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Mindfulness and Flow in Elite Athletes
Abstract
Mindfulness has been found to be related to improved athletic performance and propensity to achieve flow states. The relationship between mindfulness and flow has only recently been examined in elite athletes. To build on this literature, we administered the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) and the Dispositional Flow Scale to 92 elite athletes. Psychometric analyses supported the validity of the FFMQ. Males scored higher than females on the FFMQ facet of Nonjudging of Inner Experience. Athletes from individual and pacing sports scored higher on the FFMQ facet of Observing than athletes from team-based and nonpacing sports. Correlations between mindfulness and flow were stronger in athletes from individual and pacing sports compared with team-based and nonpacing sports. Mindfulness correlated with different facets of flow in males compared with females. The results support the use of the five-facet mindfulness construct in elite athletes and suggest the relationship between mindfulness and flow possibly may vary by gender and sport type in this population.
... One of the possible mechanisms, that have been investigated, is that mindfulness training facilitates flow Thompson et al., 2011;Cathcart et al., 2014;Hill et al., 2020). Flow is an intrinsically rewarding and harmonious psychological state involving intense focus and absorption in a specific activity where someone perceives balance between their ability and the task demands (Csikszentmihalyi and Csikzentmihaly, 1990). ...
... The present study developed and evaluated a multi-session rowing-specific mindfulness intervention and investigated its effects on mindfulness, flow, reinvestment, and rowing performance. In line with the abovementioned research, it was hypothesized that the intervention would increase mindfulness and flow (Cathcart et al., 2014;Scott-Hamilton et al., 2016), decrease reinvestment (Sparks et al., 2021b), and improve performance (Jones et al., 2020), compared to control. ...
... Mindfulness is one such method. Several putative mechanisms have been proposed to explain how mindfulness enhances performance, including increased flow Thompson et al., 2011;Cathcart et al., 2014;Hill et al., 2020), and decreased attention on one's movements and reinvestment (Sparks et al., 2021b). To investigate this issue further, the present study explored the effect of a sport-specific mindfulness intervention, adapted from the MMTS, on rowing-specific reinvestment, flow, mindfulness, and performance. ...
Mindfulness can benefit athletes’ mindset and performance. These benefits may be enhanced by sport-specific mindfulness interventions. Accordingly, our objectives were 2-fold: first, to develop a rowing-specific mindfulness intervention, and second, to investigate its effects on mindfulness, flow, reinvestment, and rowing performance. Rowers were randomly assigned to either a 6-week rowing-specific mindfulness intervention ( n = 23), which included generic and rowing-specific practices, or a control group ( n = 21). Rowers completed pre-test and post-test measures of performance, mindfulness, flow, and rowing-specific reinvestment. Lastly, rowers completed an evaluation form following the intervention. The results demonstrated that the intervention group increased flow, mindfulness, and improved performance, additionally conscious motor processing decreased from pre-test to post-test. However, the intervention did not preferentially change mindfulness or reinvestment compared to control. Participants provided favorable feedback and evaluated the intervention positively. Our 6-week rowing-specific mindfulness intervention promoted flow, encouraged mindfulness, and aided performance. Thus, we provide preliminary explorative evidence that a sport-specific mindfulness intervention can benefit athletes. We recommend that future research, with large sample sizes and improved home practice, should examine mediators and moderators of the mindfulness-performance relationship.
... Mindfulness could be practiced almost everywhere and some of the techniques includes breathing methods, guided imagery, meditation practices that can be combined with other practices for instance, yoga or sports to relax the body and mind that can also help in reducing stress (Briegel-Jones et al., 2013) [4] . It is of great benefit in games and sports to enhance the task performance, flow, gain insight and awareness of personal thoughts, feelings and other internal stimuli by increasing observation and attention of the sportsperson (Cathcart et al., 2014;Goodman et al., 2014) [8,15] . Recent research has demonstrated that mindfulness increases the tolerance threshold in injured athletes (Ivarsson et al., 2015) [18] . ...
... Mindfulness could be practiced almost everywhere and some of the techniques includes breathing methods, guided imagery, meditation practices that can be combined with other practices for instance, yoga or sports to relax the body and mind that can also help in reducing stress (Briegel-Jones et al., 2013) [4] . It is of great benefit in games and sports to enhance the task performance, flow, gain insight and awareness of personal thoughts, feelings and other internal stimuli by increasing observation and attention of the sportsperson (Cathcart et al., 2014;Goodman et al., 2014) [8,15] . Recent research has demonstrated that mindfulness increases the tolerance threshold in injured athletes (Ivarsson et al., 2015) [18] . ...
... Researchers have suggested flow states share similar antecedents and consequences to those experienced in meditative states (Kaufmann et al., 2009). Moreover, a growing body of literature shows that mindfulness can increase and facilitate flow states and athletic performance (Cathcart et al., 2014;De Petrillo, et al., 2009). The flow experience allows an athlete to enter a state of complete involvement in the task at hand for the sake of the absorbing experience itself (Jackson, 2016) and to perform fluid, autonomous movements with cognitive clarity and positive affect (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002;Swann et al., 2012). ...
... Moreover, increases in flow state and self-awareness of pacing have been noted in sedentary populations following brief pre and during exercise mindfulness manipulations (Meggs & Chen, 2021). The finding that mindfulness (specifically bodily awareness in the moment) can benefit the process of pacing during sport or exercise appears to be evident in athletic populations; Cathcart et al. (2014) found that athletes in pacing sports may have a higher capacity to observe and notice present moment feelings and theorized that this finding was due to the mechanism of integrating kinesthetic information with cognitive and emotional processes (Tucker, 2009). The performance benefits of mindful awareness of bodily sensations is further supported by Bernier et al. (2009), who found that elite swimmers reported practices of attending to bodily sensations prior to competition. ...
These case studies examined the effects of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) programs on competitive swimming performance, flow experience, and emotional regulation. Sixteen national competitive adolescent swimmers were randomly allocated into MSPE ( n = 9) and relaxation training ( n = 7) groups for 8 weeks. In the second phase of the intervention, the 16 participants were evenly split into an MSPE group for swimming and a control group for 5 weeks. The participants completed measures of trait and state flow, and mindfulness pre- and postintervention. The data analysis revealed that mindfulness had significant effects on both action–awareness merging and clear goals subscales. Further analysis revealed that the MSPE for swimming group significantly improved in terms of presence relative to the control group. In conclusion, general and sport-specific mindfulness interventions can psychologically benefit adolescent competitive swimmers.
... In Cathcart, McGregor and Groundwater's (2014) study, they highlighted that the relationships between flow and mindfulness may vary based on demographic and situational variables. As such, their results revealed that athletes from different genders, sport types and team sizes, differed not only in mindfulness facets, but also in correlations between mindfulness and different dimension of flow. ...
... This indicates that metacognitive procedural knowledge may play a part in initiating attention regulation strategies, at different times. Nonetheless, several studies have shown support for the relationship between mindfulness and the experience of flow (seeBervoets, 2013;Cathcart, McGregor, & Groundwater, 2014;Kaufman, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2009;Scott-Hamilton, Schutte, Moyle, & Brown, 2016).Two recent studies byLove et al. (2018a; 2018b) have investigated the role that prerace generalised metacognitions may play in competing triathletes. Results from their examination of associations between metacognitive beliefs, state anxiety dimensions (i.e., cognitive, somatic and confidence) and concentration revealed three key findings. ...
Metacognition, or experiencing cognition about cognition, has been evidenced to have strong associations with to the way attention, information, and emotions are regulated. However, to date, little research has investigated how metacognitive concepts may apply to a sporting context, which is heavily dependent on the regulation of such phenomena. Therefore, the primary aims of this thesis were to: (a) investigate whether metacognitions were significantly associated with sports related mental states; (b) develop appropriate sports specific measurements of metacognitions; and (c) investigate the associations between sports specific metacognitions with sports related mental states. A literature review, five empirical studies, and a discussion piece were designed for this purpose. The first study evaluated how competitive triathletes’ metacognitive beliefs associated with competitive state anxiety, concentration, and performance. It also examined differences in metacognitive beliefs across cross-sectional time-to-event intervals. The second study examined how triathletes’ metacognitions relate to mindfulness and the different dimensions of flow during competition. It also assessed at how these factors differed across motivational types (i.e., recreational; social; competitive). The purpose of the third and fourth studies was to develop and validate two self-report questionnaires measuring sport specific metacognitive beliefs and processes, based on previous literature and findings of the previous studies. Additionally, the studies investigated the contributions that these measures had towards psychological outcomes, such as: state anxiety, cognitive flexibility, and concentration. The fifth study aimed to extend the results from the second study, by investigating the associations between the sports specific metacognitive questionnaires, with flow state. The proceeding discussion chapter, evaluated the results of these studies in whole, presented a proposed metacognitive model of performance, discussed potential implications of the findings towards enhancing athletic performance, and suggested areas of focus for future research.
... Presence was seen as a crucial prerequisite of an efficient performance and a shared factor between mindfulness and flow. In another study, using five facet mindfulness questionnaire, total mindfulness was seen to be correlated with total dispositional flow using DFS-2 on the dimensions of concentration on task at hand, clear goals, sense of control and loss of selfconsciousness among elite athletes, indicating that elite athletes with higher disposition towards mindfulness also have a high propensity towards flow (Cathcart et al., 2014). In this study, dispositional flow affected the dimension of flow namely; 'concentration on task at hand,' that depicts present moment awareness in athletic settings. ...
Mindfulness and flow are two optimal, therapeutic and productive states of consciousness that have recently gained a lot of attention in various fields such as clinical, cognitive science, psychology, sports, music, human-computer interaction, etc. There is an ongoing discussion about the similarities and differences between these two states, and numerous studies have appeared comparing the two based on various parameters such as present awareness and the type of self that both seek to promote. Research on integrating mindfulness to influence the flow phenomenon has proven to be a promising field, but there is little knowledge about the relationship between these two states in general and in a musical context in particular. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the constructs of mindfulness and the dimensions of flow during the process of playing a musical instrument. Playing a musical instrument is one of the most important areas for entering the flow state, and research on the relevance of mindfulness during the flow phenomenon in a musical context is still in its infancy. This work is divided into two main studies. The first study aims to investigate whether the dispositional trait of mindfulness has a predictive relationship with different dimensions of flow. Such an investigation should understand the nature of optimal experiences of mindfulness and flow and try to elucidate the issues related to their coexistence and interdependence. The second study was a qualitative study aimed at observing the changes in the lived experience of flow by changing mindfulness levels in musicians. A one-month musical induction program was planned with two music students and two musicians.
Mindfulness and flow are two optimal, therapeutic and productive states of consciousness that have recently gained a great deal of attention in various fields such as clinical, cognitive science, psychology, sports, music, human-computer interaction, etc. There is an ongoing discussion about the similarities and differences between these two states, and numerous studies have appeared comparing the two based on various parameters such as present awareness and the type of self that both seek to promote. Research on integrating mindfulness to influence the flow phenomenon has proven to be a promising field, but there is little knowledge about the relationship between these two states in general and in a musical context in particular. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the constructs of mindfulness and the dimensions of flow during the process of playing a musical instrument. Playing a musical instrument is one of the most important areas for entering the flow state, and research on the relevance of mindfulness during the flow phenomenon in a musical context is still in its infancy. This work is divided into two main studies. The first study aims to investigate whether the dispositional trait of mindfulness has a predictive relationship with different dimensions of flow. Such an investigation should understand the nature of optimal experiences of mindfulness and flow and try to elucidate the issues related to their coexistence and interdependence. The second study was a qualitative study aimed at observing the changes in the lived experience of flow by changing mindfulness levels in musicians. A one-month musical induction program was planned with two music students and two musicians. In summary, the results of the experiments presented in this thesis provide a preliminary understanding of how mindfulness is related to various dimensions of flow and how a mindfulness training program has an ability to influence flow in musical instrument playing context. This thesis contributes to the literature at a conceptual level by identifying which constructs of mindfulness that have a greater influence on different dimensions of flow as well as outlining relevant mindfulness-based intervention techniques.
... Akış halinde olan bir sporcunun performansla yakaladığı uyum üst düzeydedir (Jackson, 1992). Bununla birlikte, öz şefkatin bilinçli farkındalık ayağı ile optimum performans duygu durumu arasında da pozitif yönde bir ilişki vardır (Bervoets, 2013;Cathcart, McGregor & Groundwater, 2014). Bir spor müsabakası esnasında sporcuların akıştan çıkmalarına neden olabilecek ve performanslarını kesintiye ...
... This critique can be bolstered by considering the relationship between mindfulness and flow. It is generally underappreciated in philosophical discussions that mindfulness practice (as one of the few interventions) enhances the flow scores of athletes (Kee & Wang, 2008;Cathcart et al., 2014; see review by Goddard et al., 2021). The important thing is that psychologists and cognitive scientists understand mindfulness practice as increasing individuals' ongoing self-awareness of their own mental processes, involving their attention allocation and emotions. ...
Philosophers frequently refer to ‘flow’ when discussing skill and expertise. This is especially clear when considering the ‘flow argument’ advocated by the Automatic view. Although the Automatic view is a minority position today, many philosophers and scientists endorse the flow argument or central parts of it. The present paper argues that the argument is implausible in the light of current psychological research. It proceeds in two steps. First, the paper argues that the psychological research does not suggest that flow is the only type of psychological state characteristic of optimal expert performance. Experts undergo different states, notably the state of clutch. Second, the paper argues that the psychological research does not suggest that flow states are devoid of conscious supervision in the form of conscious control, self-awareness, or task-related thoughts. Experts execute multiple conscious operations involved in attention control, motivational self-talk, and certain psychological mindsets while being in flow. These considerations oppose the two premises of the flow argument. Moreover, they correct misunderstandings of flow in the broader philosophical and scientific literature.
... In fact, mindfulness has become relevant in the context of sport because the practices teach present moment regulation that is crucial to athletic performance (Henriksen et al., 2019). Specifically, mindfulness has been found to be positively associated with flow in athletes, regardless of gender or sport type (Cathcart et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2017), and mindfulnessbased interventions have been shown to improve sport-associated physiological activations (e.g., salivary cortisol levels and immune responses), psychological status indicators (e.g., flow and anxiety reduction), and sport performances (e.g., shooting and dart throwing performances; Buhlmayer et al., 2017). ...
This study aimed to test a comprehensive model in adolescent athletes that explores the effect of shame on sports anxiety and whether psychological inflexibility and mindfulness influence this association. The sample study included 210 young Portuguese athletes from different competitive sports. The path analysis results confirmed the adequacy of the proposed model, which explained 49% of the variance in sports anxiety. Results demonstrated that athletes who experienced higher levels of shame tended to exhibit elevated levels of sports anxiety through lower levels of mindfulness and higher psychological inflexibility. The study offers new empirical data that may be relevant for clinical and sport psychology practitioners. These findings seem to underline the importance of addressing shame and, consequently, sports anxiety in adolescent athletes by developing greater psychological flexibility and, inherently, more mindfulness skills among adolescent athletes who are in a phase of their lives where sport can play a crucial role.
... exhibit higher levels of mindfulness compared to their male counterparts, a finding echoed by similar research [33,34]. Conversely, research focused on elite athletes identified no significant gender differences in mindfulness levels [35], a conclusion also reached in studies involving university studentathletes [36]. The variation in these findings could be attributed to factors such as the specific sports disciplines involved and the average age of the participants in the sample groups. ...
Background and Study Aim. Since athletes tend to be addicted to exercise, they are at a higher risk of experiencing sports injuries compared to others. Exercise addiction and kinesiophobia, which is the fear of (re)injury and movement after an injury, are distinct but related concepts for athletes. It has been stated that mindfulness helps individuals to diminish their kinesiophobia. However, little is known about the relationship between exercise addiction, kinesiophobia, and mindfulness among athletes. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate kinesiophobia, exercise addiction, and mindfulness among athletes and to examine the effect of certain variables on these three concepts. Material and Methods. The sample of the study consisted of 313 athletes over the age of 18. Participants were included in the study on a voluntary basis, using the convenience sampling method. Study data were collected with the 'Demographic Form', the 'Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia', and the 'Exercise Addiction Scale'. Results. The study discovered that national athletes exhibited statistically higher levels of exercise addiction compared to non-national athletes. Similarly, athletes suffering from chronic pain showed higher exercise addiction scores than those without chronic pain. Furthermore, athletes who had sustained sports injuries demonstrated higher exercise addiction levels compared to those who had not. It was also determined that athletes with pain or movement limitations due to sports injuries exhibited increased levels of kinesiophobia compared to those without such limitations. In addition, athletes with chronic pain reported higher levels of kinesiophobia compared to their counterparts without chronic pain. Female athletes were found to have higher levels of mindful awareness compared to male athletes. Additionally, when analyzing the relationship between these three parameters, a negative correlation was observed between kinesiophobia and mindfulness among athletes. Conclusions. While kinesiophobia and exercise addiction are not directly related, there is a negative relationship between kinesiophobia and mindfulness. Furthermore, chronic pain and limitations in movement after a sports injury are identified as risk factors for kinesiophobia. Additionally, being a national athlete, experiencing chronic pain, and sustaining sports injuries are considered risk factors for exercise addiction.
... For example, a key component of the program at the time of the visit was focused on enhancing the psychological capacities and mental readiness of the team through use of specially designed mindfulness training sessions that are part of a broader, program-embedded intervention and helps demonstrate the Kookaburras' "collective action" approach to improvement. The value of this type of training, however, is definitely worth noting since its benefits have been observed across multiple settings [52][53][54][55], including sport where it has been used to improve performance in ways that were similar to what was observed in Perth (i.e., development of important goal-focused processes that enable athletes to regulate their behaviour much more effectively [55][56][57][58]). In the present context, this outcome was achieved by: ...
This report provides an overview of a recent experience that helps demonstrate how
the people involved with the AIS Coach Summit Program are not isolated entities
focused only on localised practices and solutions, but critical elements of a broader
interrelated sociocultural system that are dependent on each other for the scalability of learning across an entire landscape of practice.
... Therefore, it can be inferred that the EASS sample, as well as athletes at the highest international competitive level, would benefit from increased mindfulness training to enhance their sports performance. Indeed, research showed that systematic mindfulness practice and experiential acceptance approaches can significantly reduce competitive anxiety, rumination, experiential avoidance, and emotion regulation difficulties, and simultaneously increase positive emotions and selfefficacy, improving attentional control, mindfulness, flow, and performance in elite sports [6,7,[75][76][77][78][79]. The mindfulness-based intervention also has beneficial effects on executive functions in athletes [8,80,81]. ...
Background
Although numerous psychological determinants of sports success have been identified in the scientific literature, research on the contribution of mindfulness and interoceptive awareness to sports achievements remains limited. This study investigates the relationship between self-reported mental skills determining sports success (i.e., flow state, attention, technique, sensitivity to error, commitment, and achievement), state mindfulness for physical activity (of the mind and the body), and interoceptive awareness (including scales of noticing, not distracting, not worrying, attention regulation, emotional awareness, self-regulation, body listening, and trusting).
Methods
A cross-sectional online survey was conducted on a sample of elite athletes in speed skating (n = 54) and university students of physical education (n = 102) representing various sports disciplines and competitive levels. The Sports Success Scale (SSS), the State Mindfulness Scale for Physical Activity (SMS-PA), and the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA-2) were used to assess psychological determinants of athletic achievements, state mindfulness, and interoceptive sensitivity, respectively.
Results
Our findings indicate some small-to-moderate differences in particular dimensions of psychological traits related to sports success, mindfulness, and interoceptive awareness between athletes of different genders, groups, and competitive levels. A chain mediation model showed that the relationship between body mindfulness and psychological variables determining sports success is fully explained by two dimensions of interoception: self-regulation and attention regulation.
Conclusions
Cultivating the mindfulness state of the body can improve self-regulation and attention regulation, which in turn may increase the mental skills required for successful sports participation. Therefore, mental training should focus primarily on body mindfulness, attention regulation, and self-regulation to improve the mental skills responsible for athletes’ sports achievements. In addition, individual differences in athletes’ gender, sports discipline, and level of sports competition should be considered during mental training.
... Runners often report it as associated with pace maintenance. 91 Another example is "flow," a state of mind involving complete focus and the loss of awareness of time and self-consciousness which seems to be more prevalent in sports that require pacing 92 and, significantly, in music-making. 93 Although there is more to be understood about both phenomena, and they clearly apply to more than just EL, the extent to which they are associated with pacing recalls the "moderate pleasure" Pinker predicts for the effective maintenance of rhythmic motor activities. ...
Human musicality (the capacity to make and appreciate music) is difficult to explain in evolutionary terms, though many theories attempt to do so. This paper focuses on musicality's potential adaptive precursors, particularly as related to rhythm. It suggests that pace setting for walking and running long distances over extended time periods (endurance locomotion, EL) is a good candidate for an adaptive building block of rhythmic musicality. The argument is as follows: (1) over time, our hominin lineage developed a host of adaptations for efficient EL; (2) the ability to set and maintain a regular pace was a crucial adaptation in the service of EL, providing proximate rewards for successful execution; (3) maintaining a pace in EL occasioned hearing, feeling, and attending to regular rhythmic patterns; (4) these rhythmic patterns, as well as proximate rewards for maintaining them, became disassociated from locomotion and entrained in new proto‐musical contexts. Support for the model and possibilities for generating predictions to test it are discussed.
... The present study aims to investigate the direct and indirect effects of mindfulness on ow in a highly challenging work environment. Although some researchers have acknowledged the effects of mindfulness on ow (e.g., (57,59,75, 76)), they have rarely been investigated in a dynamic and challenging work context, speci cally in a pre-hospital emergency environment, in which highly challenging situations are the norm. The path from mindfulness to ow experience through the mediating role of the two critical factors of psychological capital and coping competence is explored in the present study. ...
Background
The present study aims to investigate whether and how mindfulness leads to the flow experience in high-pressure situations during the coronavirus pandemic peak, especially in high-risk, challenging contexts such as emergencies. therefore, the authors aim to expand existing knowledge about experiencing flow at work, specifically in the crisis context of the COVID-19 period, when challenges convert to hindrance demands. Before examining the possible processes and mechanisms in this relationship, we examined the mediating role of two variables: psychological capital and coping competence.
Method
The statistical population of this study consists of all employees of emergency centers in Mashhad, Iran; there were 550 at the time of the study. Using a simple random sampling method and the Morgan table, a sample of 220 people was considered. A structural equation model, AMOS, and SPSS software were used to analyze the collected data.
Result
The results emphasize that among employees who experienced mindfulness, an optimal experience did not necessarily occur, specifically in those situations in which challenge stressors become hindrance stressors. Although the association of mindfulness and coping competence was verified, its association with flow through coping competence was rejected. It is verified that mindfulness would be associated with flow through psychological capital.
Conclusion
The study extends our understanding of occurring flow at high-risk work environments in which challenges are not motivational. The authors studied the experience of flow in a work context with challenges that appear in the form of hindrance demands, different from the previous ones that have studied flow experience in challenging and motivating contexts such as sports contexts, including mountain climbing, surfing, and similar cases. In addition, there was no consensus in different past studies about associating mindfulness with flow experience. Therefore, in this case, further study had been left to future studies. Moreover, the process of this relationship through the mediating role of psychological capital and coping competence has not been investigated in previous studies.
... In section three, participants were given practical tips to target the core experiential flow dimensions of 'absorption' and 'effort-less control', lasting approximately 40 min. The dimension 'absorption' was initially detailed and then targeted through practicing sustained attention on an easy-to-achieve task, and managing attention (visually and cognitively) when distractions occurred (also see Aherne et al., 2011;Cathcart et al., 2014); the logic being that managing attention towards more relevant information (of the task) positively impacts decision-making, the ability to accurately manage an 'optimal challenge' level, and self-efficacy (Pineau et al., 2014). 'Effort-less control' was then described and targeted through practising movement in a more effortless manner (than normal) during a challenging task; the logic being that through increased awareness of moving effortlessly, we learn to self-regulate cognitive and physiological processes towards a more effort-less sense of control (Gardner & Moore, 2007). ...
Unlabelled:
Despite there being an increasing number of applied flow studies across scientific disciplines, there exists no consistent or broadly applicable intervention to promote flow experiences. This study provides a detailed account of a new educational flow training program developed following recent advancements in the flow literature that have provided a more parsimonious understanding of flow experiences and antecedents. Guided by CONSORT guidelines for feasibility trials, we conducted a single-group, non-randomized feasibility trial of an educational flow training program (N = 26). We assessed participant retention, perceptions about and experiences of the program, perceptions about the flow education training, and preliminary assessments of flow as an outcome. Results broadly supported program feasibility, and participants reported positive experiences in, and perceptions of, program components. In terms of preliminary efficacy, we observed evidence of noteworthy change pre-to-post-program in flow (d = 0.84), performance (d = 0.81), competence (d = 0.96), well-being (d = 0.68), intrinsic motivation (d = 0.47), interest (d = 0.72), choice (d = 0.38), stress (d = -1.08), ability to handle stress (d = 0.74), and anxiety (d = - 0.86). These results provide preliminary evidence that it may be possible to 'train' flow in line with recent perspectives on a core three-dimensional flow experience (and antecedents). The study has developed a research foundation for flow intervention "curriculum" and quality standards, and for measuring results. It offers a foundation for the implementation of a larger-scale program.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s41042-023-00098-2.
... Throughout the 12 sessions, the researcher introduced each MAC component to the participant in individual sessions. The program reflected an educational intervention consistent with the previous research, which demonstrated the effectiveness of such approaches (De Petrillo et al., 2009;Cathcart, McGregor, Groundwater, 2014). In order of delivery process, the components of the 12 MAC-based sessions were as follows in Table 1: ...
The purpose of this study was to research the subjective experiences of an athlete during practice match competitions and to examine the potential usefulness of an adapted Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) intervention in addressing the emotional difficulties of the athlete. A case study was conducted, which suggested that the athlete experienced anxiety while practicing for match competitions and typically avoided these emotional difficulties and engaged in avoidant behaviors. The MAC-based intervention was adapted for educational purposes and consisted of 12 sessions. The results suggested that the intervention helped the athlete to accept private events, commit to performance-related behaviors, and engage more frequently to perform under pressure. The study concluded that the MAC-based intervention, to a certain extent, educated the athlete about how to meet the challenges of performance difficulties, commit to values-driven behavior, and exhibit behaviors that would potentially permit optimal performance.
... The present study aims to investigate the direct and indirect effects of mindfulness on ow in a highly challenging work environment. Although some researchers have acknowledged the effects of mindfulness on ow (e.g., (57,59,75, 76)), they have rarely been investigated in a dynamic and challenging work context, speci cally in a pre-hospital emergency environment, in which highly challenging situations are the norm. The path from mindfulness to ow experience through the mediating role of the two critical factors of psychological capital and coping competence is explored in the present study. ...
Background
The present study aims to investigate whether and how mindfulness leads to the flow experience in high-pressure situations during the coronavirus pandemic peak, especially in high-risk, challenging contexts such as emergencies. So, the authors aim to expand existing knowledge about experiencing flow at work, specifically in the crisis context of the COVID-19 period, when challenges convert to hindrance demands. Before examining the possible processes and mechanisms in this relationship, we examined the mediating role of two variables: psychological capital and coping competence.
Method
The statistical population of this study consists of all employees of emergency centers in Mashhad, Iran; there were 550 at the time of the study. Using a simple random sampling method and the Morgan table, a sample of 220 people was considered. A structural equation model, AMOS, and SPSS software were used to analyze the collected data.
Result
The results emphasize that among employees who experienced mindfulness, an optimal experience did not necessarily occur, specifically in those situations in which challenge stressors become hindrance stressors. Although the association of mindfulness and coping competence was verified, its association with flow through coping competence was rejected. It is verified that mindfulness would be associated with flow through psychological capital.
Conclusion
The study extends our understanding of occurring flow at high-risk work environments in which challenges are not motivational. The authors studied the experience of flow in a work context with challenges that appear in the form of hindrance demands, different from the previous ones that have studied flow experience in challenging and motivating contexts such as sports contexts, including mountain climbing, surfing, and similar cases. In addition, there was no consensus in different past studies about associating mindfulness with flow experience. Therefore, in this case, further study had been left to future studies. Moreover, the process of this relationship through the mediating role of psychological capital and coping competence has not been investigated in previous studies.
... In terms of further research, an interesting question is what differentiates mindfulness and flow. Although sometimes treated as similar or even identical, scholars are increasingly sensitive to potential differences (Cathcart et al., 2014), with a possible point of divergence being "self-presence"how self-conscious versus selfless a state is (Millière, 2020). While selflessness is an ultimate goal of many forms of meditation, we predict that overall it is more easily and frequently attained during flow than mindfulness. ...
Recent decades have seen a surge of scientific interest in happiness. However, its theoretical conceptualization is a work in progress. Much of the literature focuses on two main forms: hedonic (encompassing life satisfaction and positive affect) and eudaimonic (encompassing phenomena such as character development and meaning in life). However, this binary has been critiqued as being incomplete, in part because it reflects a Western-centric perspective that overlooks forms emphasized in non-Western cultures. As a result, scholars have begun to highlight other forms besides hedonia and eudaimonia. This article surveys the literature to identify 16 potential forms in total, classified according to whether they primarily pertain to feelings (hedonic, contented, mature, chaironic, and vital), thought (evaluative, meaningful, intellective, aesthetic, and absorbed) or action (eudaimonic, masterful, accomplished, harmonic, nirvanic, and relational). This article thus offers a more expansive, albeit still just provisional, taxonomy of this vital and still-evolving topic.
... Mindfulness has proven to be a good predictor of flow disposition [24,25] and was linked to facets of flow [26,27]. Moreover, there is some evidence in the literature that mindfulness training can enhance flow experiences in athletes [28]. ...
Purpose
The integrated model of flow and clutch provides a multistate perspective to the optimal experiences during physical exercises. Based on this model, the Flow-Clutch Scale (FCS) was developed. The current study is the first step to test the psychometric properties of a Chinese version of the FCS (FCS–C).
Method
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with Maximum Likelihood estimate was performed in Chinese athletes (N = 426) to explore the structural validity. The Pearson correlations between the subscales of the FCS-C and “non-reactivity to inner experiences”, “cognitive flexibility”, and “self-consciousness” were explored to examine the concurrent validity. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were used to assess the internal consistency of the total scale and subscales. Moreover, the test-retest reliability was examined in the subsample (N = 53) in a two-week interval.
Results
The results of CFA suggested that the three-factor model showed an acceptable model fit (χ² = 459.40, df = 120, CFI = 0.95, GFI = 0.90, SRMR = 0.03, RMSEA = 0.082 [90% CI = 0.074–0.09]). And concerning the correlations between the factor “characteristics of flow” and “self-consciousness”, the concurrent validity is not satisfactory. Moreover, the test-retest coefficients ranged from 0.75 to 0.78 (p < .01) and Cronbach's alpha ranged from 0.87 to 0.96.
Conclusion
Results indicated that the three-factor model of FCS-C is acceptable, whereas its validity is not satisfactory to appropriately examine flow and/or clutch states in Chinese athletes. In summary, it shed light on future research on optimal experiences in China.
... • Improve performance [185] • Increased self-confidence and decreased anxiety [186] • Sleep quality [187] • Support for getting into the flow [190,197] • Decrease risk of injury [191] • Dealing with stress [195] Despite this promising outlook, the high-quality research on the effects of mindfulness in the elite sports environment is still needed [193] and the active discussion between experienced experts from the field of mindfulness and elite sports to bring forward new forms of intervention and investigate possible effects on team levels [196,197]. Especially, the combination of both mindfulness and bio-/neurofeedback training might be a promising path to follow [194]. ...
Decompression illness and decompression sickness are pathologies mostly associated with diving incidents, which result from excessive bubble formation from dissolved gas. Great efforts are undertaken to perform research to understand the pathology and fundamental mechanisms, which result from the dynamic effects of compression and decompression. In this chapter, the clinical manifestation of decompression illness including the impact on different physiological systems is presented. Principles in physics, chemistry and biology are investigated that build the base to understand the mechanisms of decompression and bubble kinetics. These principles are then used to derive algorithms and concepts to calculate decompression schedules, which aim to safely step the diver back to the surface. Different approaches are dissected for their general ideas and implementation.
... • Improve performance [185] • Increased self-confidence and decreased anxiety [186] • Sleep quality [187] • Support for getting into the flow [190,197] • Decrease risk of injury [191] • Dealing with stress [195] Despite this promising outlook, the high-quality research on the effects of mindfulness in the elite sports environment is still needed [193] and the active discussion between experienced experts from the field of mindfulness and elite sports to bring forward new forms of intervention and investigate possible effects on team levels [196,197]. Especially, the combination of both mindfulness and bio-/neurofeedback training might be a promising path to follow [194]. ...
This chapter discusses the main characteristics and challenges of the elite sports environment, derived impacts on the athlete’s body and mind, as well as implications of the training process. “Elite Sports” is a common but not well-defined phrase. In this chapter, we refer to the elite sports environment as “the top competitions in a sport (e.g., world championships/series, Olympic Games, etc.) and the training process with the purpose to compete/succeed in competition.” Main characteristics are the search for optimal, on point performance through constantly improving fitness for a specific context of top competition. This implies a high investment of energy and time over a long period. Elite sports competes globally and is in the focus of public attention. Therefore, elite sports is not just extreme in terms of extraordinary physical and mental demands imposed by the movement task but also in respect to the special social and more or less superficial environment in which it takes place. The main challenge of elite sports is to handle physical, psychological, and social stress in the right way. Utilizing it as the motor for the human adaptation capacity in the training process and promoter of optimal performance. High loads of biopsychological stress are needed to optimize fitness. The meaning of the concepts of resilience and antifragility is discussed. Foremost, it is important to balance the stress with sufficient recovery, as well as coping with and minimizing stressors, which are counteracting the adaptive process.
... • Improve performance [185] • Increased self-confidence and decreased anxiety [186] • Sleep quality [187] • Support for getting into the flow [190,197] • Decrease risk of injury [191] • Dealing with stress [195] Despite this promising outlook, the high-quality research on the effects of mindfulness in the elite sports environment is still needed [193] and the active discussion between experienced experts from the field of mindfulness and elite sports to bring forward new forms of intervention and investigate possible effects on team levels [196,197]. Especially, the combination of both mindfulness and bio-/neurofeedback training might be a promising path to follow [194]. ...
Firefighters are exposed to many dangerous and stressful situations when they are deployed to fight structural and wildland fires as well as rescuing victims from vehicular accidents, or other adverse events. When they are deployed, they can be exposed to physical danger as well as extreme heat and/or extreme cold due to fire and environmental conditions, thus making firefighting an extreme environment. This chapter provides an overview of the firefighter profession as an extreme environment including their clothing and equipment, the specific impacts on the human body, and the impact of biological sex and gender together with training and fitness approaches. This situational context information is important in order to understand this profession and the opportunities for engineering and information technology solutions for health, wellness, resilience, and adaption within this population.
... Flow is of high interest to sports enthusiasts due to its link with optimal experience and high-level performance (Anderson et al., 2014;Cathcart et al., 2014;Scott-Hamilton et al., 2016). In the physical activity context, even though peak performance is not a determining factor, flow results in increased engagement and exercise adherence . ...
The flow experience in sports is a construct of great interest to recreational and competitive athletes, coaches, and psychologists in pursuit of optimal performance. As there are no validated instruments for evaluating flow in the Brazilian Portuguese language, we evaluated the psychometric properties of a Brazilian version of the Flow State Scale (FSS-2) through three steps. Initially, four translators and five sports psychology specialists adapted the FSS-2 content for the Brazilian Portuguese language. Second, 371 athletes of both sexes who were engaged in group and individual sport modalities and who participated in national university sports competitions from 24 states responded to the adapted version of the FSS-2. Third, an independent sample of 34 athletes from Paraná responded to both the adapted FSS-2 and the dispositional flow scale (DFS-2) to permit analysis of the external validity and temporal stability of the adapted FSS-2. We found that the Brazilian version of the FSS-2 contains clear and pertinent items with a good content validity coefficient (CVC = 0.94) and satisfactory internal consistency (α > 0.88/CC > 0.80). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the adapted 36-item model presented adequate fit [X ² (558) = 1258.85; X ² /df = 2.256; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.92; non-normed fit index (NNFI) = 0.90; Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) = 0.91; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06 (0.05–0.06); (RMSEA <0.05) =.001] with all first order factors (challenge-skills balance, action-attention fusion, clear goals, feedback, intense concentration, control, loss of self-awareness, time transformation, and autotelic experience). External validity (r > 0.344) and temporal stability (0.53 < intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) < 0.86) were satisfactory. We conclude that the Brazilian version of FSS-2 is adequate to evaluate flow states experienced by Brazilian athletes following a sports competition.
... In this case, it is the next point that the athlete should be focusing. Mindfulness has also proved to be effective for athletes to get into a flow state (10)(11)(12). Therefore, this article is developed to incorporate the practice of mindfulness in sports. ...
Abstract: Mindfulness has been widely researched and used in many different areas, such as clinical psychology, organisational psychology and sports psychology. Through mindfulness practices, athletes are able to increase their emotional management, awareness of thoughts and feelings, non-judgmental acceptance, task-relevant attentional focus, and increase mental flexibility. Athletes who want to use mindfulness practices to improve their sports performance need to be aware of the different types of mindfulness practices that can be practised in different settings. All these different types of mindfulness practices serve the same purpose. It is for them to keep track of their thoughts. This could help athletes to get into "The Zone" and preventing athletes from getting lost in their own thoughts. The purpose of this article is to introduce four types of mindfulness techniques-Focus Attention (FA), Open Monitoring (OM), Loving-Kindness (LK), and Body Scan (BS). Besides, we will address a specific step-by-step guide for coaches and athletes to apply mindfulness both during in-game and off-game to enhance their emotional management and sporting performance.
... Given considerable research demonstrating the association between mindfulness and positive mental health, there has been increasing interest in examining the link between mindfulness and positive psychology constructs (Ivtzan & Lomas, 2016;Kashdan et al., 2013). Considering the spiritual roots of mindfulness practice as a practice supporting the cultivation of awareness, insight, joy, and compassion (Hanh, 2016), there may be a theoretical and empirical association between mindfulness and positive psychological outcomes, such as well-being, flow, empathy, and gratitude (Cathcart et al., 2014;Raab, 2014;Voci et al., 2019). In particular, the ability to pay attention to experiences in the present moment (versus engaging in rumination or futureoriented thoughts) may facilitate more sustained focus on the task at hand as well as a greater tendency to notice positive experiences occurring in the present moment, leading to a greater likelihood of experiencing joy and contentment. ...
Objectives
This meta-analytic study examined average effect sizes across studies for the association between dispositional mindfulness and gratitude, dispositional mindfulness and emotional intelligence, and emotional intelligence and gratitude. The study also tested a model positing emotional intelligence as a path linking mindfulness and gratitude.Methods
Two-stage structural equation modeling provided information regarding the association between mindfulness and gratitude across eight samples, the association between mindfulness and emotional intelligence across twenty-six samples, the association between emotional intelligence and gratitude across seven samples, and the mediating role of emotional intelligence in the association between mindfulness and gratitude. Samples were heterogeneous with varying populations.ResultsAcross samples with a total of 3130 participants, greater mindfulness was significantly associated with more gratitude; r = .22, 95% CI [.16, .28], p < .001. In samples including 6369 participants, greater mindfulness was significantly associated with higher emotional intelligence; r = .40, 95% CI [.33, .47], p < .001. Among samples including 3998 participants, higher emotional intelligence was significantly associated with more gratitude; r = .31, 95% CI [.23, .39], p < .001. Emotional intelligence was a significant mediator of the association between mindfulness and gratitude. The indirect and direct effects were .11, 95% CI [.07, .16] and .11, 95% CI [.03, .19], ps < .05, respectively, with no significant difference between indirect and direct effects, χ2(df = 1) = 0.004, p = .95.Conclusions
The findings add to evidence supporting the beneficial nature of mindfulness. Mindfulness may be a foundation for a cascading development of positive characteristics that result in flourishing.
... Recent studies in sports have found that the mindfulness of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I men's basketball players significantly predicted their game free throw percentages (Gooding & Gardner, 2009). Mindfulness has been correlated with improved athletic performance and flow state (Cathcart et al., 2014;Scott-Hamilton et al., 2016). In the context of golf competitions, the higher the golfers' attentional control of mindfulness, the better the golfers' putting performance (Chuang & Chi, 2017). ...
The relationship between mindfulness and well-being and ill-being has been demonstrated to a great extent. In sports, the fulfillment of individuals’ basic psychological needs depends mostly on support from others, such as that from a coach in a sports team context. However, a possible way for individuals to fulfill their basic psychological needs is by enhancing mindfulness rather than depending on others. Therefore, building on SDT and mindfulness, this study examines the mediating effect of basic psychological needs on mindfulness to predict subjective vitality and athlete burnout in professional golfers. The participants were 120 golfers (47% females), with a mean age and golf experience of 22.28 and 9.48 years, respectively. The association between mindfulness and subjective vitality was partially mediated by the need for autonomy and relatedness. By contrast, the association between mindfulness and burnout was partially mediated by the need for competence and relatedness, thus supporting our mediation analysis. Overall, the study highlights mindfulness as a potential mechanism to ensure the fulfillment of basic psychological needs in golf training, which could enhance golfers’ subjective vitality and reduce the occurrence of burnout.
... For athletes, mindfulness can be viewed as a dispositional construct that they are able to regulate their attention on the present performance, be aware of the internal and external private experiences, and adopt an accepting and non-judgmental attitude (Thienot et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2017). Preliminary evidence has been established on the effects of mindfulness on adaptive and maladaptive outcomes among athletes, such as athlete burnout (Li et al., 2019), mental health (Shannon et al., 2020), subjective wellbeing (Chang et al., 2018), and flow (Cathcart et al., 2014). On the other hand, mindfulness practice within mindfulnessbased interventions has been used to help athletes improve mindfulness abilities, enhance sport performance, and promote adaptive outcomes (Bühlmayer et al., 2017;Zhang & Su, 2020). ...
Objectives
The current study aimed to examine the mediation effects of experiential acceptance, cognitive defusion, decentering, and nonattachment on the paths from mindfulness to athlete burnout, subjective well-being, and flourishing among elite athletes.Methods
Chinese elite athletes (n = 515; 225 females) were recruited from three provincial sports centers representing 22 sports. The athletes completed self-reported measures of mindfulness, experiential acceptance, cognitive defusion, decentering, and nonattachment, athlete burnout, subjective well-being, and flourishing. Path analyses were conducted to test the mediation effects from mindfulness to athlete burnout, subjective well-being, and flourishing.ResultsPath analyses revealed that the effect from mindfulness to athlete burnout was mediated by experiential acceptance, cognitive defusion, and nonattachment, but not decentering. The effect from mindfulness to subjective well-being was mediated by decentering, cognitive defusion, and nonattachment, but not experiential acceptance. The effect from mindfulness to flourishing was mediated by decentering and nonattachment, but not experiential acceptance and cognitive defusion.Conclusion
Findings from this study provided empirical support for the changing mechanisms regarding how mindfulness leads to adaptive and maladaptive outcomes, which can inform future mindfulness-based interventions for elite athletes.
... Secondly, there was a significant gender-ratio disparity between the bouldering and control groups; due to the lack of randomisation. While Tihanyi et al. (2016) have reported no gender difference in body awareness and mindfulness in physical activity, other studies indicate there may be subtle gender differences to facets within mindfulness (Alispahic & Hasenbegovic-Anic, 2017;Cathcart et al., 2014). The potential bias introduced by these subtle gender differences was not controlled for within this study. ...
Mindfulness is a meditative practice that has received increasing attention within positive psychology as an effective tool to increase wellbeing and decrease anxiety. Previous research has demonstrated that rock-climbers have a higher endorsement of mindfulness and life satisfaction than the general population; yet to date, no research has empirically explored the relationship between mindfulness and rock-climbing. In the current study fifty-nine participants (x¯ = 20.63, SD = 1.60) were asked to complete measures of mindfulness, wellbeing and anxiety before and after participating in an ‘intervention’. The intervention consisted of a mindfulness activity followed by either indoor bouldering (a form of rock-climbing) versus a physical activity control. A mixed ANOVA revealed that participation in bouldering increased the measure of mindfulness significantly more than the control activity; however, no significant group differences were found for the measures of wellbeing and anxiety. A regression analysis then revealed that group condition accounted for 33% of the variance in post-intervention mindfulness levels when controlling for baseline levels of mindfulness. This is the first study to experimentally demonstrate that engagement with rock-climbing increases mindfulness in young adults. Theoretically, the results have implications for our understanding of “flow” and optimal human experience. Practically, the study highlights the potential to implement rock-climbing as a resilience-building activity and integrate the sport within therapeutic frameworks.
... However, studies show ambiguous results regarding the potential of mindfulness to support flow experiences. In the context of sports, self-reported dispositional mindfulness was found to be higher in elite athletes and was positively correlated with flow experiences (Cathcart et al. 2014). In an experimental examination of experiences while listening to music, people in the mindfulness condition described clearly different experiences compared to a flow condition (Diaz 2013). ...
Orientations to well-being, including personal values, motives and goals regarding one’s well-being are often related to the experience of well-being. At the same time, studies show positive effects of mindfulness on well-being. It is conceivable, that the strength of the connection between well-being orientations and experiences depend on the degree of dispositional mindfulness. To explore relationships between orientations and experiences of well-being as well as the potential moderation effect of mindfulness, two cross-sectional online studies with German-speaking participants were conducted. In Study 1 ( N = 414) mindfulness moderated the relationship between life of pleasure (measured by the Orientations to Happiness Scale) and life satisfaction (β = −0.10, p = 0.017) as well as the relationship between life of meaning (β = −0.10, p = 0.028). As hypothesized, mindfulness moderated the connection between life of engagement and life satisfaction (β = −0.14, p = 0.001) as well as the negative relationship between search for meaning and life satisfaction (β = 0.15, p < 0.001). In Study 2 ( N = 731) none of those effects were statistically replicated. Yet, mindfulness moderated the relationship between hedonia (measured by the Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motives for Action Questionnaire) and life satisfaction (β = −0.07, p = 0.048) as well as the relationship between search for meaning and psychological well-being (β = 0.07, p = 0.015). Overall, the results show that mindfulness has no substantial moderating effect on the well-being orientations and experiences relationship. Yet, in both studies, mindfulness and well-being orientations were consistently related to well-being experiences. This points out, that both are related to the experience of well-being, but beyond that not as interacting factors.
... Beberapa kajian lepas menunjukkan kesan mindfulness dan Acceptance Commitment Therapy (ACT) terhadap peningkatan kekuatan mental dan efikasi kendiri. Sebagai contoh latihan mindfulness didapati memberi kesan terhadap aspek keupayaan menangani cabaran secara flow melalui efikasi kendiri (Cathcart, McGregor, & Groundwater, 2014;Pineau et al., 2014). Oleh yang demikian, potensi mindfulness dalam sukan dan latihan fizikal terus berkembang hingga mewujudkan program latihan yang berteraskan mindfulness terhadap atlet. ...
Kajian ini bertujuan menguji kesan latihan Mindfulness Acceptance Commitment-Physical (MAC-P) untuk meningkatkan kekuatan mental dan efikasi kendiri semasa melakukan aktiviti fizikal. MAC-P digandingkan bersama Psychological Skills Training (PST) dalam kajian ini sebagai latihan mental untuk aktiviti berbentuk aerobik dan anaerobik. Kajian ini telah menggunakan reka bentuk kuasi-eksperimen. Subjek terdiri daripada pelajar semester satu Sains Kejurulatihan, yang diagihkan kepada kumpulan MAC-P (n=21), PST (n=21) dan kawalan (n=21). Instrumen kajian terdiri daripada ujian Bleep dan Wingate, Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ), dan skala efikasi kendiri yang diadaptasi dari Bandura (2006). Analisis Covariance (ANCOVA) menunjukkan kesan intervensi yang signifikan ke atas kekuatan mental [F(2,59)=4.93, p<0.05], dan efikasi kendiri [F(2,59)=38.39, p<0.05]. Semasa pasca ujian, kumpulan MAC-P menunjukkan skor yang tinggi bagi efikasi kendiri (87.12±1.71), manakala kumpulan PST (25.68±0.853) memperoleh skor kekuatan mental tertinggi berbanding kumpulan MAC-P (23.50±.846) dan kawalan (21.91±.0.842). Kesimpulannya, MAC-P dan PST mempunyai kesan signifikan terhadap peningkatan prestasi kekuatan mental dan efikasi kendiri dalam aktiviti aerobik dan anaerobik. Ini menunjukkan bahawa MAC-P boleh menjadi alternatif ke arah peningkatan prestasi fizikal selain daripada PST. Oleh yang demikian, hasil kajian ini boleh dijadikan sebagai garis panduan kepada jurulatih dan individu untuk memperbaiki prestasi aktiviti fizikal, khususnya aktiviti yang berbentuk aerobik dan anaerobik.
... This session introduced a sports imagery meditation, mindful movement, and a body scan meditation. Research has shown that focusing on the present moment increases the potential for successful performance (Cathcart, McGregor, & Groundwater, 2014;Kee & Wang, 2008). For athletes, this present moment focus has been closely tied to peak performance in sports (Kee & Wang, 2008). ...
The objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a pilot mindfulness program for student athletes by assessing mental health, mindfulness ability, and perceived stress before and after the intervention. The mindfulness program was adapted from a program developed at the University of Southern California. The four-session intervention taught the basics of mindfulness, self-care skills, and guided meditations. Participants completed surveys before and after the intervention. Mindfulness ability was assessed with the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale, mental health was assessed with a modified Short Form Health Survey, and stress was assessed with the Perceived Stress Scale. After the intervention, participants reported improvement in mindfulness ability, t (28) = −2.61, p = .014, mental health, t (28) = −2.87, p = .008, and a trending improvement in perceived stress, t (28) = 1.86, p = .073. A short mindfulness program may be effective for improving mental health and mindfulness ability in collegiate student athletes.
... This indicates that metacognitive procedural knowledge may play a part in initiating attention regulation strategies, at different times. Nonetheless, several studies have shown support for the relationship between mindfulness and the experience of flow (see Bervoets, 2013;Cathcart et al., 2014;Kaufman et al., 2009;Scott-Hamilton et al., 2016). ...
Objectives
This study investigated associations between triathletes’ sports-specific metacognitive beliefs, metacognitive processes measured prior to a triathlon (n = 193), and in-event flow measured post event (n = 76)..
Method
The Metacognitive questionnaires were administered to triathletes one day prior to the event, and the flow scale was administered just following the event. Bivariate correlations were used to test relationships with individual flow dimensions, while stepwise regressions were used to determine the strongest metacognitive predictors of meta processes and flow.
Results
Correlations indicated that metacognitive beliefs were negatively associated with various specific dimensions of flow (Cohen’s f² = .28), while metacognitive processes positively associated with flow dimensions (Cohen’s f ² = .49). Stepwise regressions revealed that specific metacognitive beliefs were negatively associated with metacognitive processes during competition (Cohen’s f² = .08 to .49), including the coordination, evaluation and control of cognition. Further regressions demonstrated that negative beliefs about competitive thinking, thought control, and cognitive coordination predicted experience of flow during competition.
Conclusions
Overall, this study demonstrated that sports specific metacognitive beliefs and processes may influence the regulation of flow during a competition, however, further research using longitudinal and qualitative methodologies is required to understand the relationships further
KEY POINTS
• (1)Flow state has been well established as mental state for optimal performance.
• (2)Manifesting flow requires effective self-regulation of attention and cognition.
• (3)Metacognitions have shown to influence attention and flow in athletes.
• (4)Sports-specific metacognitions were associated with various dimensions of flow state.
• (5)Sports-specific metacognitive beliefs predicted self-regulatory ability prior to performances.
• (6)Sports-specific metacognitions predicted the experience of flow during performances.
Purpose
This study aims to explore how mindfulness contributed to the flow exnperience in high-pressure situations during the peak of the coronavirus pandemic, particularly in challenging contexts like emergencies. The authors seek to enhance our understanding of experiencing flow at work, particularly during the COVID-19 crisis, when challenges became hindrance demands. Prior to investigating the potential processes and mechanisms in this association, the study also explores the mediating role of two variables: psychological capital and coping competence.
Method
The initial study population comprised all (N = 550) emergency center employees in Mashhad, Iran. Employing simple random sampling and the Morgan table, a 220-person sample was selected. Data analysis used AMOS and SPSS software alongside a structural equation model.
Result
The study confirmed the relationship between mindfulness and coping skills but did not confirm the relationship between mindfulness and flow via coping skills. However, it did confirm that mindfulness is associated with flow through psychological capital.
Conclusion
The study enhances our comprehension of flow in high-risk work environments where challenges are not motivational. The authors explored flow experience in a work setting with hindrance demands, unlike previous studies focusing on flow in challenging and motivating contexts like sports (e.g., mountain climbing, surfing). Past research lacks a consensus on the relation between mindfulness and flow experience, leaving room for future exploration. Furthermore, the interplay between mindfulness, psychological capital, and coping competence as mediators in this relationship remains unexplored in prior studies.
This article positions meditation as a critical well-being practice that nurtures well-being and self-regulation. The utilization of meditation within a dance conservatoire environment can contribute to the pro-active engagement with self-care, and meditation, as a practice of ‘embodied self-care’, foregrounds subjective agency and can disrupt the dominant paradigms of dance pedagogy as a process of striving towards idealized goals. In this article, we evaluate the implementation of a meditation practice programme within a dance conservatoire setting, and by drawing on the premise of meditation as a practice of self-regulation, we argue that it is a vital vehicle for well-being and resilience in dancers. We also position meditation as a somatic practice that can be utilized to foreground the embodied subjectivity of dance students through a productive encounter of western dominant dance training practices and eastern contemplative practices which activates agency and embodied criticality.
Purpose: The purpose of this research is to determine the impact of recreational flow experience on perceived wellness among extreme sports participants. Material and Methods: Employing a quantitative research method, a correlational survey model was utilized in this study. The research group consists of 532 extreme sports participants, including 397 men and 135 women. Data were analyzed using SPSS 24.0, with Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression used to examine the relationship and impact of flow experience on perceived wellness. Results: The findings revealed that anxiety and boredom during the activity were negatively correlated with perceived wellness, while acquaintance and flow were positively correlated. Regression analysis showed no significant impact of boredom on wellness. Acquaintance positively affected psychological, emotional, physical, and intellectual wellness, while anxiety had a negative effect on all dimensions of wellness. Additionally, recreational flow experience had a positive impact on all dimensions of perceived wellness. Conclusion: Consequently, it was determined that anxiety during extreme sports negatively affected perceived wellness, while the attitude towards acquaintance during the activity and recreational flow experience positively influenced perceived wellness. Recommendations for practitioners include organizing trainers and informing recreation specialists and coaches to establish a balance between challenge and skill in order to facilitate the flow experience.
Bu araştırmanın amacı, ekstrem sporcularda rekreasyonel akış deneyiminin algılanan
esenlik üzerindeki etkisini tespit etmektir. Nicel araştırma yönteminden yararlanılarak
tasarlanmış bu çalışmada ilişkisel tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. Araştırma grubunun
seçiminde gönüllülük esasına dayalı olarak olasılığa dayalı olmayan örnekleme
çeşitlerinden kolayda örnekleme tekniğinden yararlanılmıştır. Araştırma grubunu hava,
kara ve suda yapılan ekstrem spor branşlarından en az birini yapan 532 kişi
oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma verileri çevrim içi anket tekniğinden yararlanılarak elde
edilmiştir. Veri toplama aracı olarak araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen “Kişisel Bilgi
Formu”, Alpullu ve Ak (2020a) tarafından geliştirilen “Alpak Akış Ölçeği” ve Adams ve
diğ. (1997) tarafından geliştirilen ve Memnun (2006) tarafından güvenilirlik ve geçerlilik
çalışması yapılarak Türkçeye uyarlanan “Algılanan Esenlik Ölçeği (Perceived Wellness
Scale)” kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler SPSS 24.0 paket programından yararlanılarak
analiz edilmiştir. Katılımcıların demografik özelliklerini belirlemek amacıyla betimsel
istatistiklerden yararlanılmıştır. Araştırmada kullanılan ölçeklerin güvenilirliğini test
etmek için cronbach’s alfa katsayıları hesaplanmıştır. Yapılan normallik analizi
sonucunda araştırma verilerinin normal dağıldığı tespit edilmiş ve verilerin analizinde
parametrik analiz tekniklerinden yararlanılmıştır. Akış deneyimi ve esenlik algısı
arasındaki ilişkinin tespit edilmesi için Pearson Korelasyon analizi uygulanmıştır.
Rekreasyonel akış deneyiminin esenlik algısı üzerindeki etkisini belirlemek amacıyla
Çoklu Doğrusal Regresyon analizi uygulanmıştır. AAÖ ve AEÖ değişkenlerinin gruplar
arası farklılık gösterip göstermediğini tespit etmek amacıyla Bağımsız Örneklem T-Testi
ve Tek Yönlü Varyans Analizi (One-Way ANOVA) yapılmıştır. Araştırma bulgularına
göre, aktivite esnasındaki kaygı ve sıkılma alt boyutunun algılanan esenlik alt boyutları
ile negatif, tanışma ve akış boyutunun algılanan esenlik alt boyutları ile pozitif bir ilişki
içerisinde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Regresyon analizi sonuçlarına göre sıkılma alt
boyutunun algılanan esenlik alt boyutları üzerinde anlamlı bir etkisinin bulunmadığı
tespit edilmiştir. Tanışma alt boyutunun psikolojik, duygusal, fiziksel ve entelektüel
esenlik algısı üzerinde pozitif, kaygı boyutunun algılanan esenliğin tüm boyutları
üzerinde negatif etkisi olduğu belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca akış alt boyutunun algılanan
esenliğin tüm boyutları üzerinde pozitif yönde anlamlı bir etkisi olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Sonuç olarak ekstrem spor esnasında yaşanılan kaygı durumunun esenlik algısını olumsuz
yönde, aktiviteye yönelik tanışma durumundaki tutum ile rekreasyonel akış deneyiminin
esenlik algısını olumlu yönde etkileyeceği tespit edilmiştir.
Flow pertains to the state of the total absorption in the present activity, intense focus, concentration, and enjoyment, accompanied by a loss of reflective consciousness. Previous studies pointed out flow as an indissoluble part of physical activity, helpful in fostering and maintaining autonomous motivation in professional and amateur sport. In the present study, within the framework of the 2x2 model of perfectionism, we investigated the relationships between two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism-personal standards (PSP) and evaluative concerns (ECP) and dispositional flow. In an online survey study, we collected data from 206 trail runners (63 females, 143 males), aged between 18 and 65 (M = 39.15, SD = 9.19), who took part in the European Running Festival (a competitive trail running event). Our results showed that flow was positively associated with PSP and negatively associated with ECP. Furthermore, the results provide seminal evidence in support of the 2x2 model in relation to flow in sport. With H1a, H2, H3, and H4 hypotheses all being supported the model indicates that for achieving the most frequent flow pure PSP is the most beneficial, while pure ECP is the least beneficial.
Flow is an optimal mental state of being completely involved in one's activities. This correlational study explored an important, but rarely validated performance model in the workplace-flow. Building on the JD-R theory we recognized three key prerequisites of flow-servant leadership, work-life balance, and mindfulness. We analyzed 987 survey responses from two industries (service and manufacturing) in China. The study discovered that servant leadership, mindfulness, and work-life balance correlate with individual flow as key prerequisites. Further we discovered that the relationship between mindfulness and flow is moderated by the industry. Particularly, data from the manufacturing industry showed a positive relationship between mindfulness and flow but a negative relationship among service employees. Implications for performance and applied psychology research, theory, and practice are discussed.
Incorporating the theoretical conceptualizations of Jon Kabat-Zinn and Ellen Langer, this volume illustrates how performers from a variety of disciplines - including sport, dance and music - can use mindfulness to achieve peak performance and improve personal well-being. Leading scholars in the field present cutting-edge research and outline their unique approach to mindfulness that is supported by both theory and practice. They provide an overview of current mindfulness-based manuals and programs used around the globe in countries such as the United States, China and Australia, exploring their effectiveness across cultures. Mindfulness and Performance will be a beneficial reference for practitioners, social and sport psychologists, coaches, athletes, teachers and students.
Incorporating the theoretical conceptualizations of Jon Kabat-Zinn and Ellen Langer, this volume illustrates how performers from a variety of disciplines - including sport, dance and music - can use mindfulness to achieve peak performance and improve personal well-being. Leading scholars in the field present cutting-edge research and outline their unique approach to mindfulness that is supported by both theory and practice. They provide an overview of current mindfulness-based manuals and programs used around the globe in countries such as the United States, China and Australia, exploring their effectiveness across cultures. Mindfulness and Performance will be a beneficial reference for practitioners, social and sport psychologists, coaches, athletes, teachers and students.
Objectives
Participation in mass sports is one of the most efficient strategies for people to attain physical and mental health in China. Prosocial behavior has a positive effect on social development. This study developed a conceptual model with mass sports activity as the independent variable, prosocial behavior as the dependent variable, and flow trait and subjective wellbeing as the mediating variables.
Methods
Participants (N = 351) completed an online survey. Mass sports activity, flow trait, subjective wellbeing, and prosocial behavior were measured using the physical activity rank scale-3 (PARS-3), short dispositional flow scale (SDFS), index of wellbeing (IWB), and prosocial tendencies measure (PTM), respectively. Descriptive statistics compared differences between sports population (PARS-3, ≥ 36) and non-sports population (PARS-3, <36). Mediation effect was analyzed using the PROCESS (Template, Model 6).
Results
Sports population scored significantly higher (all P ≤ 0.05) on SDFS, IWB, and PTM than non-sports population. Participation in mass sports stimulated flow trait and thus improved prosocial behavior, with a mediation effect value of 0.061 (95% CI, 0.028–0.104), which accounted for 30.18% of the total effect. Participation in mass sports enhanced subjective wellbeing and thus improved prosocial behavior, with a mediation effect value of 0.044 (95% CI, 0.007–0.090), which accounted for 21.96% of the total effect. Flow trait and subjective wellbeing mediated the relationship between mass sports activity and prosocial behavior in a sequential manner, with a mediation effect value of 0.059 (95% CI, 0.035–0.090), which accounted for 29.23% of the total effect.
Conclusion
The preliminary results of the mediation model validated the hypothesized sequential links between mass sports activity, flow trait, subjective wellbeing, and prosocial behavior. Greater participation in mass sports increases the likelihood of prosocial behavior.
Existing mindfulness literature in sport primarily focuses on manualized mindfulness protocols, while less is known about athlete experiences with mindfulness outside of interventions. The purpose of the present study was to explore student-athlete experiences with and readiness to practice mindfulness. Using convenience and snowball sampling, 205 collegiate athletes completed a mixed-method survey that assessed readiness, trait mindfulness, social support for mindfulness practice, and mindfulness’ perceived effect on performance. Participants were invited to comment on benefits, barriers, or adverse experiences during their practice. Athletes with long-term experience had significantly higher mindfulness scores than those with less experience; they also perceived that mindfulness had significantly greater effects on performance than those not practicing. Various benefits and barriers were expressed across stages of readiness, though roughly 6%–10% of participants reported an adverse effect of mindfulness practice. It is thus important for practitioners to consider readiness levels and previous experiences in implementing mindfulness interventions.
Achtsamkeit ist ein buddhistischer Ansatz und bedeutet den gegenwärtigen Moment vorurteilsfrei und offen zu registrieren und zuzulassen. Gefühle und Gedanken werden als solche wahrgenommen, ohne diese zu bewerten. Durch eine achtsame und akzeptierende Grundhaltung ist es möglich sich von automatischen, dysfunktionalen Gedanken und Gefühlen zu lösen und flexibler auf diese zu reagieren. Achtsamkeitsbasierte Ansätze zeigen sich nicht nur vielversprechend in der Behandlung psychischer Störungen oder Erkrankungen, sondern auch im Bereich des Sports. Achtsamkeit kann durch sportliche Handlungen gefördert werden, ist aber zudem eine vielversprechende Methode, die beispielsweise im Leistungssport zur Stressreduktion eingesetzt wird. In diesem Kapitel wird eine Einführung in den Ansatz der Achtsamkeit und in das Achtsamkeitstraining gegeben. Dieser Beitrag ist Teil der Sektion Sportpsychologie, herausgegeben vom Teilherausgeber Dieter Hackfort, innerhalb des Handbuchs Sport und Sportwissenschaft, herausgegeben von Arne Güllich und Michael Krüger.
This chapter focuses on promoting an understanding of what mindfulness is, how it can be experienced and what value it brings.
Background
Surgery requires operating room physicians to succumb to unpredictable schedules, long hours, and involved operations, which have led many to acquire maladaptive habits to attain focus in the OR. Research on mindfulness in the medical community has shown positive results on stress, burnout, and quality of life. However, due to the seemingly subjective nature of the benefits of mindfulness as well as the lengthy time requirement by participants, researchers have had difficulty conducting experiments with adequate sample sizes and controls in operating room specialties.
Objective
We assessed the hypotheses that a brief mindfulness intervention on physicians, residents, and anesthesiologists can improve mindfulness, focus, and perceived stress in the operating room. Additionally, we hypothesized that the improvement in scores are independent of level of training and physician type.
Methods
As part of a 3 (Physician Type) X 3 (Case) X 2(Timing) factorial design, 33 surgeons, anesthesiologists, and surgical residents completed a pre- and postintervention Mindfulness Awareness and Attention Scales (MAAS) survey. Three categories of surgery cases, routine-elective, complex-elective, and add-on, were completed pre- and postintervention, along with measures addressing focus and perceived stress. The intervention included a 25-minute mindfulness training on the benefits of mindfulness and how to utilize a brief, 4-minute mindfulness skill employed prior to each postintervention surgery.
Results
The mindfulness intervention was associated with a significant increase in mindfulness (p = 0.006) and flow state (p = 0.009) and a significant decrease in perceived stress (p = 0.033), particularly during the complex routine cases (p = 0.024).
Conclusions
We have developed a brief mindfulness intervention that is compatible with the busy workflow of operating room physicians and can increase the mindful state of participants as well as improve factors that are associated with burnout and distractions.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, adolesan sporcuların optimal performans duygu durumu, zihinsel dayanıklılık, antrenör sporcu ilişki kalitesi ve takım sargınlığı kavramlarının mizah tarzları ile ilişkisinin incelenmesidir. Çalışmaya 2019-2020 sezonunda İstanbul’da futbol, basketbol, voleybol, hentbol ve su topu branşlarında mücadele eden 139 kız (X𝑦𝑎ş=15,44±1,00), ve 213 (X𝑦𝑎ş=15,73±1,41) erkek olmak üzere toplam 352 (X𝑦𝑎ş=15,61±1,27) adolesan sporcu gönüllü olarak katılmıştır. Çalışma kapsamında sporculara “Kişisel Bilgi Formu”, “Mizah Tarzları Ölçeği”, “Sürekli Optimal Performans Duygu Durum Ölçeği Kısa Formu”, “Sporda Zihinsel Dayanıklılık Ölçeği”, “Antrenör Sporcu İlişkisi Ölçeği”, “Genç Sporcu Takım Sargınlığı Ölçeği” uygulanmıştır. Verilerin analizinde çoklu hiyerarşik regresyon analizi kullanılmıştır. Yapılan regresyon analizi sonucunda katılımcı mizah tarzının, optimal performans duygu durum, (β= 0,12, p<0,05), zihinsel dayanıklılık (β= 0,18, p<0,01), antrenör-sporcu ilişki kalitesi ölçeğinin yakınlık (β= 0,12, p<0,05), bağlılık (β= 0,13, p<0,05), tamamlayıcılık alt boyutlarının (β= 0.12, p<0,05) ve takım sargınlığının sosyal sargınlık alt boyutunun (β= 0,14, p<0,05) pozitif yordayıcısı olduğu bulunmuştur. Ayrıca kendini geliştirici mizah tarzı optimal performans duygu durumun (β= 0,23, p<0,01) pozitif yordayıcısıdır. Öte yandan, saldırgan mizah tarzının optimal performans duygu durumun (β=-0.12, p<0,05), zihinsel dayanıklılığın (β= -0,25, p<0,01), antrenör-sporcu ilişkisi kalitesi ölçeğinin yakınlık (β= -0,21, p<0,05), tamamlayıcılık alt boyutlarının (β= -0,21, p<0,01) ve takım sargınlığının görev sargınlığı alt boyutunun (β= -0,14, p<0,05) negatif yordayıcısı olduğu bulunmuştur. Elde edilen bulgular, katılımcı ve saldırgan mizah tarzının, optimal performans duygu durum, zihinsel dayanıklılık, antrenör sporcu ilişki kalitesi ve takım sargınlığı düzeylerinin önemli yordayıcıları olduğunu göstermektedir.
Until recently, escapism was generally seen as a negative phenomenon, due to its common conceptualization as an escape from reality; however, with the new model a more positive approach, distinguishing between self-suppression and self-expansion, began. In our study, we looked into the mechanisms underlying both components of escapism, where a sample of 147 students individually chose their escapist activity. Building on the two-dimensional conceptualization of escapism, we assumed that self-suppression would be associated with higher levels of self-alienation, while escapism as self-expansion would be related to higher levels of dispositional mindfulness and indirectly to a tendency to achieve flow. Results confirmed that self-suppression escapism and self-alienation share a positive correlation, with later also being a significant predictor of self-suppression escapism. However, contrary to our prediction, self-expansion escapism is not associated with dispositional mindfulness, nor does it represent a significant moderator in the relationship between self-expansion and flow. This study has extended the current understanding of escapist activities' complex nature in relation to psychological factors. Moreover, we contributed to the currently still sparse knowledge of escapism, and shed light on its positive side, which certainly exists, since escapism can lead not only to suppression of self but also to its enrichment and expansion.
The two studies included herein discuss mindfulness and acceptance in sport performance. Based on exploratory interviews with elite swimmers, Study 1 showed that optimal performance, or “flow,” states reveal similar characteristics to mindfulness and acceptance states. In flow experiences, the elite swimmers described that they had been particularly mindful of their bodily sensations and accepted them. In Study 2, mindfulness and acceptance were integrated into a psychological skills training program for seven young elite golfers. The program, based on mindfulness and acceptance, contributed to performance enhancement in competition. Participants improved the efficacy of their routines by seeking more relevant internal and external information. The results of both studies corroborated those of previous studies dealing with mindfulness and acceptance in sport. Together, these studies enhance the applicability and efficacy of these approaches with athletic clientele.
Objectives
This study aimed to provide an up-to-date summary of the literature on flow in elite sport, specifically relating to: (i) how flow is experienced; (ii) how these states occur; and (iii) the potential controllability of flow.DesignSystematic review.MethodsA comprehensive literature search of SPORTdiscus, PsycINFO, SAGE journals online, INGENTA connect, and Web of Knowledge was completed in August, 2011, and yielded 17 empirical studies published between 1992 and 2011. The primarily qualitative findings were analysed thematically and synthesised using a narrative approach.ResultsFindings indicated that: (i) some flow dimensions appear to be experienced more consistently than others; (ii) key factors were consistently reported to induce or inhibit flow occurrence; and (iii) the perception that flow experiences could be controllable to some extent, and are not merely ‘coincidental’. Additionally, it is appears that physiology is also relevant in flow, and these experiences may be psychophysiological.Conclusions
Based on these findings, recommendations are made including the need for researchers to move from description to explanation of flow, the use of new methodologies, greater focus on the role of personality factors, and possible refinements of existing flow theory to be more specific to sport.
Since the 1980s, mindfulness techniques have been increasingly utilized in clinical psychology, often as an adjunct to cognitive or behavioral interventions and with a growing evidence base. According to a five-facet operationalization, mindfulness is a capacity to (a) observe, (b) describe, and (c) act with awareness of present moment experience, with a (d) nonjudgmental and (e) nonreactive attitude. The aim of this study was to identify which of the five facets of mindfulness predicts psychological well-being and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress in a community sample comprising nonmeditators and experienced meditators. Participants were recruited from meditation organizations (Vipassana and Zen) as well as undergraduate psychology students (N = 106). Participants completed a Web-based questionnaire assessing mindfulness, psychological symptoms, and well-being. A higher degree of the nonjudgmental aspect of mindfulness was found to predict lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress-related symptomatology. A higher degree of the act with awareness of present moment experience aspect of mindfulness was found to predict lower depressive symptomatology. Improved knowledge of the relationship between specific facets of mindfulness and specific psychological symptoms may improve intervention development and the clinical use of mindfulness.
Thepacing strategy may be defined as the process in which the total energy expenditure during exercise is regulated on a moment-to-moment basis in order to ensure that the exercise bout can be completed in a minimum time and without a catastrophic biological failure. Experienced athletes develop a stable template of the power outputs they are able to sustain for different durations of exercise, but it is not known how they originally develop this template or how that template changes with training and experience. While it is understood that the athlete's physiological state makes an important contribution to this process, there has been much less interest in the contribution that the athlete's emotional status makes.
The aim of this review is to evaluate the literature of physiological, neurophysiological and perceptual responses during exercise in order to propose a complex model interpretation of this process which may be a critical factor determining success in middle- and long-duration sporting competitions.
We describe unconscious/physiological and conscious/emotional mechanisms of control, the focus of which are to ensure that exercise terminates before catastrophic failure occurs in any bodily system.
We suggest that training sessions teach the athlete to select optimal pacing strategies by associating a level of emotion with the ability to maintain that pace for exercise of different durations. That pacing strategy is then adopted in future events.
Finally, we propose novel perspectives to maximise performance and to avoid overtraining by paying attention also to the emotional state in training process.
During self-paced exercise, the exercise work rate is regulated by the brain based on the integration of numerous signals from various physiological systems. It has been proposed that the brain regulates the degree of muscle activation and thus exercise intensity specifically to prevent harmful physiological disturbances. It is presently proposed how the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) is generated as a result of the numerous afferent signals during exercise and serves as a mediator of any subsequent alterations in skeletal muscle activation levels and exercise intensity. A conceptual model for how the RPE mediates feedforward, anticipatory regulation of exercise performance is proposed, and this model is applied to previously described research studies of exercise in various conditions, including heat, hypoxia and reduced energy substrate availability. Finally, the application of this model to recent novel studies that altered pacing strategies and performance is described utilising an RPE clamp design, central nervous system drugs and the provision of inaccurate duration or distance feedback to exercising athletes.
Long and short flow scales are examined from dispositional (n=652 long; n=692 short) and state (n=499 long; n=865 short) perspectives. The long flow scales constitute a 36-item multidimensional assessment of flow and have previously demonstrated good psychometric properties. The short flow scales constitute new abbreviated versions of the long forms, contain 9 items, and provide a brief measure of flow from a dimensional perspective. In the current study, long and short flow scales are assessed across a large and diverse physical activity sample. With few exceptions, these flow measures demonstrated acceptable model fit, reliability, and distributions; associations with key correlates in parallel and hypothesized ways; and invariance in factor loadings. Together, the scales provide options for assessing flow in different contexts and when different goals or constraints are operating. Researchers wanting to capture an aggregate of the multidimensional framework might find the short scales a pragmatic alternative when constraints prohibit use of the full-length versions.
This study was designed to determine the effectiveness of a group stress reduction program based on mindfulness meditation for patients with anxiety disorders.
The 22 study participants were screened with a structured clinical interview and found to meet the DSM-III-R criteria for generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder with or without agoraphobia. Assessments, including self-ratings and therapists' ratings, were obtained weekly before and during the meditation-based stress reduction and relaxation program and monthly during the 3-month follow-up period.
Repeated measures analyses of variance documented significant reductions in anxiety and depression scores after treatment for 20 of the subjects--changes that were maintained at follow-up. The number of subjects experiencing panic symptoms was also substantially reduced. A comparison of the study subjects with a group of nonstudy participants in the program who met the initial screening criteria for entry into the study showed that both groups achieved similar reductions in anxiety scores on the SCL-90-R and on the Medical Symptom Checklist, suggesting generalizability of the study findings.
A group mindfulness meditation training program can effectively reduce symptoms of anxiety and panic and can help maintain these reductions in patients with generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, or panic disorder with agoraphobia.
Mindfulness is an attribute of consciousness long believed to promote well-being. This research provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) are described. Correlational, quasi-experimental, and laboratory studies then show that the MAAS measures a unique quality of consciousness that is related to a variety of well-being constructs, that differentiates mindfulness practitioners from others, and that is associated with enhanced self-awareness. An experience-sampling study shows that both dispositional and state mindfulness predict self-regulated behavior and positive emotional states. Finally, a clinical intervention study with cancer patients demonstrates that increases in mindfulness over time relate to declines in mood disturbance and stress.
A self-report inventory for the assessment of mindfulness skills was developed, and its psychometric characteristics and relationships with other constructs were examined. Participants included three samples of undergraduate students and a sample of outpatients with borderline personality disorder Based on discussions of mindfulness in the current literature, four mindfulness skills were specified: observing, describing, acting with awareness, and accepting without judgment. Scales designed to measure each skill were developed and evaluated. Results showed good internal consistency and test-retest reliability and a clear factor structure. Most expected relationships with other constructs were significant. Findings suggest that mindfulness skills are differentially related to aspects of personality and mental health, including neuroticism, psychological symptoms, emotional intelligence, alexithymia, experiential avoidance, dissociation, and absorption.
It is hypothesised that physical activity is controlled by a central governor in the brain and that the human body functions as a complex system during exercise. Using feed forward control in response to afferent feedback from different physiological systems, the extent of skeletal muscle recruitment is controlled as part of a continuously altering pacing strategy, with the sensation of fatigue being the conscious interpretation of these homoeostatic, central governor control mechanisms.
The authors examine the facet structure of mindfulness using five recently developed mindfulness questionnaires. Two large samples of undergraduate students completed mindfulness questionnaires and measures of other constructs. Psychometric properties of the mindfulness questionnaires were examined, including internal consistency and convergent and discriminant relationships with other variables. Factor analyses of the combined pool of items from the mindfulness questionnaires suggested that collectively they contain five clear, interpretable facets of mindfulness. Hierarchical confirmatory factor analyses suggested that at least four of the identified factors are components of an overall mindfulness construct and that the factor structure of mindfulness may vary with meditation experience. Mindfulness facets were shown to be differentially correlated in expected ways with several other constructs and to have incremental validity in the prediction of psychological symptoms. Findings suggest that conceptualizing mindfulness as a multifaceted construct is helpful in understanding its components and its relationships with other variables.
Previous research on assessment of mindfulness by self-report suggests that it may include five component skills: observing, describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, and nonreactivity to inner experience. These elements of mindfulness can be measured with the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). The authors investigated several aspects of the construct validity of the FFMQ in experienced meditators and nonmeditating comparison groups. Consistent with predictions, most mindfulness facets were significantly related to meditation experience and to psychological symptoms and well-being. As expected, relationships between the observing facet and psychological adjustment varied with meditation experience. Regression and mediation analyses showed that several of the facets contributed independently to the prediction of well-being and significantly mediated the relationship between meditation experience and well-being. Findings support the construct validity of the FFMQ in a combination of samples not previously investigated.
The present study sought to determine the effects of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) on runners. Participants were 25 recreational long-distance runners openly assigned to either the 4-week intervention or to a waiting-list control group, which later received the same program. Results indicate that the MSPE group showed significantly more improvement in organizational demands (an aspect of perfectionism) compared with controls. Analyses of pre- to postworkshop change found a significant increase in state mindfulness and trait awareness and decreases in sport-related worries, personal standards perfectionism, and parental criticism. No improvements in actual running performance were found. Regression analyses revealed that higher ratings of expectations and credibility of the workshop were associated with lower postworkshop perfectionism, more years running predicted higher ratings of perfectionism, and more life stressors predicted lower levels of worry. Findings suggest that MSPE may be a useful mental training intervention for improving mindfulness, sport-anxiety related worry, and aspects of perfectionism in long-distance runners.
This study presents the case of Steve, an adolescent competitive springboard diver. This diver, referred by his coach, received the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach for performance enhancement. The MAC protocol, originally written for an adult population, was used in modified form (under consultation from the authors) to ensure appropriateness for an adolescent population. Conducted in nine individual sessions, the intervention targeted abilities in attention and value-driven behavior to enhance focus, poise, and overall diving performance. Self-report measures of mindfulness and flow, along with objective measures of diving performance were collected pre- and postintervention. Results indicated increases in mindful awareness, mindful attention, experiential acceptance, flow, and diving performance from pre- to postintervention. This case supports the applicability of the MAC protocol with an adolescent athlete population.
Seventeen (17) members of three NCAA Division I men’s basketball teams completed measures of mindfulness and sport-related anxiety to examine the relationship between mindfulness, preshot routine, trait arousal, and basketball free throw shooting percentage. It was hypothesized that (a) mindfulness scores would predict game free throw shooting percentage, (b) practice free throw percentage (indicative of basic skill) would predict game free throw percentage, and (c) consistency in the length of prefree throw routine would predict game free throw percentage. Results indicate that levels of mindfulness significantly predict game free throw percentage and that practice free throw percentage also predicts game free throw percentage. Length and/or consistency of preshot routine were not predictive. Although not proposed as a hypothesis, a statistically significant relationship was also found between an athlete’s year in school (which reflects competitive basketball experience) and game free throw percentage. Together, these results clearly suggest that the combination of mindfulness, skill (practice free throw percentage), and competitive experience (year in school) all contribute to the prediction of competitive free throw percentage and that these variables are more central to successful free throw percentage at this level of competition than length/consistency of one’s preshot routine.
The construct of mindfulness appears to be compatible with theories of flow and peak performance in sport. The present study assessed how Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE), a new 4-week program, affected flow states, performance, and psychological characteristics of 11 archers and 21 golfers from the community. Participants completed trait measures of anxiety, perfectionism, thought disruption, confidence, mindfulness, and flow. They additionally provided data on their performances and state levels of mindfulness and flow. Analyses revealed that some significant changes in dimensions of the trait variables occurred during the training. Levels of state flow attained by the athletes also increased between the first and final sessions. The findings suggest that MSPE is a promising intervention to enhance flow, mindfulness, and aspects of sport confidence. An expanded workshop to allot more time for mindfulness practice is recommended for future studies.
The purpose of the present investigation was to evaluate the long-term effects of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE), a program designed to improve athletic performance and psychological aspects of sport. One-year follow-up assessments were conducted on archers, golfers, and long-distance runners (N = 25) who attended Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff’s (2009) and De Petrillo, Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff’s (2009) MSPE workshops. Across the athlete groups, participants reported significant increases in the ability to act with awareness (an aspect of trait mindfulness) and overall trait mindfulness from pretest to follow-up, along with significant decreases in task-related worries and task-irrelevant thoughts (both aspects of cognitive interference during sport). The long-distance runners exhibited significant improvement in their mile times from pretest to follow-up, with significant correlations between change in runners’ performance and trait variables. Results suggest that MSPE is a promising interv...
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of teaching skilled athletes to use self-talk (ST) and gain insight on the athlete's perceptions of the ST intervention and how it influenced their performance. The participants were four female players from an "elite" under fourteen female regional soccer team. A single-subject design, the multiple baseline across individuals, was used to examine the effects of the ST strategy on performance. The results of the study demonstrated that the ST strategy improved soccer shooting performance for two of the three experimental participants. The social validity assessment found that both the coach and the participants were very satisfied with the results and believed the ST strategy to be an important component in improving their performance.
This study investigated relationships among peak performance, flow, goal orientation, and perceived ability in an attempt to ascertain possible conceptual bases to peak performance. Collegiate athletes (N=200) answered a questionnaire that assessed mastery and competitive goal orientations, perceived ability, flow, and experience in best and worst competitive performances. It was hypothesized that the psychological process of flow underlies peak performance and is associated with a mastery oriented focus and high perceived ability. These predicted relationships were supported by both quantitative and qualitative analyses. Analysis of athletes’ best performances indicated a total focus on performance, and other characteristics of flow were key to the perception of a superior state of functioning. In contrast, overconcern with the outcome, reflecting a competitive orientation, was often associated with athletes’ worst performances. These associations suggest that investigating positive performance states fr...
The Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2) and Dispositional Flow Scale-2 (DFS-2) are presented as two self-report instruments designed to assess flow experiences in physical activity. Item modifications were made to the original versions of these scales in order to improve the measurement of some of the flow dimensions. Confirmatory factor analyses of an item identification and a cross-validation sample demonstrated a good fit of the new scales. There was support for both a 9-first-order factor model and a higher order model with a global flow factor. The item identification sample yielded mean item loadings on the first-order factor of .78 for the FSS-2 and .77 for the DFS-2. Reliability estimates ranged from .80 to .90 for the FSS-2, and .81 to .90 for the DFS-2. In the cross-validation sample, mean item loadings on the first-order factor were .80 for the FSS-2, and .73 for the DFS-2. Reliability estimates ranged between .80 to .92 for the FSS-2 and .78 to .86 for the DFS-2. The scales are presented as ways of assessing flow experienced within a particular event (FSS-2) or the frequency of flow experiences in chosen physical activity in general (DFS-2).
We reviewed and summarize the extant literature on associative/dissociative cognitive strategies used by athletes and others in circumstances necessitating periods of sustained attention. This review covers studies published since a prior publication by Masters and Ogles (1998), and, in keeping with their approach, offers a methodological critique of the literature. We conclude that the distinction between associative and dissociative strategies has outlived its usefulness since initially proposed in an earlier era of ground-breaking research by Morgan and Pollock (1977) that was influenced to some extent by psychodynamic thinking. In recent years there has been an evolutionary shift in concepts of sustained attention toward mindfulness-moment-by-moment attention-that has had a significant impact on conceptual models and clinical practice in diverse areas including stress management, psychotherapy, and athletic performance. We propose that future research on cognitive activity in sustained performance settings be embedded in a mindfulness-based conceptual model.
This study investigated the relationship between mindfulness training (a nonjudgmental attentional training technique) and flow experiences in athletes. Participants were 13 university athletes (M = 21 years), assigned either to a control group or an experimental group. Flow experiences were assessed before and after the intervention. ANOVA (group ×time) of global scores on the Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2; Jackson & Eklund, 2004) showed a significant interaction (F =11.49, p < .05). Follow-up t tests indicated no significant difference (p > .05) between the experimental and control groups' FSS-2 global scores at the baseline training session, but a large difference (p < .05, d = 1.66) at a follow-up training session. Significant interaction effects were also observed for FSS-2 subscales scores for the flow dimensions of "Clear Goals" (F =18.73, p <.05) and "Sense of Control" (F = 14.61, p < .05). Following an evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of this study, the theoretical significance of the results is assessed and the promise for the application of mindfulness training in performance enhancement is discussed.
Although the concept of mindfulness has attracted scholarly attention across multiple disciplines, research on mindfulness in the field of management remains limited. In particular, little research in this field has examined the nature of mindfulness and whether it relates to task performance in organizational and occupational settings. Filling these gaps, the present article delineates mindfulness by (a) defining it as a state of consciousness in which attention is focused on present-moment phenomena occurring both externally and internally, (b) comparing it to a range of other attention-related concepts, and (c) developing theory concerning the factors that determine when mindfulness is beneficial versus costly from a task performance standpoint.
The study investigated how the flow state is experienced by college athletes. Sixteen NCÁ Division I college athletes, representing both individual and team sports, participated in the study. A phenomenological method was used in capturing the subjective experiences of participants in the flow state. There was a central focus on which factors athletes perceived as being most important for facilitating entry into the flow state, which factors are perceived as preventing/disrupting flow, and which are involved in reinstating flow. The study also attempted to determine which factors athletes perceived as having volitional control. Finally, the study examined the temporal proximity, as phenomenologically determined, between flow and body sensations reported during peak performance episodes. Results indicated that having limited or no cognitive conscious thought process was the most salient characteristic of describing the flow state. Most athletes described experiencing some form of body sensation during the flow state.
Developed and validated the Flow State Scale (FSS), a measure of flow in sport and physical activity settings. The 9 FSS scales of the 36-item instrument represent the dimensions of flow, and each scale is measured by 4 items. Internal consistency estimates for the 9 FSS scales were reasonable for administration of the scale to 394 athletes (aged 14–50 yrs) from the US and Australia. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the 9 scales. Consistent with the theoretical basis of the FSS, there was also support for a hierarchical model in which 1 global (higher order) flow factor explained correlations among the 9 first-order FSS factors. The FSS is appended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Self-esteem would appear to be a laudable quality. Indeed, from a superficial view, what could be wrong with esteeming the self? Esteeming oneself would seem akin to the other prescriptions of modern so-cial-cognitive psychology: Be optimistic; hold positive illusions; expect success; feel efficacious; be happy. But like many of these "positive" prescriptions, the ad-monition to esteem oneself is more complex and prob-lematic than it seems. We believe that Kernis (this issue), in working to disentangle the issues of level of self-esteem from its stability, has brought some of the problematic dynam-ics of "self-esteeming" into the forefront. Our com-ments, derived from both self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and Buddhist perspectives, suggest some reasons why. Extending the issues raised by Kernis, previous SDT formulations of contingent and noncontingent self-esteem (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1995), and our recent findings concerning mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2003), we suggest that when self-esteeming processes are salient there is something awry with self-regula-tion, and with well-being. Based on SDT, we argue that, although self-evaluation is a "natural" human ten-dency with both evolutionary (Sedikedes & Skowronski, 2000) and developmental (Ryan & Kuzckowski, 1994) foundations, ongoing concern with the worth of the self is a byproduct of need depri-vation or conflict. Specifically, the salience of pro-cesses in which the self is esteemed or disparaged is etiologically linked with the experience of contingent regard by significant others. We hypothesize that con-tingent regard increases one's proneness to introjection, a form of behavioral regulation in which one's actions are motivated by desires to gain (or not lose) self or other approval. Introjection, in turn, leaves one vulnerable to exogenous social pressures, the pur-suit of unfulfilling goals, and the inauthentic living that can follow from them. Based on Buddhist perspec-tives, we further suggest that regulation based on mindfulness, rather than on contingent self-regard, is associated with healthier and more vital living, and provides a basis for acting more authentically. Self-as-Object; Self-as-Process The dominant view of self in Western psychology is that of the "self-as-object" (McAdams, 1990). Derived primarily from the work of Mead (1934) and Cooley (1902), this tradition describes the self as a concept that is largely internalized from the reactions and opinions of others. One's self-concept can be positive or nega-tive, simple or complex. Yet, whatever its structure or valence, self-concepts are defined as involving, in part, appraisals and evaluations of one's being and attrib-utes, and it is these evaluative schema that constitute self-esteem. These appraisals regarding worth can be relatively generalized (e.g., Rosenberg, 1965) or do-main specific (Harter, 1993). In either case, the com-mon view is: the more positive, the better. In contrast to the self-as-object perspective is an-other take on self derived from developmental and or-ganismic theorizing—the self-as-process (e.g., Blasi, 1988; Deci & Ryan, 1991; Loevinger, 1976). Re-searchers in the self-as-process tradition view the self not merely as a concept, or as an object of self-evalua-tion, but as the very process of assimilation and inte-gration. The self represents the integrative core of the person and entails ongoing activities of extending, as-similating, and bringing meaning and coherence to life experiences. Thus, in this view, the self is both an in-herent tendency and a dynamic, synthetic process. SDT has specifically focused on the conditions that support the integrative tendencies that characterize the self, versus those under which these tendencies or functions are compromised (Ryan, 1995). Taking the self-as-process perspective, the question becomes not merely how high or low is self-esteem, but what is one doing when evaluating the self as an object? In this view, the very process of placing one's self in the role of object, and then evaluating "its" worth, is a motivated act. Indeed, apart from being handed a self-esteem survey by a psychologist, many people would not spontaneously ask themselves, "How worthy am I?" When they do, the question is, why do they? There are also people who are preoccu-pied with their worth. They regularly appraise them-selves, compare themselves with others, and struggle to ward off threats to a positive view of self. Whether such individuals come away with positive or negative conclusions, the very fact that one's esteem is in ques-tion suggests a psychological vulnerability. This is consistent with Kernis's thesis, as it suggests that when self-esteem is a salient concern it is problematic, and likely to be contingent, unstable, and vulnerable. In contrast, optimal health is more likely when self-es-teem is not a concern because the worth of the self is not at issue.
Mindfulness-based interventions have been developed for a wide range of problems, disorders, and populations and are increasingly
available in a variety of settings. Empirically supported interventions that are based on or incorporate mindfulness training
include acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson 1999), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT; Linehan,
1993), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002), and mindfulness-based stress reduction
(MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1982, 1990). Variations on these approaches, including integration of mindfulness training into individual
psychotherapy from diverse perspectives, also have been described (Germer, Siegel, & Fulton, 2005).
ObjectivesThis study examines the relationships between mindfulness, flow dispositions and mental skills adoption.DesignCluster analytic approach.MethodsParticipants in this study were 182 university student athletes. They were administered the Mindfulness/Mindlessness Scale [MMS; Bodner, T., & Langer, E. (2001). Individual differences in mindfulness: The Langer Mindfulness Scale. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Toronto, Ont., Canada], Dispositional Flow Scale 2 [DFS-2; Jackson, S. A., & Eklund, R. C. (2004). The flow scale manual. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology] and Test of Performance Strategies [TOPS; Thomas, P. R., Murphy, S. M., & Hardy, L. (1999). Test of performance strategies: Development and preliminary validation of a comprehensive measure of athletes’ psychological skills. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 697–711].ResultsFour distinctive mindfulness clusters were found based on their response on the MMS using cluster analysis. Marked differences in flow dispositions and mental skills adoption habits were observed between the high and the low mindfulness clusters. Those in the high mindfulness cluster scored significantly higher than the low mindfulness clusters in challenge–skill balance, merging of action and awareness, clear goals, concentration and loss of self-consciousness scores of the DFS-2 [Jackson, S.A., & Eklund, R.C. (2004). The flow scale manual. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology]. The high mindfulness clusters also scored significantly higher compared to the low mindfulness cluster in terms of attentional control, emotional control, goal setting and self-talk sub-scales of the TOPS.ConclusionsThis study suggests that athletes’ flow dispositions and mental skills adoption could be differentiated using mindfulness. The findings have implications towards the understanding of flow and mental skills adoption within sport psychology.
While traditional cognitive-behavioral skills-training-based approaches to athletic performance enhancement posit that negative thoughts and emotions must be controlled, eliminated, or replaced for athlete-clients to perform optimally, recent evidence suggests that efforts to control, eliminate, or suppress these internal states may actually have the opposite effect. Interventions based on mindfulness and acceptance suggest that internal cognitive and emotional states need not be eliminated, changed, or controlled in order to facilitate positive behavioral outcomes. Rather, it is suggested that an alternative or supplemental approach to the enhancement of athletic performance may be achieved through strategies and techniques that target the development of mindful (nonjudgmental) present-moment acceptance of internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations, along with a clarification of valued goals and enhanced attention to external cues, responses, and contingencies that are required for optimal athletic performance.
An index of factorial simplicity, employing the quartimax transformational criteria of Carroll, Wrigley and Neuhaus, and Saunders, is developed. This index is both for each row separately and for a factor pattern matrix as a whole. The index varies between zero and one. The problem of calibrating the index is discussed.
- Teasdale J.D.