and mentors; and personal development plan.
... From the employer perspective, many hotels are facing a problem that talented women are more likely to leave because hotel jobs involve longer working hours, frequent business trips and getting harder to take care of families (Karatepe and Uludag, 2008). Hotels' retention and development programs/workshops have been receiving unsatisfactory results, leading to the women brain drain (Groschl and Arcot, 2014). Therefore, it is worth examining women's career development and advancement in the hospitality industry. ...
Purpose
This study aims to uncover women’s career advancement (CA) in the hospitality industry, by examining the influence of female employees’ career expectation (CE) and work–family balance (WFB). It also investigated the extent to which organizational commitment (OC) mediates the relationships among women’s CE, WFB and CA.
Design/methodology/approach
A questionnaire was used to collect data. The data were collected from 525 hotel female employees in China. A structural equation model was conducted with all of the data to test the relationships between the constructs. The individual measurement model was tested using the exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. A structural model was estimated using analysis of moment structures to test all the hypotheses.
Findings
The results showed that women’s CE and WFB positively influenced their OC and CA. Women’s organizational commitment also positively influenced their CA. The results also confirmed that the indirect effect of CE and WFB on CA was mediated by OC.
Originality/value
This study examines how the CE and work–family relationships of female employees in the hospitality industry affect their OC and their CA. The results help female employees to overcome the glass ceiling effect and achieve greater career success. This study seeks to expand the research on the CA of female hotel employees by identifying the factors that influence their CA.
... In hospitality and tourism management, the binary approach underpins the belief that gender research is about women. Gröschl and Arcot's (2014) article on female hospitality executives uses the notion of gender differences to argue that women leaders add value to executive leadership teams because they are different to male leaders. The focus on femininity positions women only in relation to men, not as independent subjects. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explain the problem with how gender is positioned in hospitality and tourism management studies. It recommends critical theories to investigate how gender is researched in the sector’s academic and institutional systems.
Design/methodology/approach
The conceptual study explains contemporary gender theories and gives examples of relevant hospitality and tourism management studies. A four point critical agenda for researching gender is proposed and justified.
Findings
The study highlights how the focus on “female leadership” as different from the male norm and the use of traditional theoretical framings reinforce stereotypes about the primacy of women’s domestic commitments to their detriment.
Research limitations/implications
A limitation of this academy focussed study is that it has not recommended specific initiatives to combat specific issues of gender discrimination in hospitality and tourism employment. A further limitation is that the primary focus was on critical management theory to explain heteronormative based gender discrimination. It did not discuss queer theory.
Practical implications
In addition, a new research agenda, steps are proposed to change the masculine culture. Hospitality and tourism universities and research institutions should review men’s/women’s/gender diverse representation at leadership levels. Critical gender research approaches may also be fostered by sectorial conference streams and journal special issues and university graduate research students should be taught to design such studies.
Social implications
The use of contemporary approaches in gender studies will enable researchers to propose more targeted equality and diversity management actions for industry. They will also assist educators to better design curricula that protect and promote the interests of women studying a hospitality, tourism or events degree and those who identify as gender diverse.
Originality/value
The paper challenges the masculine status quo in hospitality and tourism management gender studies, arguing that adherence to traditional orthodoxies has stifled the development of critical paradigms and methodologies. Its key contribution is to reveal the advantages that critical gender theorising can bring to further the aim of gender equality by showing practical applications.
... Gender diversity and the status of women in the hospitality industry are becoming interesting topics for both management practitioners and academics, but very little research investigates the position of women and their effectiveness in hotel management (Ahl, 2006;Baum, 2013;Marco, 2012). Although there has been wide tourism literature examining the performance of the hospitality industry in developed countries, empirical studies on how gender influences hotel profitability are quite few (Gröschl & Arcot, 2014;Marco, 2012;Pinar et al., 2011), and no prior studies have attempted to investigate this topic in the Italian hospitality industry. ...
The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between gender and profitability in the Italian hospitality industry during the period 2008–2017. The study examines whether female executive managers have any significant effect on the performance of hotel firms. Gender differences result in female underperformance when performance is measured by firm size. Within a bivariate model, findings show few differences when growth and profitability are compared by gender. When a regression model is designed to control other performance determinants (demographic, financial, and family variables), women‐managed hotels outperform those managed by men for hotel growth.
... A study by Catalyst (2007) an advisory organization working to advance women in business, found that Return on Equity was 35.1 percent higher and Total Return to Shareholders was 34.0 percent higher for those companies with the highest representation of women on their top management teams and the type of industry did not matter. Groschl and Arcot (2014) explored 639 hospitality firms and found firm performance was negative if less than ten percent of executives were women. They also noted that more than 65 percent of these firms had no female executives. ...
This study is an update of an earlier study that was completed in 2012 and explores women's representation in leadership roles in the hotel industry, both in large international hotel companies and hotel associations. Descriptive results were found by exploring web sites of major hotel associations and international hotel companies to determine women's representation on executive boards. The findings indicate that Canadian hotel associations still have less female representation than international associations and international hotel groups but overall have had a slight increase from 2012. Women's representation has increased since 2012 in all three groups as follows: Canadian hotel associations by 3.65 percent, international hotel associations by 2.54 percent and international hotel companies by 2.43 percent. However, women's representation is still low on executive boards of major hotel companies at only 22.29 percent and on international hotel associations' executive boards at only 19.06 percent. Discussion on possible reasons for this lack of women in leadership roles in the hotel industry is explored such as identifying certain practices that may be impeding women from reaching the upper echelons. Also, suggestions are offered in order to increase women's representation in this growing industry such as schedule autonomy, development of clear career maps and female role models at the top of the organization.
... Resource dependence theory mainly argues that female executives have very different knowledge resource, relationship resource and mind-set resource which would supplement the resource shortage of the top management teams completely composed of male executives and further improve firm performance [11] [12] . Catfish effect theory determines that the involvement of female executives can not only stimulate the reasonable and moderate competition among the male executives due to certain natural psychological, social and physical mechanisms between different genders, but can induce the new insights and perspectives on decision-making processes, and therefore female executives play a positive role in firm running [13] . The stakeholder theory recognizes that the involvement of female executives can meet the expectations of most of the stakeholders of the companies better, which mainly include the government, the community, the public media, the non-profit organizations, the employees and even the other companies running as their partners, and thereby the images of the companies in the eyes of the stakeholders would be positive which naturally would be beneficial for the companies to receive support from the stakeholders [14] . ...
In recently years, female executives all over the world have attracted the widespread concern of many scholars, and the relationship between female executives' participation in top executive teams and firm performance is found to be considerably complicated. This paper tries to clarify this relationship by adopting a multi-approach perspective. It finds that resource dependency theory, catfish effect theory and stakeholder theory regard female executives as the facilitators of improving firm performance; feminism theory and vase theory indicate that female executives would contribute less than their male peers; upper echelon theory demonstrates a contingent effect instead of a fixed effect as considering female executives' effect on firm performance; assimilation theory argues that effect of female executives on firm performance has no difference with that of male executives; principal-agent theory, social capital theory and human capital theory all simultaneously hold contradictory views of positive effect and negative effect of female executives on firm performance; and social cognition theory argues that female executives' effect on firm performance is positive or null.
Amidst the prevailing scarcity of personnel and leaders within healthcare cybersecurity and technology management, the demand for bolstering the ranks of professionals in these domains has reached unprecedented significance and urgency. Enlisting women leaders and those from diverse backgrounds is imperative to address the deficiencies in workforce development and devise pioneering business strategies. The endeavor to effectively confront the most formidable issues about organizational technology management strategies necessitates women's active participation and contributions. This chapter embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the hurdles, intricacies, and innovative methodologies pertinent to the advancement of women into executive and supervisory positions within the domains of information technology and healthcare cybersecurity.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to explore the development and implementation of diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) practices in hospitality and tourism organizations through the lens of structuration theory.
Design/methodology/approach
This study deployed a three-stage Delphi technique involving DEI experts in hospitality and tourism organizations to build a consensus. Specifically, individual agency, development and implementation of DEI practices and best DEI practices were explored through the Delphi technique.
Findings
The findings of this study feature a framework for DEI practices and the intersection between individual agency and organizational structure. The results of this study further showcase the theoretical importance of structuration theory in understanding how organizations develop and implement DEI practices.
Originality/value
This study reveals unique perspectives on DEI within hospitality and tourism organizations, pointing to the imperative need for leadership in initiating, developing and implementing change. This study also extends previous research by highlighting how DEI practices are initiated, developed and implemented through individual agency and organizational structure.
For a variety of reasons, cybercriminals view healthcare organizations as desirable targets to attack. With significant shortages of employees and managers in cybersecurity and technology management, the need for more professionals in the field have never been more important and necessary. Meeting these workforce development shortfalls and developing innovative business strategies requires leaders from all genders and backgrounds. To effectively meet the most challenging concerns related to organizational technology management strategy will require the contributions of women. This chapter explores the barriers, complexities, and innovative approaches related to developing more women in leadership roles in information technology and cybersecurity in healthcare organizations.
Prior research has produced conflicting findings regarding the positive outcomes of having gender diversity within top management teams. These studies have not considered the industry-specific context, the incorporation of binary, agender, and transexual traits, and potential non-financial outcomes, which play a role in organizational performance. Therefore, this paper aims to further this research by offering a research framework that is hospitality specific, highlights the benefits of gender diversity, and delineates the impact of gender diversity on firm performance and organizational justice based upon previous research and theories. The authors introduce potential processes and facilitators influencing the relationship between gender diversity, organizational performance, and organizational justice. These mechanisms have the potential to shape strategic changes, influence employee behaviors, increase service levels, and ultimately provide a competitive advantage.
Purpose
This paper aims to shed light on an essential role that “female directors” on boards of companies in sub-Saharan Africa play towards corporate financial performance enhancement. The study observes how board gender diversity moderates the relationship between earnings management (EM) and financial performance of firms in sub-Saharan Africa from a dynamic perspective.
Design/methodology/approach
The study’s sample comprises 105 companies listed on the respective stock markets of nine sub-Saharan African countries. The data are collected from annual reports over the period 2007–2019, a total of 1,166 firm-year observations. Panel data models are used in the analyses.
Findings
The study finds that the performance effect of EM is contingent on board diversity and this finding persists even after controlling for dynamic endogeneity, simultaneity and unobserved time-invariant heterogeneity inherent in the EM and performance relationship.
Research limitations/implications
The findings should be understood within the context that, only available annual reports and audited financial statements that were filed with respective capital markets of the nine surveyed countries are used as source of information.
Originality/value
The current study is unique, in that, it is the first panel multi-cross-country investigation within Africa to introduce gender diversity in the study of the relationship between EM and firm performance. It therefore extends the agency theory by using gender diversity as a moderating variable in the EM–firm performance nexus.
Purpose
This study investigated the micro–macro link in the hospitality and tourism (H&T) sector, specifically considering whether the gender diversity, independence and board attendance rates of H&T firms' boards, alongside the moderation effect of board policies, played a significant role in tourism sector performance.
Design/methodology/approach
The 2011–2018 data were retrieved from the World Bank and the Thomson Reuters Eikon databases, and fixed effects panel regression was conducted.
Findings
While female directors were a significant driver of tourism sector performance in terms of tourist arrivals and tourism receipts, independent directors were effective in improving tourist arrivals only. Furthermore, moderation analyses demonstrated the inefficacy of board policies in enhancing these directors' contributions to the sector's development. Moreover, the findings revealed the inefficiency of board meetings.
Practical implications
Concerning the efficacy of board policies, the results suggest that firms' boards should review and revise their policies. Surprisingly, while board-diversity policies made no difference to female directors' role in the sector's development (although females were influential), board-independence policies produced unexpected results. In the absence of a board-independence policy, independent directors are influential, but if a policy exists, they are not.
Originality/value
Although prior firm-level studies tested whether board characteristics enhanced firms' performance in the H&T sector, they did not investigate whether board characteristics promoted tourism sector performance. Moreover, the moderating effect of board policies on boards' structures and tourism sector performance has not yet been examined.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of the gender diversity of top management teams (TMTs) on the financial performance (FP) of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Vietnam. This paper also examines the moderating effect of family control on this relationship.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a sample of SMEs in Vietnam, this paper uses descriptive statistics and balance panel regression with random effect to analyse 5,160 firm-year observations of family- and non-family-owned SMEs between 2011 and 2015.
Findings
The findings demonstrate that gender diversity in TMTs shows a negative relationship with the FP of family-controlled SMEs and no significant impact on FP of non-family SMEs. This study also illustrates a positive curvilinear relationship between the female manager rate in TMTs and firms’ FP in family SMEs.
Research limitations/implications
This research study is limited to data from Vietnamese SMEs. Future studies could investigate these relationships with larger firms and in a broader geographical context.
Originality/value
This study provides a better understanding of the impact of TMT gender diversity on FP in Vietnamese SMEs while considering the moderating effect of family control. The findings support some theories relating to managerial gender diversity and the effect of family control on this diversity in family SMEs.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the link between top management team (TMT) gender diversity and firm risk-taking in hospitality companies. The study also links female leadership to risk-taking. Finally, this study examines the moderating effects of TMT incentive pay and TMT age on the relationship between TMT gender diversity and firm risk-taking.
Design/methodology/approach
This study uses an unbalanced data set of 81 hospitality firms and 888 firm-year observations over the period of 1992–2020. The study uses fixed-effects regression estimation for primary analyses and addresses potential endogeneity concerns via two-stage least square regression with firm fixed-effects instrumental variable regression. Risk-taking is measured by total firm risk (i.e. the annualized volatility of daily stock returns). Main results are supported with alternative measures of firm risk and estimation methods.
Findings
The study finds that increasing TMT gender diversity leads to a reduction in firm risk-taking in the hospitality industry. Moreover, the study finds that hospitality firms led by a female CEO experience lower firm risk compared to firms led by a male CEO. Finally, the study finds evidence that the relationship between TMT gender diversity and firm risk is contingent on the level of incentive pay awarded to TMT members and the age of TMT members. Increasing incentive pay and aging executive teams decrease the risk reduction effect of TMT gender diversity.
Practical implications
The findings of this study recommend that firm risk-taking in the hospitality industry is related to gender diversity in TMTs. Hence, the board of directors should pay attention to gender composition for executive positions for risk management. Moreover, the results also suggest that care should be exercised when using incentive pay to align the interests of managers and shareholders. Finally, the board of directors needs to consider both gender diversity and age of the TMT members for TMT composition to manage executives’ risk-taking behavior.
Originality/value
This study fills a research gap in the hospitality literature by providing empirical evidence for the link between TMT gender diversity and firm risk-taking. Additionally, the study introduces incentive pay and age of TMT as contingency factors for the link between TMT gender diversity and firm risk-taking.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine hotel managers’ perspectives on the promotion process of hotel employees based on the promoted employee’s gender, their perceived organizational justice and perceived gender discrimination against women. The moderating role of anti-male bias beliefs in the promotion process was examined.
Design/methodology/approach
The study adopted an experimental design (female vs male promoted) with a sample of 87 hotel managers. Data were analyzed using mediation and moderated mediation analyses.
Findings
The results indicated procedural and distributed justice mediates the effect of gender of the promoted employee on perceived gender discrimination against women. It was found that perceptions of anti-male bias moderate the relationship between gender of the promoted employee and distributed justice, demonstrating higher levels of perceived fairness within the organization when a female is promoted, especially when low levels of anti-male bias exist.
Practical implications
Many organizations may refrain from offering more promotional opportunities to women for fear of reverse discrimination. This research demonstrates that the organization will be perceived as fairer if it offers more opportunities to women, should create a stronger organizational culture and higher financial performance.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this paper is the first to address the gender inequity in promotional opportunities of hotel employees and demonstrate the overall benefit of combating such inequality. This is the first time that anti-male bias has been addressed in the hospitality context, suggesting the need for more research on reverse discrimination, especially in promotional situations.
Purpose
Women make up approximately 47% of the workforce and 51% of hospitality employees but account for 70% of travel buying decisions. Even with these high statistics, women are still underrepresented in many high-level positions. This paper aims to evaluate the financial effects of diversity in top paying management positions within US hospitality companies from 2006 to 2018 and also evaluate the change in female representation from the Great Recession and the #metoo scandal.
Design/methodology/approach
Firm performance and diversity were studied using fixed effect and random effect models due to the panel nature of the data. ANOVAs and t -tests were conducted to determine the change in female representation.
Findings
On average, companies report 5.55 top paying executives and only 0.75 of them are female. Results show that earnings before interest and taxes, and earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization are both significantly higher with 15–30% diversity and even higher with 30–50% diversity. After the Great Recession, hospitality companies significantly increased the percentage of females in top positions from 11.5 to 14.1%, while resorts increased female representation from 7.5 to 12.2% after the #metoo scandal.
Originality/value
To the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the first known study to evaluate gender diversity in top hospitality executives and not just female representation. This is also the first paper to evaluate the effect of the #metoo scandal on hospitality firms’ percentage of females in top executive positions.
In the changing world, diversity in workplace is the new reality not just for complying with equal employment opportunity but also for catering to their diverse customer base. There are theories that have spoken both for and against the proliferation of diversity. Theories such as
Ashby’s Principle of Requisite Variety and Information / Decision-making Perspective suggest that certain diversity attributes heighten the benefit of heterogeneity in organizations that in effect, ameliorate the quality of decision-making. Moreover, many previous studies have shown that workplace diversity indeed affects firm performance positively. The current research has studied the relationship of core diversity factors (such as gender, religion and race) that are relevant in the context of Bangladesh with organizational performance; and the study was conducted with both primary and secondary data from 80 listed firms in the Dhaka Stock Exchange. Research findings show that there is a significant positive relationship between organization-wide gender diversity and firm performance.
This article analyzes what the leading hospitality and tourism companies report in terms of diversity management practices. Seven hospitality and tourism corporations are included in “The 2017 DiversityInc” of the top 50 businesses ranked by DiversityInc. These companies are Sodexo (rank 6), Marriott International (rank 8), Comcast NBC Universal (rank 19), Wyndham Worldwide (rank 24), Hilton Worldwide (rank 30), The Walt Disney Company (rank 36), and Aramark (rank 49). Their websites and available reports were content analyzed for their diversity management policies and practices. The research findings suggest ten main diversity management areas where each main area also has specific sub-categories. Based on the study findings and discussions, this study proposes a template that provides specific diversity management practices. Theoretical and practical implications of the study findings are provided. Suggestions for future research are offered.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
‘It takes a critical mass of women, e.g. 30 percent, to make a difference in polities’ This statement is common today, even among women politicians themselves. However, the theory of the importance of the relative size of the minority has not been sufficiently developed in political science. Based on the experience of women in Scandinavian politics (today being a minority of about 30 percent), the article discusses six areas for which an increase in the proportion of the minority might lead to changes in for instance the political culture, the political discourse or the reaction to women as politicians. The article suggests that the concept of a critical mass is replaced by one of critical acts, which would seem to be more relevant when studying human beings.
Has the diversity of corporate boards of directors improved? Should it? What role does diversity play in reducing corporate wrongdoing? Will diversity result in a more focused board of directors or more board autonomy? Examining the state of Tennessee as a case study, the authors collected data on the board composition of publicly traded corporations and compared those data to an original study conducted in 1995. Data indicate only a modest improvement in board diversity. This article discusses reasons for the scarcity of women on boards and concludes that, to enhance strategic decisions, board membership should reflect the corporation''s consumer population. Thus, women are a critical but overlooked resource. Areas for future research are also considered.
Academic debate on the strategic importance of women corporate directors is widely recognized and still open. However, most
corporate boards have only one woman director or a small minority of women directors. Therefore they can still be considered
as tokens. This article addresses the following question: does an increased number of women corporate boards result in a build
up of critical mass that substantially contributes to firm innovation? The aim is to test if ‘at least three women’ could
constitute the desired critical mass by identifying different minorities of women directors (one woman, two women and at least
three women). Tests are conducted on a sample of 317 Norwegian firms. The results suggest that attaining critical mass – going
from one or two women (a few tokens) to at least three women (consistent minority) – makes it possible to enhance the level
of firm innovation. Moreover, the results show that the relationship between the critical mass of women directors and the
level of firm innovation is mediated by board strategic tasks. Implications for both theory and practice, and future research
directions are discussed.
Keywordscorporate governance–critical mass theory–board strategic tasks–organizational innovation–tokenism–women directors
This paper investigates the different patterns of occupational gender segregation in the hospitality industry in Andalusia. The methodology is based on the segregation curve and different segregation measures. The results show that cleaning jobs, customer service and jobs with less responsibility in the area of administration are dominated by women, whereas maintenance, jobs with a high level of responsibility in the areas of kitchen, restoration, and administration are dominated by men. Occupational segregation increases as the age of the workers and size of the establishment increase, but decreases with level of education and is less common among workers with training contracts, whereas it is greater among part-time and seasonal workers. Horizontal segregation is more marked than vertical segregation in the hotel industry, but horizontal and vertical segregation is similar in restaurants. Finally, vertical segregation decreases with the size of the establishment, whereas horizontal segregation increases.
This paper, an investigation of gender diversity in the Turkish hospitality industry, focuses on two primary objectives: (a) exploring the potential relationships between gender and several demographic factors, and (b) examining the possible existence of a gender effect regarding employees’ perceptions of recruitment and earning potential decisions. Results, based on 682 surveys, show that, in the male-dominated Turkish hospitality industry, there is a significant gender effect for two of four demographic variables and with respect to recruiting efforts and earning potential. These findings could have some important managerial implications for addressing gender diversity in the (Turkish) hospitality industry.
Our study extends the upper echelon framework to gender diversity in top management teams (TMTs), a topic that has received little attention in management. We study the direct impact of representation of women on TMTs on organizational performance. We also study the moderating effects of environmental characteristics on the TMT women–performance linkage. In a sample of 679 firms from the 1998 Fortune 1000 list, our results show a positive relationship between the proportion of women on TMTs and organizational performance. The moderating effects of environmental characteristics, namely, munificence, dynamism, and complexity, are not supported. These results reveal that the role played by top women managers transcends the demands of the environment. Our study has implications for the career development of women. In addition, our results have the potential to generalize to managers from other nationalities.
Though companies now invest heavily in mentoring and developing their best female talent, all that attention doesn't translate into promotions. A Catalyst survey of over 4000 high potentials shows that more women than men have mentors-yet women are paid $4600 less in their first post-MBA jobs, hold lower-level positions, and feel less career satisfaction. To better understand why, the authors conducted in-depth interviews with 40 participants in a mentoring program at a large multinational. All mentoring is not created equal, they discovered. Only sponsorship involves advocacy for advancement. The interviews and survey alike indicate that, compared with their male peers, high-potential women are overmentored, undersponsored, and not advancing in their organizations. Without sponsorship, women not only are less likely than men to be appointed to top roles but may also be more reluctant to go for them. Organizations such as Deutsche Bank, Unilever, Sodexo, and IBM Europe have established sponsorship programs to facilitate the promotion of high-potential women. Programs that get results clarify and communicate their goals, match sponsors and mentees on the basis of those goals, coordinate corporate and regional efforts, train sponsors, and hold those sponsors accountable.
The monitoring role performed by the board of directors is an important corporate governance control mechanism, especially
in countries where external mechanisms are less well developed. The gender composition of the board can affect the quality
of this monitoring role and thus the financial performance of the firm. This is part of the “business case” for female participation
on boards, though arguments may also be framed in terms of ethical considerations. While the issue of board gender diversity
has attracted growing research interest in recent years, most empirical results are based on U.S. data. This article adds
to a growing number of non-U.S. studies by investigating the link between the gender diversity of the board and firm financial
performance in Spain, a country which historically has had minimal female participation in the workforce, but which has now
introduced legislation to improve equality of opportunities. We investigate the topic using panel data analysis and find that
gender diversity – as measured by the percentage of women on the board and by the Blau and Shannon indices – has a positive
effect on firm value and that the opposite causal relationship is not significant. Our study suggests that investors in Spain
do not penalise firms which increase their female board membership and that greater gender diversity may generate economic
gains.
Work group diversity, the degree to which there are differences between group members, may affect group process and performance positively as well as negatively. Much is still unclear about the effects of diversity, however. We review the 1997-2005 literature on work group diversity to assess the state of the art and to identify key issues for future research. This review points to the need for more complex conceptualizations of diversity, as well as to the need for more empirical attention to the processes that are assumed to underlie the effects of diversity on group process and performance and to the contingency factors of these processes.
The entry of the 1997 cohort of Labour women into public life offers a test case of whether, and under what conditions, women politicians have the capacity to ‘make a substantive difference’. We outlines the theory of the politics of presence and discuss how to operationalise this in a testable model. We, use the British Representation Study survey of 1,000 national politicians (including parliamentary candidates and elected Members of Parliament) conducted in the 2001 general election. The analysis centres on the impact of gender on five scales measuring attitudes and values on issues that commonly divide British party politics.
Once we control for party, there are no significant differences among women and men politicians across the value scales concerning the free market economy, Europe, and moral traditionalism. Yet on the values most directly related to women's interests – namely the affirmative action and the gender equality scales – women and men politicians differ significantly within each party, even after controlling for other common social background variables that explain attitudes, such as their age, education, and income. The conclusion considers why these findings matter for the composition of parliament, the public policy agenda and for women's roles as political leaders.
Salary levels of women in hospitality financial management appear to be lower than those of men with similar job titles. However, further analysis of a limited sample suggests that salary levels are generally dependent on the level of work and place of employment – and that men tend to be employed in the jobs with higher responsibilities and hence status. There has been some progression by women into the higher status, higher-paying jobs but certain barriers still appears to exist which affect the rate of change.
Gender differences in pay expectation for self and others and its mediators were tested with a sample of 116 hospitality majors. As hypothesized, women had lower pay expectations at both career entry and career peak than men. The best predictor of gender differences in self-pay expectations at career entry were job facet factors including cooperative coworkers and supervisors for women and high status for men. The best predictor at career peak was comparison standards or pay expectations for others. In addition, psychological empowerment fostered high pay expectation for men and women at career peak, with the most dramatic effect found among men.
Proportions, that is, relative numbers of socially and culturally different people in a group, are seen as critical in shaping interaction dinamics, and four group types are identified in the basis of varying proportional compositions. "Skewed" groups contain a large preponderance of one type (the numerical "dominants") over another (the rare "tokens"). A framework is developed for conceptualizing the processes that occur between dominants and tokens. Three perceptual phenomena are associated with tokens: visibility (tokens capture a disproportionate awareness share), polarization (differences between tokens and dominants are exaggerated), and assimilation (tokens' attributes are distorted to fit preexisting generalizations about their social type). Visibility generates performance pressures; polarization leads dominants to heighten their group boundaries; and assimilation leads to the tokens' role entrapment. Illustrations are drawn from a field study in a large industrial corporation. Concepts are exten...
The number of female managers in the hotel industry is increasing worldwide. What does it take for female hotel managers to succeed? Do they face different types of barriers between entry into management and upward mobility within management? This paper presents the general profile of female hotel managers in Singapore and examines barriers that may prevent middle-level female managers from moving up to the executive positions. The findings suggested that female managers in Singapore hotels have “given up” some family life in order to get ahead. Whereas strong credentials and skills have proven to be important in female advancement into middle-level management, they have not helped them to attain executive positions. An interesting finding is that the barriers to advancement for female managers are due to neither corporate practices nor policies, but rather seem to be a function of cultural and societal sanctions.
Presented are the research results on some characteristics of women managers in hotel enterprises in Istria, the best-developed Mediterranean tourist region in the Republic of Croatia. The results pertain to number of women in management, age and educational structure, permanent education, necessary knowledge, capabilities and skills, and delegation of authority and responsibility. The research was performed in 1996.
Gender differences in pay expectation for self and others and its mediators were tested with a sample of 116 hospitality majors. As hypothesized, women had lower pay expectations at both career entry and career peak than men. The best predictor of gender differences in self-pay expectations at career entry were job facet factors including cooperative coworkers and supervisors for women and high status for men. The best predictor at career peak was comparison standards or pay expectations for others. In addition, psychological empowerment fostered high pay expectation for men and women at career peak, with the most dramatic effect found among men.
This study aims to examine whether Hong Kong's female and male managers perceive gender and career development issues differently than their Western counterparts. The study found that female hotel managers in Hong Kong, like their Western counterparts, are aware of the difficulties women face in a male-dominated environment. However, unlike Western women managers, they tend to downplay the difficulties, and to favour personal, against institutional, strategies to overcome them. The study also found that while both women and men prefer male supervisors, men's preference is more definitive. Male managers also prefer supervising male subordinates. The findings suggest that there is room for Hong Kong's hotel industry to review the effect of structural barriers on women's career development.
No. This paper investigates the relationship between financing constraints and investment-cash flow sensitivities by analyzing
the firms identified by Fazzari, Hubbard, and Petersen as having unusually high investment-cash flow sensitivities. We find
that firms that appear less financially constrained exhibit significantly greater sensitivities than firms that appear more
financially constrained. We find this pattern for the entire sample period, subperiods, and individual years. These results
(and simple theoretical arguments) suggest that higher sensitivities cannot be interpreted as evidence that firms are more
financially constrained. These findings call into question the interpretation of most previous research that uses this methodology.
This study examines the relationship between board diversity and firm value for "Fortune" 1000 firms. Board diversity is defined as the percentage of women, African Americans, Asians, and Hispanics on the board of directors. This research is important because it presents the first empirical evidence examining whether board diversity is associated with improved financial value. After controlling for size, industry, and other corporate governance measures, we find significant positive relationships between the fraction of women or minorities on the board and firm value. We also find that the proportion of women and minorities on boards increases with firm size and board size, but decreases as the number of insiders increases. Copyright 2003 Eastern Finance Association.
Bureau for Gender Equality. Working Paper 1/2013, Sectoral Activities Department Working Paper No. 289, International Labour Office
- T Baum
Revisiting the glass ceiling: career progression for women in the hotel industry
- Z Ho
Women in the hospitality industry
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