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Museums, archives and libraries have large working environments. The goal of this study was to determine microbial contamination in these work places and estimate the influence of microcli-matic parameters and total dust content on microbial contamination. In addition, research included evaluation of ergosterol concentration and fungal bioaerosol particle size distribution. Numbers of micro-organisms in the air and on the surfaces in museums were higher (2.1 9 10 2 –7.0 9 10 3 cfu/m 3 and 1.4 9 10 2 – 1.7 9 10 4 cfu/100 cm 2 , respectively) than in archives and libraries (3.2 9 10 2 –7.2 9 10 2 cfu/m 3 and 8.4 9 10 2 –8.8 9 10 2 cfu/100 cm 2 , respectively). The numbers of microorganisms detected in the tested museums , archives and libraries did not exceed occupational exposure limits proposed by Polish Committee for the Highest Permissible Concentrations and Intensities of Noxious Agents at the Workplace. The concentrations of respirable and suspended dust in museum storerooms were 2–4 times higher than the WHO-recommended limits. We found a correlation between microclimatic conditions and numbers of microorganisms in the air in the tested working environments. In addition, a correlation was also found between ergosterol concentration and the number of fungi in the air. Fungi were the dominant microorganisms in the working environments tested. Particles within the dominant fractions of culturable fungal aerosols sampled from museum storerooms had aerodynamic diameters between 1.1 and 2.1 lm. Keywords Microorganisms at workplaces Á Ergosterol Á Bioaerosol Á Microclimatic parameters Á Museum Á Archive Á Library
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Assessment of microbiological contamination in the work
environments of museums, archives and libraries
Justyna Sko
´
ra
Beata Gutarowska
Katarzyna Pielech-Przybylska
Łukasz Ste˛pien
´
Katarzyna Pietrzak
Małgorzata Piotrowska
Piotr Pietrowski
Received: 10 July 2014 / Accepted: 2 March 2015
Ó The Author(s) 2015. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Museums, archives and libraries have
large working environments. The goal of this study
was to determine microbial contamination in these
work places and estimate the influence of microcli-
matic parameters and total dust content on microbial
contamination. In addition, research included evalua-
tion of ergosterol concentration and fungal bioaerosol
particle size distribution. Numbers of micro-organ-
isms in the air and on the surfaces in museums were
higher (2.1 9 10
2
–7.0 9 10
3
cfu/m
3
and 1.4 9 10
2
1.7 9 10
4
cfu/100 cm
2
, respectively) than in archives
and libraries (3.2 9 10
2
–7.2 9 10
2
cfu/m
3
and 8.4 9
10
2
–8.8 9 10
2
cfu/100 cm
2
, respectively). The num-
bers of micro-organisms detected in the tested muse-
ums, archives and libraries did not exceed occu-
pational exposure limits proposed by Polish Commit-
tee for the Highest Permissible Concentrations and
Intensities of Noxious Agents at the Workplace. The
concentrations of respirable and suspended dust in
museum storerooms were 2–4 times higher than the
WHO-recommended limits. We found a correlation
between microclimatic conditions and numbers of
micro-organisms in the air in the tested working
environments. In addition, a correlation was also
found between ergosterol concentration and the num-
ber of fungi in the air. Fungi were the dominant micro-
organisms in the working environments tested. Parti-
cles within the dominant fractions of culturable fungal
aerosols sampled from museum storerooms had aero-
dynamic diameters between 1.1 and 2.1 lm.
Keywords Micro-organisms at workplaces
Ergosterol Bioaerosol Microclimatic parameters
Museum Archive Library
1 Introduction
Museums, archives and libraries are institutions that
are crucial for preserving cultural heritage all over the
world. Given the number of such institutions, they also
contribute from 0.5 to 2.6 % of total employment
(based on the data of the Polish Central Statistical
Office [GUS] 2012), thus constituting a significant
proportion of working environments (for archivists,
curators, librarians, conservators, storeroom workers
and office staff). Previous microbiological analyses in
museums, libraries and archives have shown high
J. Sko
´
ra (&) B. Gutarowska K. Pielech-Przybylska
K. Pietrzak M. Piotrowska
Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology,
Lodz University of Technology, 171/173 Wo
´
lczan
´
ska St,
90-924 Lodz, Poland
e-mail: justyna-skora@wp.pl
Ł. Ste˛pien
´
Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences,
34 Strzeszyn
´
ska St, 60-479 Poznan, Poland
P. Pietrowski
Department of Protective Equipment, Central Institute for
Labour Protection National Research Institute, 48
Wierzbowa St, 90-133 Lodz, Poland
123
Aerobiologia
DOI 10.1007/s10453-015-9372-8
microbial air contamination, which may pose a danger
to historical objects and also to staff (Gysels et al.
2004; Zielin
´
ska-Jankiewicz et al. 2008; Mesquita et al.
2009; Karbowska-Berent et al. 2011; Sko
´
ra et al.
2012).
Health threats in these institutions arise due to the
inhalation of the micro-organism-contaminated air
and by handling, cleaning and conserving items many
of which are mould infested. Wiszniewska et al.
(2009) identified allergy to fungi in 31 % of staff
working at the National Museum in Warsaw (number
of subjects studied n = 103). Moreover, workers’
exposure to micro-organisms may have additional
consequences such as infections and mycotoxicoses.
Mycotoxins produced by fungi (e.g. Aspergillus
flavus, A. parasiticus, A. versicolor, Penicillium
chrysogenum, P. expansum, Stachybotrys chartarum)
often isolated from museums, libraries and archive
facilities are known to have harmful effects (Hal-
stensen 2008; Eduard 2009). Mycotoxins and micro-
bial volatile organic compounds (MVOC’s) might
constitute aetiological factors in sick building syn-
drome (SBS) (Korpi et al. 2009).
Comprehensive data describing the problem of
microbial contamination in museums, libraries and
archive rooms are not available. Obtaining such data is
a difficult task due to the varying conditions of each
institution (different collections of objects, microcli-
matic parameters, concentration of dust), which may
impact the levels and types of micro-organisms. The
goal of the present study was to determine microbial
contamination in the above institutions. The study was
designed to answer the following questions: Do
museums, archives and libraries have similar levels
and types of microbial contamination? What influence
do temperature, relative humidity and concentration of
dust in the air have on micro-organism numbers within
these premises? Is ergosterol a good measure of fungal
contamination in museums, archives and libraries?
What are the risks to workers inhaling bioaerosol
within these premises?
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Description of the studied rooms
Microbiological contamination was analysed in four
museums, two libraries and two archives (total of 22
rooms) located in Poland. Descriptions of tested rooms
are presented in Table 1. The temperature and
humidity of the air in the tested rooms were deter-
mined using a PWT-401 hygrometer (Elmetron,
Poland). Dust content was measured using a DustTrak
DRX Aerosol Monitor (model 8533, TSI, USA).
Simultaneously, measurements of size-segregated
mass fraction concentrations corresponding to PM2.5
(diameter less than \2.5 lm), PM10 (\10 lm) size
fractions and total dust were taken.
2.2 Determination of microbiological
contamination of air and surfaces
Air Sampler MAS-100 Eco (Merck, Germany) was
used for air sampling. Air samples of 50 and 100 L
were taken on DG18 agar medium (Dichloran Glicerol
Selective Medium, Merck, Germany) and MEA
medium (Malt Extract Agar, Merck, Germany) with
chloramphenicol (0.1 %) for determining total fungal
number (including xerophilic and hydrophilic fungi)
and on a TSA medium (Tryptic Soy Agar, Merck,
Germany) with nystatin (0.2 %) for determining total
bacterial number. Air samples were collected in two
sequential repetitions on each medium, in three
locations in each room using a single sampler.
Samples were collected in winter 2011 (between
November and February), during one working day,
when staff were performing routine activities in the
tested museums, archives and libraries.
Office rooms were analysed as internal back-
grounds for each site (three repetitions on each
medium), and the atmospheric air outside each
building site was analysed as the external background
(three repetitions on each medium). Bioaerosol parti-
cle sizes were determined from samples collected in
rooms with the highest level of fungal contamination
(storerooms in Museum II), since they might pose the
greatest health risk to employees. Samples for deter-
mining particle size distribution of fungal bioaerosol
were collected from selected museum storerooms, an
office room (internal background) and atmospheric air
(external background), using a six-stage Andersen
sampler (model WES-710, Westech Instruments, UK).
Samples were collected over 5 min (141.5 l of air) on
MEA medium with chloramphenicol (0.1 %) in two
repetitions on each medium in three places in room.
Samples from surfaces were collected using Envi-
rocheck
Ò
plates (Merck, Germany) on TSA medium
Aerobiologia
123
Table 1 Characteristics of the examined workplaces
Institution Room Cubature
(m
3
)
Average
temperature
(°C)
Average
relative
humidity (%)
Total dust
concentration
(mg/m
3
)
Rooms description
Museum I Restoration workshop 1 300 M: 19.5
SD: 3.8
M: 29.0
SD: 3.6
M: 0.189
SD: 0.227
Washing, drying and preliminary textile repair, no signs of
moisture or moulds
Restoration workshop 2 1200 Textile repair, no signs of moisture or moulds
Warehouse 1 1215 Department of textile technology (‘‘Gateway’’)—collects
machine (wood, steel) for processing fibres, mainly cotton
and linen, no signs of moisture or moulds
Warehouse 2 456 Historic fabric warehouse—a collection of materials on
wooden and steel shelves, no signs of moisture or moulds
Museum II Warehouse 1 281 M: 19.0
SD: 1.0
M: 41.0
SD: 3.6
M: 0.131
SD: 0.030
Collection of paintings on gantries, weapons (swords, rifles,
pistols), explicit signs of moisture and moulds
Warehouse 2 220 Collection of flags, banners gathered in wooden dressers,
explicit signs of moisture and moulds
Warehouse 3 52 Collection of flags, banners gathered in wooden dressers,
explicit signs of moisture and moulds
Museum III Warehouse 1 310 M: 13.3
SD: 3.1
M: 39.7
SD: 4.7
M: 0.373
SD: 0.105
Furniture warehouse, department of folk art—collection of
wooden furniture, sculptures, some signs of moisture on
objects and walls
Warehouse 2 1362 Section of farm and rural industry—collection of materials
such as wood, wicker, iron, derived mostly from the
second half of nineteenth and twentieth centuries, no
signs of moisture or moulds
Warehouse 3 60 Magazine of African cultures—two part room, collection of
clothing, masks, weapons, sculptures no signs of moisture
or moulds
Museum IV Warehouse 1 222 M: 22.0
SD: 0.8
M: 35.5
SD: 11.1
nt Cabinet of polish prints and drawing, no signs of moisture
or moulds
Warehouse 2 725 Art warehouse—collection of oil paintings on canvas and
board, no signs of moisture or moulds
Warehouse 3 171 Mediaeval art restoration workshop—work only with
wood, no signs of moisture or moulds
Exhibition hall 3055 Ancient art gallery—collection of sculptures from this
period, no signs of moisture or moulds
Aerobiologia
123
Table 1 continued
Institution Room Cubature
(m
3
)
Average
temperature
(°C)
Average
relative
humidity (%)
Total dust
concentration
(mg/m
3
)
Rooms description
Archive I Warehouse 1 222 M: 22.0
SD: 1.0
M: 36.2
SD: 3.2
nt The oldest room gathers records of Ło
´
dz
´
since 1884 on
metal shelves. The files are packed in protective cartons,
no signs of moisture or moulds
Warehouse 2 236 Books and map of Ło
´
dz
´
and its region, archival
photographs, windows in the room are covered in order to
reduce exposure of sets, no signs of moisture or moulds
Archive II Warehouse 1 405 M: 19.3
SD: 1.5
M: 31.5
SD: 7.4
M: 0.073
SD: 0.011
Files, maps and books from nineteenth century factories,
court records from nineteenth to twentieth centuries no
signs of moisture or moulds
Warehouse 2 176 Files maps and books from nineteenth century factories,
court records from nineteenth to twentieth centuries no
signs of moisture or moulds
Library I Warehouse 1 222 M: 23
SD: 0.8
M: 51.4
SD: 7.4
M: 0.158
SD: 0.103
Metal shelves with books, room sealed, new plastic
window, no signs of moisture or moulds
Warehouse 2 69 Basement, wooden bookshelves, lack of ventilation, signs
of water damage on the walls, flaky paint, destroyed by
moulds book on the floor, no signs of moisture or moulds
Library II Warehouse 1 123 M: 18.5 M: 27.3 M: 0.035 Books from nineteenth to twentieth centuries, no signs of
moisture or moulds
Warehouse 2 138 SD: 0.7 SD: 1.0 SD: 0.006 Books and periodicals from nineteenth to twentieth
centuries, no signs of moisture or moulds
Office rooms in the tested institutions 52–78 M: 21.6
SD: 2.3
M: 37.0
SD: 11
M: 0.108
SD: 0.049
Office equipment, cabinets and shelves for documents, no
signs of moisture or moulds
M arithmetic mean; SD standard deviation; nt not tested
Aerobiologia
123
with neutralizers (for bacteria) and on Sabouraud
medium (for fungi). For highly contaminated surfaces,
the traditional swab method was applied, using saline
solution (0.85 % NaCl), swabs, metal frames of
25 cm
2
surface area and the media described above.
Samples were collected from 3 to 5 surfaces (furniture,
walls, books and stored objects) on each medium, in
every room (total number of samples in a given
institution: 10–15). The samples were incubated at
30 ± 1 °C for 48 h (bacteria) or at 27 ± 1 °C for
5 days (fungi). After incubation, the colonies were
counted, and the results were expressed in cfu/m
3
(air)
or cfu/100 cm
2
(surfaces). The final results are
presented as the arithmetic mean of all repetitions.
2.3 Identification of bacteria and yeasts
All bacteria and yeasts isolated from samples were
transferred onto individual culture plates. Following
this, they were macroscopically and microscopically
characterized using Gram-staining, catalase test and
oxidase test (Microbiologie Bactident Oxydase, Mer-
ck, Germany). Next, isolates with the same mor-
phology and biochemical features were grouped into
strains and identified using API tests (BioMe
´
rieux,
France): API 50 CH, API STAPH and API 20 NE (for
bacteria) and API C AUX (for yeasts). Identified
bacteria were genetically confirmed using the 16S
rRNA gene nucleotide sequence (Jensen et al. 1993).
Isolated filamentous fungi were cultured on CYA
(Czapek Yeast Extract Agar, Difco, USA) and YES
medium (yeast extract with supplements) and visually
identified, macroscopically and microscopically, us-
ing taxonomic keys (Bensch et al. 2012; Frisvad and
Samson 2004; Pitt and Hocking 2009; Klich 2002).
Identity of moulds and yeasts was confirmed using
ITS1/2 sequence of the rDNA region (White et al.
1990). Genomic DNAs were extracted using a method
described previously (Ste˛pien
´
et al. 2011). The
resulting nucleotide sequences of the studied micro-
organisms were analysed and compared to the se-
quences published in the National Center for Biotech-
nology Information (NCBI) database, using the
BLASTN 2.2.27? program (Zhang et al. 2000).
2.4 Ergosterol determination
Air samples for ergosterol determination were col-
lected using an AirPort MD8 sampler (Sartorius,
Germany). In total, 1000-L samples (six repetitions)
were collected on sterile gelatine filters (pore diameter
0.3 lm, Sartorius, Germany). Ergosterol was quanti-
fied based on Miller and Young’s (1997) method using
a modified analytical procedure. Chromatographic
analysis (gas chromatography with flame ionization
detection—GC-FID) was carried out using a GC
apparatus (Agilent 6890N HP, USA). Quantitative
analysis was performed using an external standard
(external calibration) method, with software from
Agilent ChemStation (USA).
2.5 Statistical analyses
Statistical analyses were performed using STATIS-
TICA 6.0 software (Statsoft, USA). All results were
evaluated using one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) at the 0.05 significance level. When
statistical differences were detected (p \0.05), means
were compared by the post hoc Fisher’s test at 0.05
significance level.
Linear regression analysis was used to determine
the effect of air humidity and temperature and total
dust on microbiological contamination of the air and
surfaces in tested buildings. Linear regression analysis
was also used to determine the effect of air and surface
microbiological contamination on ergosterol concen-
tration in the air. The significance tests were per-
formed at the 0.05 significance level using Guilford’s
correlation scale (Stanisz 2006).
3 Results
The number of micro-organisms in the air in museums
averaged from 2.1 9 10
2
to 7.0 9 10
3
cfu/m
3
and on
the surfaces from 1.4 9 10
2
to 1.7 9 10
4
cfu/100 cm
2
(Figs. 1, 2). Museum IV had the lowest level of air and
surface microbiological contamination (high stan-
dards of hygiene, monitoring system for microclimatic
parameters, museum of national rank). The highest
concentration of bacteria was found in the air of
Museum III, whose collections consist of folk culture
objects (mainly made of wood and fabric). The highest
statistically significant (p \ 0.05) fungal contamina-
tion was found in Museum II, a war memorial museum
(collections of paintings, firearms, weapons and flags).
The fungal concentration in the rooms of that museum
Aerobiologia
123
was 20 times greater than in the atmospheric air
(p \ 0.05).
The level of microbial contamination in the air of
archives and libraries ranged from 4.9 9 10
2
to
5.6 9 10
3
cfu/m
3
, while the number of surface micro-
organisms was between 8.4 9 10
1
and 3.9 9 10
3
cfu/
100 cm
2
. Amongst institutions of this type, the highest
microbiological air contamination was found in Library
I (rooms with signs of moisture and moulds on walls
and books). The air of this library had higher concen-
trations of airborne fungi compared to other similar
institutions (5.3 9 10
3
cfu/m
3
, p \0.05).
The number of micro-organisms on the surfaces
was low, and the collected materials in most institu-
tions did not have active microbial growth; except
Museum II, Archive II had high levels of contamina-
tion on objects. However, there were no statistically
significant differences in the levels of fungi (except
Museum II) and bacteria (except Archive II) on the
surfaces in the tested buildings (p [0.05).
The concentrations of ergosterol ranged from 0.41
to 0.69 ng/m
3
(Fig. 3). The highest level of ergosterol
was found in Museum III and Library II, which may
indicate problems with fungal infestation. The lowest
concentration of ergosterol (0.41–0.46 ng/m
3
) was
found in archive rooms.
Regression analysis revealed high positive correla-
tions between ergosterol concentrations and numbers
of fungi in the air in museums (r = 0.787–0.829,
p \ 0.05) and archives (r = 0.776–0.939, p \0.05).
Results of regression analysis undertaken for libraries
indicate a moderate influence of fungal contamination
on ergosterol concentration in Library I (r = 0.482,
p \ 0.05); however, the significance coefficient cal-
culated for Library II (r = 0.311, p [ 0.05) shows no
correlation between the examined values.
Fig. 1 Mean concentration
(± 1 SD) of micro-
organisms in museums,
archives and libraries,
including internal (office)
and external (outdoors)
background. Number if
samples (N = 12–24).
Limit for fungi—
occupational exposure
limits proposed by polish
committee for the highest
permissible concentrations
and intensities of Noxious
Agents at the workplace
Fig. 2 Mean concentration
(± 1 SD) of micro-
organisms on the surface in
museums, archives and
libraries including internal
(office) background.
Number of samples
(N = 12–24)
Aerobiologia
123
The concentration of ergosterol in the air and the
number of fungi on the surfaces in two workplaces had
moderate correlation: Museum I (r = 0.490,
p \ 0.05) and Archive I (r = 0.461, p \0.05). All
other institutions examined showed no correlation
between these two parameters (significance levels
p [ 0.05). The influence of microclimate parameters
on the number of micro-organisms in the air was
tested. The correlation between the temperature and
number of micro-organisms in air samples was high
(r = 0.610–0.863, p \ 0.05) in 7/8 institutions.
Regression coefficients describing the effect of air
humidity on microbial concentration showed high
correlations (r = 0.690–0.971, p \ 0.05) in 6/8
institutions.
Significant correlations (p \ 0.05) were also ob-
served between microclimatic parameters and the
number of surface micro-organisms in 6/8 institutions;
correlation coefficient (r) equalled from 0.412 to 0.890
and from 0.428 to 0.906 for temperature and humidity,
respectively. No significant correlations (p [ 0.05)
were found in two institutions (Library II and Museum
IV).
The impact of total dust concentrations on air
microbial contamination levels was determined. In
museums and libraries, linear regression results
showed high correlation between these parameters.
This was confirmed by high correlation coefficients,
which ranged from 0.794 to 0.908 (p \0.05) for all
workplaces except Archive 1. Correlation in Archive 1
was not significant (r = 0.351, p [0.05).
Moreover, the concentration of respirable dust
(particle diameter \2.5 lm) in museum storerooms
ranged between 0.100 and 0.105 mg/m
3
, which was
higher than office rooms (internal background sam-
ples) (Fig. 4).
The dominant fraction of culturable fungal aerosol
in museum storerooms had aerodynamic diameters
between 1.1 and 2.1 lm (fraction V), and it accounted
for 40–42 % of the fungal bioaerosols, depending on
the room. One of the storerooms (Storeroom 3) had a
large contribution from fraction IV (36 %), consisting
of particles with aerodynamic diameters of
2.1–3.3 lm. This was also the dominant fraction
culturable fungal aerosol in samples from office rooms
(internal background), while the greatest percentage
contribution from atmospheric air (external back-
ground) came from particles measuring 3.3–4.7 lm
(fraction III) (Fig. 5).
A total of 16 bacterial strains were isolated from
museum premises, 13 from archives and 13 from
libraries (Table 2). Bacteria from the Micrococcus,
Staphylococcus and Bacillus genera dominated each
institution type, while other species of bacteria were
specific to particular buildings. Qualitative composi-
tion of fungi varied in tested environments: 32 species
of fungi (28 moulds and 4 yeasts) were isolated in
museums, 24 species (21 moulds and 3 yeasts) in
archives and 34 (32 moulds and 2 yeasts) in libraries
(Table 2). The most common fungi were as follows:
Aspergillus puulaaensis, Cladosporium cladospori-
oides, Penicillium crustosum, Rhizopus oryzae. How-
ever, there were distinct differences in air and surface
fungal composition between institutions. It is worth
emphasizing that 45 amongst the 89 isolated micro-
organisms are potential pathogens according to
Fig. 3 Mean concentration
(± 1 SD) of ergosterol
concentration in the air in
tested institutions including
internal (office) background.
Number of samples
(N = 3–6)
Aerobiologia
123
classifications of the Directive UE 2000/54/WE,
Regulation of the Minister of Health in Poland dated
22 April 2005, the European Confederation of Medical
Mycology (BSL) and the Institute of Rural Health in
Lublin (IMW). These belong to the genera: Bacillius,
Pseudomonas, Alternaria, Aureobasidium, Aspergil-
lus, Chaetomium, Chrysonilia, Cryptococcus, Cla-
dosporium, Paecilomyces, Mucor, Penicillium,
Talaromyces and Trichoderma (Table 2).
4 Discussion
The buildings studied differed from each other in air
contamination levels, which may be due to specific
features and the condition of housed collections.
Tested institutions had similar levels of surface
microbial contamination (furniture, walls, stored ob-
jects). The levels of microbiological contamination in
all institutions studied were lower than the threshold
values of occupational exposure specified by the
Polish Committee for the Highest Permissible Con-
centrations and Intensities of Noxious Agents at the
Workplace, which is 5.0 9 10
4
cfu/m
3
for the total
fungal count (Skowron
´
and Go
´
rny 2012).
We found lower or similar microbial contamination
in archives compared to previous studies (Borrego
et al. 2010; Karbowska-Berent et al. 2011) and higher
contamination in libraries and museums (Camuffo
et al. 2001; Niesler et al. 2010; Karbowska-Berent
et al. 2011).
Low ergosterol levels (0.41–0.69 ng/m
3
) in the air
of studied rooms confirmed observations made by
Gutarowska et al. (2014) for rooms with low fungal
contamination. An ergosterol concentration above
1 ng per m
3
can be considered as an indicator of
excessive mould contamination of indoor air (10
3
cfu/
m
3
) (Gutarowska et al., 2014). Our study found a
significant correlation between the number of fungi in
the air of museums and archives and ergosterol
Fig. 4 Mean concentration
(± 1 SD) of particular dust
fraction in the air in tested
institutions including
internal (office) background.
Number if samples
(N = 12–24). PM2.5—
respirable dust with a
diameter less than 2.5 lm;
PM10—particulate matter
with a diameter less than
10 lm (mouth and nose)
Fig. 5 Percentage contribution of each size fraction (aerodynamic diameter I–VI) of fungal bioaerosol. a Warehouse 2 in Museum II;
b warehouse 3 in Museum II; c internal background (office); d external background (outdoors). Number of samples (N = 6)
Aerobiologia
123
Table 2 Isolated species and frequency of their isolation in the air and on the surfaces in the examined institutions
Micro-organism Frequency of isolation of all samples in each institution [%]
Air/surfaces
Museum
I
Museum
II
Museum
III
Museum
IV
Archive
I
Archive
II
Library
I
Library
II
Bacteria
Aneurinibacillus
aneurinilyticus
0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/33.3
Bacillus circulans 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 22.2/0 0/0
Bacillus firmus 75.0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Bacillus licheniformis 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 21.4/0 0/0 8.3/33.3
Bacillus megaterium 0/0 0/0 0/58.3 0/0 0/41.7 0/0 0/0 0/0
Bacillus mycoides 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/80 0/0
Bacillus pumilus 0/55.0 0/0 0/75.0 0/62.5 0/0 21.4/26.3 0/45 8.3/0
Bacillus sp. 0/66.7 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Bacillus subtilis 0/44.4 0/0 0/66.7 0/0 0/0 21.4/10.5 0/0 33.3/33.3
Brevibacillus laterosporus 0/50.0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Kocuria kristinae 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 22.2/0 0/0
Kocuria varians/rosea 75.0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Lactobacillus delbrueckii 0/50.0 0/50.0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Leuconostoc mesenteroides 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 61.1/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Micrococcus flavus 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 92.9/0 0/0 0/0
Micrococcus sp. 95.9/83.3 100.0/0 86.1/16.7 95.9/56.3 100/41.7 0/0 66.7/0 100/0
Micromonospora sp. 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/26.3 0/0 0/0
Nocardia sp. 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 21.4/0 0/0 41.7/0
Paenibacillus polymyxa 0/0 0/0 0/91.7 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Pseudomonas alcaligenes 0/0 75.0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 22.2/0 0/0
Pseudomonas stutzeri 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 27.8/0 0/0
Pseudomonas oryzyhabitans 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 38.9/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Sphingomonas paucimobilis 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/50.0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Staphylococcus haemolyticus 0/0 0/0 100.0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Staphylococcus cohnii 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 94.4/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Staphylococcus hominis 91.7/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Staphylococcus lentus 0/0 100.0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/26.3 100/0 66.7/0
Staphylococcus xylosus 75.0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/21 0/0 33.3/0
Fungi
Acremonium furcatum 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Acremonium verticillium 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 11.1/0 0/0
Alternaria alternata 0/14.3 0/0 0/0 0/43.8 0/0 7.1/0 0/35 0/0
Alternaria consortiale 0/14.3 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 16.7/0
Alternaria sp. 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 14.3/0 0/0 0/0
Alternaria tennuissima 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 33.3/15 0/0
Aspergillus clavatus 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 0/0
Aspergillus flavus 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/12.5 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/12.5
Aspergillus fumigatus 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 7.1/0 0/0 0/0
Aspergillus niger 20.8/28.6 0/12.5 0/0 4.2/0 0/0 7.1/0 16.7/15 8.3/0
Aspergillus ochraceus 0/0 0/0 0/0 8.3/0 0/0 0/0 0/15 0/0
Aerobiologia
123
Table 2 continued
Micro-organism Frequency of isolation of all samples in each institution [%]
Air/surfaces
Museum
I
Museum
II
Museum
III
Museum
IV
Archive
I
Archive
II
Library
I
Library
II
Aspergillus parasiticus 0/0 0/0 0/27.3 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Aspergillus puulaaensis 25.0/0 0/50.0 61.1/0 4.2/0 0/0 14.3/11.1 0/0 58.3/0
Aspergillus terreus 0/0 0/0 0/0 12.5/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Aspergillus wentii 0/0 0/0 0/0 8.3/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Aureobasidium pullulans 0/0 0/0 0/0 4.2/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Beauveria sp. 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 11.1/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Botrytis cinerea 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 0/0 16.7/0 0/0
Botrytis sp. 4.2/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 7.1/0 0/0 8.3/0
Chaetomium globosum 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/10 0/0
Chrysonilia sitophila 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 38.9/0 21.4/0 0/0 0/0
Cladosporium cladosporioides 0/0 0/12.5 38.9/0 0/12.5 16.7/12.5 14.3/33.3 72.2/35 58.3/0
Cladosporium herbarum 0/0 0/0 50.0/0 16.7/18.8 72.2/0 7.1/0 0/30 58.3/0
Cladosporium sp. 4.2/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Epicoccum nigrum 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 16.7/0 0/0
Eurotium amstelodami 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/25 0/0
Gliocladium sp. 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 0/0
Mucor circinelloides 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/6.3 0/0 0/0 0/10 0/12.5
Mucor globosus 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 8.3/0
Mucor hiemalis 8.3/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Mucor plumbeus 0/0 0/0 0/18.9 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Mucor racemosus 0/14.3 0/0 0/18.9 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Mucor sp. 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 8.3/0
Paecilomyces variotii 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/31.3 0/0 0/44.4 0/0 0/0
Penicillium griseofulvum 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 11.1/0 0/0
Penicillium chrysogenum 0/7.1 0/25.0 0/0 8.3/18.8 0/0 0/0 27.7/20 0/0
Penicillium commune 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 16.7/0 0/0
Penicillium corylophilum 0/0 0/0 0/27.3 25.0/18.8 0/0 0/0 0/0 8.3/0
Penicillium crustosum 45.8/57.1 0/12.5 5.6/36.4 0/0 0/0 28.6/11.1 33.3/0 33.3/50
Penicillium freii 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 61.1/0 21.4/33.3 0/0 50/25
Penicillium gladioli 0/0 0/0 0/0 20.8/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Penicillium hirsutum 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Penicillium janthinellum 0/0 0/0 0/0 4.2/62.5 0/0 14.3/11.1 0/0 0/0
Penicillium olsonii 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/25.3 0/0 0/0 0/0
Penicillium oxalicum 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Penicillium radicola 45.8/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Penicillium sclerotigenum 0/0 0/0 0/0 8.3/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Penicillium viridicatum 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 16.7/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Penicillium waksmanii 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 55.6/0 0/0
Rhizopus oryzae 37.5/14.3 100/0 27.8/0 0/0 38.9/56.3 14.3/0 0/0 0/12.5
Talaromyces wartmannii 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/10 0/0
Trichoderma koningii 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 22.2/20 0/0
Trichoderma viride 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/25 0/0
Aerobiologia
123
concentration. Ergosterol has been recommended
previously as a good chemical indicator for evaluating
mould concentrations in the air (Miller and Young
1997; Pasanen et al. 1999; Robine et al. 2005). No
correlations were found between the number of fungi
on the surfaces and ergosterol concentrations.
Steady microclimatic parameters, temperature of
20 ± 2 °C and relative air humidity of 50 ± 3 %, are
recommended for collection storage in the studied
institution types (ISO 11799:2003; Scha
¨
fer 2014). The
temperature in 2/8 and the humidity in 7/8 institutions
deviated from those specified in the standard. This was
probably due to the lack of ventilation and air
conditioning systems. There was an effect of humidity
and temperature on microbial concentration in the air
in majority of the facilities tested.
The highest concentration (0.38–0.39 mg/m
3
)of
respirable dust, with particle sizes below 4 lm, was
recorded in the rooms of Museum III. This concen-
tration was 2–4 times higher than the 24-h exposure
limits specified in the World Health Organization
recommendations (WHO 2005). Fractions with aero-
dynamic diameters of 1.1–2.1 lm had the highest
percentage contribution in fungal aerosols sampled
from museum storerooms (Museum II). Based on
spore sizes of the most frequently isolated fungal
species, Aspergillus (2.1–3.6 lm), Penicillium
(2.8–5.0 lm) and Cladosporium (2.5–7.5 lm), we
conclude that fungi occurred as single cells, as spores
or small fragments of mycelium.
Based on the dust level and particle size distribution
data, the aerosol within the studied workplaces is able
to penetrate the human respiratory system. This can
happen via nasal and oral cavities, primary, secondary
and terminal bronchi and the pulmonary bronchioles,
with the solid particles present in dust acting as
carriers. This may cause irritation of the mucous
membranes of the nose and eyes, and an inflammatory
response or allergic reactions (Kulkarni et al. 2011), in
exposed employees.
Commonly detected micro-organisms in the tested
institutions included: Micrococcus sp., Staphylococ-
cus sp., Bacillus sp., Aspergillus puulaaensis, Cla-
dosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium crustosum,
Rhizopus oryzae. Previous studies by Karbowska-
Berent et al. (2011), Niesler et al. (2010) have shown,
inter alia, that these micro-organisms colonize muse-
ums, libraries and archival facilities.
Finally, most of the identified micro-organisms
constitute an occupational threat according to the
literature (Report of a Working Group on Hazardous
Fungi of the European Confederation of Medical
Mycology 1996; Directive UE 2000/54/WE, Regula-
tion of the Minister of Health in Poland dated 22 April
2005, Dutkiewicz et al. 2007).
Factors such as dust concentration, diameter of
fungal bioaerosol particles and the presence of poten-
tially pathogenic micro-organisms should be taken
into account in the microbiological assessment of
working environments in museums, archives and
Table 2 continued
Micro-organism Frequency of isolation of all samples in each institution [%]
Air/surfaces
Museum
I
Museum
II
Museum
III
Museum
IV
Archive
I
Archive
II
Library
I
Library
II
Ulocladium sp. 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5.6/0 0/0
Yeast
Candida sp. 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/31.3 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Candida sphaerica 0/35.7 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/12.5
Cryptococcus humicola 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/18.8 0/0 0/0 0/0
Cryptococcus laurentii 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 22.2/0 0/0
Cryptococcus uniguttulatus 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/6.3 0/0 0/0 0/0
Rhodotorula sp. 0/0 0/0 0/9.1 0/0 0/0 0/11.1 0/0 0/0
Rhodotorula minuta 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/6.3 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0
Species that can constitute occupational threat according to the classification of the Directive UE 2000/54/WE, Regulation of the
Minister of Health in Poland dated 22 April 2005, the European Confederation of Medical Mycology (BSL) and the Institute of Rural
Health in Lublin (IMW) are bolded
Aerobiologia
123
libraries. Those factors may affect the health of
workers; however, it requires further study.
5 Conclusions
The levels and types of micro-organisms within
museums, archives and libraries were institution de-
pendent. Micro-organism numbers within workspaces
did not exceed recommended limits for occupational
exposure. The concentrations of respirable and sus-
pended dust in museum storerooms were 2–4 times
higher than the WHO-recommended limits. Fungi were
the dominant group of micro-organisms within tested
working environments. The dominant fungal aerosol
fractions had aerodynamic diameters that ranged
between 1.1 and 2.1 lminmuseumstorerooms.We
found a correlation between relative humidity and
temperature and microbial contamination in the air. The
concentration of ergosterol in the air in museum,
archive and library workplaces strongly correlates with
fungal concentrations in the air.
Acknowledgments Studies were realized within the project of
Polish National Center for Research and Development, no.
III.B.03 ‘Development of principles for evaluation and
prevention of hazards caused by biological agents in the
working environment using indicators of microbial
contamination’’.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original author(s) and the source are credited.
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... En Santa Marta, Colombia, se encontraron géneros de hongos como Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Curvularia y Chrysonilia en la Biblioteca Popular de Gaira (Camargo Caicedo et al., 2023). En Polonia, se analizaron dos bibliotecas en las que se aislaron 34 especies de hongos, incluyendo Alternaria tennuissima, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium crustosum, Rhizopus oryzae, entre otros, y bacterias como Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus lentus y Pseudomonas alcaligenes (Skóra et al., 2015). En Venecia, Italia, se llevó a cabo un estudio de hongos xerófilos en la Biblioteca de Humanidades en la Universidad Ca' Foscari, Palazzo Malcanton Marcorà, en la cual se encontraron diversas especies, incluyendo Aspergillus creber, Aspergillus protuberus y Penicillium chrysogenum (Micheluz et al., 2015). ...
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Los bioaerosoles fúngicos y bacterianos tienen el potencial de generar biodeterioro de los libros y materiales de archivo almacenados en las bibliotecas por acción de sus procesos metabólicos. El desarrollo de estos procesos está determinado por factores microclimáticos como la humedad relativa y la temperatura. A nivel nacional los estudios sobre biodeterioro en bibliotecas han sido escasos, al igual que la investigación sobre bioaerosoles en ambientes interiores. Estos temas son de alta importancia ya que repercuten en la salud de las personas y en la conservación de los libros. Este estudio tiene como objetivo determinar la carga microbiana del aire interior de la biblioteca del campus de la Universidad Militar Nueva Granada (Cajicá, Colombia), así como analizar las condiciones microclimáticas del lugar. Se utilizó un muestreador de aire MAS-100 Eco, con un flujo de aire de 100 L/min durante 2.5 minutos, y se empleó como medio de cultivo agar nutritivo y rosa de bengala. Las muestras se encubaron durante 8 días y el conteo de colonias se realizó sobre la caja de Petri. Para la identificación fúngica se realizó tinción con azul de lactofenol y para clasificar las bacterias se empleó la tinción de Gram. Para el monitoreo de las condiciones microclimáticas se empleó un datalogger con conexión USB. Como parte de los resultados se obtuvieron cargas microbianas entre 220 y 921 UFC/m3. La temperatura varió entre 18,2 y 18,6ºC y la humedad relativa entre 60,8 y 64,7%. Se identificaron géneros de hongos tales como Aspergillus, Penicillium y Cladosporium, así como bacterias Gram positivas y Gram negativas. Se observó que cuando la humedad relativa aumenta, la concentración de aerosoles fúngicos tiende a presentar el mismo comportamiento. Se concluyó que las condiciones microclimáticas de humedad relativa pueden aumentar el riesgo de biodeterioro en la biblioteca.
... The genera Acremonium, Aureobasidium, Chaetomium, Chrysonilia, Exophiala, Trichophyton and Torula have been detected in the air of foreign archives, libraries and museums. 32,37,64,67,70,72,73,77,77,85,[86][87][88]90 Likewise, the genera Itersonilia and Sprorobolomyces were isolated from dust settled on books in an Italian library 93 and a member of Botryotrichum genus was isolated from the documents surface preserved in a Polish library. 94 On the other hand, the genera Aureobasidium, Bipolaris, Sepedonium, Torula and Trichophyton were found in repositories of the Provincial Historical Archive of Pinar del Río (located in the westernmost province of the Cuba), 60 while the genera Torula and Zygosporium were found in the air of repositories of the Provincial Historical Archive of Santiago de Cuba (one of the eastern provinces of the country). ...
... However, Talaromyces species were isolated from documents preserved at NARC; 41,43 and there are references to the species T. wartmannii and T. flavus which were isolated from the of documents preserved in Polish and Greek archives, libraries, and museum. 25,64 From the 98 isolated species, two turned out to be abundant (Aspergillus flavus, A. niger), two were classified as common (Penicillium sp., Penicillium citrinum), six were frequent (Candida sp., Chrysogenum sp., Rhizopus sp., Trichoderma sp.), 24 were classified as occasional and 64 were rare ( Figure 4B, Table 1). Likewise, 27 species turned out to be from the Aspergillus genus (26.7%), five of Cladosporium (5%), 24 of Penicillium (23.8%) and the remaining percentage corresponded to species of other genera ( Figure 5). ...
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This work aims to perform a compilation of the fungal diversity in the environment of the National Archive of the Republic of Cuba (NARC) repositories from the 80s of the last century and until 2022, which includes the fungal genera and species isolated from: air, settled dust and document surface, as ecological niches that contribute to the environmental mycological quality of these spaces in the institution. A total of 55 references were analyzed (31 of air, 4 of settled dust and 20 of different types of documents surface). A total of 168 fungal genera and 54 species were isolated from air, 36 genera and 12 species from dust as well as 98 genera and 26 species were detected on the document surfaces with a marked predominance of the genera Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Penicillium in the three niches, although 24 rare genera were detected in air after the year 2000 (e.g. Acremonium, Aureobasidium, Beltraniella, Bipolaris, Blastomyces, Botryoderma, Botryotrichum, Chaetomium, Chrysonilia, Exophiala, Gilmaniella, Harposporium, Hyalodendriella, Itersonilia, Nodulisporium, Ovulariopsis, Papularia, Scolecobasidium, Sepedonium, Sprorobolomyces, Torula, Trichophyton, Wardomyces, Zygosporium). Only six genera were similarly isolated from air, dust and the document surfaces (9.7%), while 19 species were found in these three niches (9.5%) (e.g. A. flavus, A. niger, A. versicolor, Cl. caryigenum, Cl. cladosporioides, Cl. herbarum, P. chrysogenum, P. citrinum, P. commune, P. janczewskii). Although fungal isolations from dust and the document surfaces are still scarce, it is evident that the greatest diversity of species was isolated from the air and that the similarities of species between these three niches are low, therefore air is the matrix that contributes with the most fungal species to the NARC environment. This compilation of the fungal diversity in the environment of the NARC repositories will serve as a reference for future studies in Cuban archives and other countries.
... The fungal species were sampled (in three replicates) by swabbing from the deteriorated surface of the wooden objects, and isolated using two types of media (potato dextrose agar and Czapek's Dox agar media). All plates were incubated at 28 • C for 7 days, as reported by Skóra et al. [18]. The fungal species were examined under the microscope and first identified using several fungal identification keys [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. ...
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The biodeterioration of wooden cultural heritage is a severe problem worldwide and fungi are the main deteriorating agents. The identification of effective natural products, safer for humans and the environment, is a current challenge. Ten deteriorated archaeological objects (a wooden statue of a seated man, an anthropoid wooden coffin with a cartonnage mummy of Nespathettawi, and a wooden box of Padimen’s son), stored at the Egyptian museum in Cairo, were considered here. The wood species of the three most deteriorated objects were previously identified as Acacia nilotica, Ficus sycomorus, and Tamarix gennessarensis. Twenty-six fungal species were isolated and identified from the wooden objects and the four most frequent species belonged to the genus Aspergillus. Fourteen fungal species among those isolated showed the greatest biodeterioration activity on the experimental wood blocks of the archaeological objects. The antifungal activities of several eco-friendly plant essential oils (from cinnamon, eucalyptus, frankincense, geranium, lavender, lemongrass, menthe, rosemary, tea tree, and thyme) and plant extracts (from basil, eucalyptus, henna, melia, and teak) were tested against the fungal species with the greatest biodeterioration activity. The essential oils (Eos) were more effective than the plant extracts. Thyme EO, followed by geranium and cinnamon ones, was the most active (minimum inhibitory concentrations: 0.25–1 µL/mL). These EO; also showed inhibitory effects on the enzymatic activities (cellulase, amylase, and protease) of the four most dominant fungal species. Thymol and p-cymene were the two main components of thyme oil, while geraniol and beta-citronellol were those of geranium oil; eugenol and caryophyllene were those of the cinnamon EO. Thyme oil applied to the most deteriorated experimental aged A. nilotica wooden cubes inoculated with the four highly frequent fungal species was effective in wood preservation. Moreover, no significant interference was observed in the wood before and after thyme treatment. Thyme oil seems to be a promising eco-friendly antifungal agent for the preservation of archaeological wooden artefacts.
... The fungal species were sampled (in three replicates) by swabbing from the deteriorated surface of the wooden objects, and isolated using two types of media (potato dextrose agar and Czapek's Dox agar media). All plates were incubated at 28 • C for 7 days, as reported by Skóra et al. [18]. The fungal species were examined under the microscope and first identified using several fungal identification keys [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. ...
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The cross-disciplinary investigation conducted here utilized natural green products (essential oils and plant extracts) as effective eco-friendly antifungal agents for the preservation of archaeological wooden artifacts.
... In the literature, there is a lack of an integrated approach to the problem of multiple pollutants (heavy metals, toxic compounds, dust, and microorganisms) covering large brownfield areas and several environments (air, soil, and leachate) at the same time in the illegal landfills. Identifying this problem using a modern methodology that so far has been used in environmental research studies (the microbiological culture method and laser photometry [19,20]) and the novel approach (AAS-Atomic Absorption Spectrometry; UHPLC-Q-ToF-UHRMS-Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight Ultra-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry; Illumina MiSeq High-Throughput Sequencing and PrestoBlue Assay [11,13,18]) will allow one to collect a large number of results and create a database describing the risks resulting from the landfilling of post-industrial waste. This new database will enable conclusions to be drawn, risk monitoring, and long-term landfill management solutions to be proposed. ...
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The aim of this case study was the evaluation of the selected metals' concentration, potential toxic compound identification, cytotoxicity analysis, estimation of the airborne dust concentration , biodiversity, and number of microorganisms in the environment (leachate, soil, air) of the biggest uncontrolled post-industrial landfills in Poland. Based on the results obtained, preliminary solutions for the future management of post-industrial objects that have become an uncontrolled landfill were indicated. In the air, the PM1 fraction dominated, constituting 78.1-98.2% of the particulate matter. Bacterial counts were in the ranges of 9.33 × 10 1-3.21 × 10 3 CFU m −3 (air), 1.87 × 10 5-2.30 × 10 6 CFU mL −1 (leachates), and 8.33 × 10 4-2.69 × 10 6 CFU g −1 (soil). In the air, the predominant bacteria were Cellulosimicrobium and Stenotrophomonas. The predominant fungi were Mycosphaerella, Cladosporium, and Chalastospora. The main bacteria in the leachates and soils were Acinetobacter, Mor-tierella, Proteiniclasticum, Caloramator, and Shewanella. The main fungi in the leachates and soils were Lindtneria. Elevated concentrations of Pb, Zn, and Hg were detected. The soil showed the most pronounced cytotoxic potential, with rates of 36.55%, 63.08%, and 100% for the A-549, Caco-2, and A-549 cell lines. Nine compounds were identified which may be responsible for this cytotoxic effect, including 2,4,8-trimethylquinoline, benzo(f)quinoline, and 1-(m-tolyl)isoquinoline. The microbi-ome included bacteria and fungi potentially metabolizing toxic compounds and pathogenic species.
... Although many authors disagree on optimum temperatures of 21.1°C and 30-50% RH [48], with RH below 65% and a temperature of 0-25°C, J. Singh [49] reported optimum temperatures of 18.3°C and 35% RH. Similarly, J. Skóra et al. [50] found a correlation between microclimatic conditions and the number of microorganisms in the air in the tested working environments. In general, the higher the temperature and the more favourable the nutrition at a given relative humidity, the less time is required for spore germination [51]. ...
Article
In libraries and archives, fungi are the most common biodegrading agents. The goal of this study is to examine and identify the fungi associated with 10 old manuscripts from Egypt’s National Library Archives, as well as to determine the most harmful isolates for old manuscripts to be cautious of in the future. 115 isolates were qualitatively tested for cellulase activity; the most potent fourteen isolates were subjected to quantitative estimation of cellulase as well as other biodegradative attributes, such as degradation of starch, gelatin, and acid and pigment production. Aspergillus spp. were the predominant genera in all of the samples, and without exception, all of the tested isolates have cellulolytic activity, with 14 isolates having the highest cellulolytic activity. Each of the fourteen fungal isolates has three biodegradative attributes, but three A. niger isolates (no. 2, 3, and 5), Chaetomium atrobrunneum, and Ulocladium atrum) reacted positively for all biodegradative qualities.
Chapter
The One Health concept recognizes the interconnectedness of humans, biodiversity, and environmental well-being. This chapter highlights that air pollution is a significant global issue that has substantial consequences for humans, biodiversity, and ecosystem status and health. The three main categories of air pollutants are physical pollutants, such as smoke and particulate matter, chemical pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides and persistent organic pollutants, and biological pollutants, such as bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Various factors, including geography, weather, emission sources, population density, land use patterns, air mass movements, regulatory actions, seasonal oscillations, and chemical reactions, influence the spread of air pollution. To mitigate the One Health impacts of air pollution, governments, corporations, communities, and individuals need to collaborate in implementing policies aimed at decreasing emissions, embracing cleaner energy and transportation technologies, enhancing urban green areas, and raising public awareness about the health hazards linked to air pollution. To also exert influence on policy changes aimed at achieving a cleaner and healthier environment, one can employ effective strategies such as conducting public awareness campaigns, implementing stringent laws for industries and automobiles, advocating for sustainable energy and transportation alternatives, and developing urban green infrastructure.
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Most of the artworks stored in museums are often kept in inappropriate climatic and environmental conditions that facilitate the formation and growth of microorganisms, such as fungi, which are responsible for many types of biodegradation phenomena. To mitigate and prevent these deteriorative processes, functionalized packaging materials can be used for the storage and handling of artworks. The aim of this study was to develop a potential anti-biodeterioration coating suitable for packaging purposes. TiO2 and ZnO doped with different amounts of Ag (0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, and 3 wt%) were synthesized and dispersed in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and acrylic resin (Paraloid B72), then applied on different types of packaging materials (cellulose and the high-density spunbound polyethylene fiber Tyvek®, materials that are frequently used as packaging in museums). Analytical investigations (SEM/EDS, Raman, FTIR, and XRD) were employed to assess dispersion on the packaging material. Furthermore, resistance against biodeteriogens was assessed using Cladosporium sp., a bioluminometer, to define the biocidal efficacy.
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La presente INVESTIGACIÓN aborda la implementación de prototipos de biosensores para la detección de riesgo microbiológico en ambientes con colecciones de tipo orgánico. En su primera fase se ensayaron las diferentes combinaciones de soportes, medios de cultivo e indicadores de pH para el diseño de los prototipos en el laboratorio, y en la segunda, se evaluaron los prototipos de colecciones en ambientes de almacenamiento. Durante la fase experimental se escogieron los mejores prototipos teniendo en cuenta los criterios de: tiempo de unidades formadoras de colonias (UFC), cantidad de UFC en los biosensores y diversidad de hongos filamentosos aislados. En la segunda fase se logró concluir que las condiciones ambientales son determinantes para el funcionamiento de los prototipos. _____ This RESEARCH addressed the implementation of biosensor prototypes to detect microbiological risks in environments with organic collections. During the first phase, different combinations of supports, culture mediums, and pH indicators were tested in order to design the prototypes in the laboratory, while the second phase saw the prototypes tested in collection storage environments. The best prototypes were chosen during the experimental phase, taking into account the criteria of colony forming-unit (CFU), amount of CFU in the biosensors, and the diversity of isolated fungi. During the second phase, it was possible to conclude that environmental conditions are determining factors for the prototypes’ functionality.
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The aim of the study was to compare the content of ergosterol in different microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts and moulds) isolated from the air as well as in six species of moulds in their different morphological forms—live mycelium, dead mycelium, and spores. Evaluation of the level of mould contamination of the air in various places using culture method and ergosterol determination was also performed. The analysis of ergosterol was carried out by gas chromatography equipped with flame ionisation detector. For evaluation of the results, analysis of variance and multiple comparison test were used. The quantity of ergosterol in the spores of various species of mould was in the range 1.9–9.4 pg/spore. The presence of yeasts and bacteria in the air does not significantly affect ergosterol concentration, in view of the low content of that sterol in their cells (max. 0.009 pg/cell for bacteria and 0.39 pg/cell for yeast). An ergosterol concentration above 1 ng per m3 can be considered an indicator of excessive mould contamination of indoor air. Based on determination of ergosterol in the air of mouldy rooms the result obtained may be compared with the culture method, due to the 1,000 times higher concentration of ergosterol in the mycelium compared with spores. However, in the analysis of outdoor air, in view of the presence of mould mainly in the form of spores and the degradation of ergosterol by UV radiation, analysis of that compound may indicate a lower level of contamination compared with the culture method.
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Indoor and outdoor atmospheres of the ‘Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten’ (KMSK, Royal Museum of Fine Arts) in Antwerp, Belgium, were thoroughly characterised to determine the air quality inside the museum and the factors controlling it. During a winter and a summer campaign aerosol particles, pollutant gases, bacteria and fungi were sampled and different indoors microclimatic parameters were measured. The chemical composition of particulates suspended in indoor and outdoor air was analysed, both with reference to bulk aerosol matter and to individual particles. Outdoor sources largely determined the composition of indoor aerosol. The main particle types identified in winter were Ca-rich, Ca–Si and sea salt particles. In summer, S-rich particles were most abundant. Dry deposition was sampled in order to determine the amount of particulate matter that could potentially deposit onto the works of art. The concentrations of NO2 and SO2 amounted to 12 and 5–6 ppb, respectively, both in winter and in the summer. The microclimates inside the exhibition rooms were affected by poorly balanced heating and air-conditioning, free-standing humidifiers, ventilating and lighting systems and the daily flux of visitors, which produced rapid changes and marked thermo-hygrometric gradients. Based on these results, suggestions for the improvement of the heating and air-conditioning system could be made. Microbial loads were higher in summer than in winter. However, the proportion of microorganisms capable of degrading proteins or hydrolysing fats, and thus pernicious to works of art, was not significantly increased inside the museum.
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The aims of this work were to quantitatively and qualitatively study culturable fungi and bacteria in the air and settled dust in the storerooms of five Polish libraries and archives as well as to estimate the effect of water intrusion on the microbial air quality indoors. In all studied storerooms, the total bioaerosol concentrations at the workplaces ranged from 100 to 1000 cfu/m3. The most prevalent part of the storerooms’ bioaerosol consisted of bacteria, mainly Staphylococcus spp. and Micrococcus spp., followed by filamentous fungi. In four of the studied premises, fungal aerosol concentrations were below 100 cfu/m3. The only exception was observed in the fifth storeroom, which has been periodically flooded with rainwater and where significantly higher concentrations of fungal aerosol were measured. Among the identified fungal species, those of the genus Penicillium were the most numerous. Moreover, Trichothecium laxicephalum and Alternaria tenuis were present in all of the examined storerooms.The other objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of renovation and mechanical cleaning of the flooded storeroom collection on the level of microbial contamination. The obtained results show that both of the applied procedures reduced the concentration of fungal and bacterial aerosols by almost 80% and 50%, respectively. A significant reduction in the number of airborne microbial species was also noted. Hence, if the source of moisture is removed and mechanical cleaning is subsequently applied, the hygienic quality of a storeroom collection can be significantly improved.
Book
Introduction. The Ecology of Fungal Food Spoilage. Naming and Classifying Fungi. Methods for Isolation, Enumeration and Identification. Primary Keys and Miscellaneous Fungi. Zygomycetes. Penicillium and Related Genera. Aspergillus and Relataed Teleomorphs. Xerophiles. Yeast. Spoilage of Fresh and Perishable Foods. Spoilage of Stored, Processed and Preserved Foods. Media Appendix. Glossary. Index
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Species in Penicillium subgenus Penicillium have terverticillate penicilli and are related to the ascomycete genus Eupenicillium series Crustacea, Many of its species are very common, being associated with stored foods of human beings and other animals, but also with animal dung and building materials, indoor air, and several other habitats. The taxonomy of this group has been regarded to be especially difficult, but here we propose a stable taxonomy of these species based on a polyphasic study of a large number of isolates. 58 species are accepted. Four new species, P. cavernicola, P. freii, P. marinum and P. thymicola are described and two new combinations are made: P. melanoconidium and P. neoechinulatum. The species are ordered in natural sections and series, i.e. series that are both ecologically and phylogenetically consistent. The sections are named Coronata, Chrysogena, Roqueforti, Expansa, Digitata and Viridicata and emended because they differ considerably from the circumscriptions made by Pitt (1979). Some species with terverticillate penicilli, or rather twice biverticillate penicilli, including P. arenicola, P. scabrosum, P. fennelliae and P. lanosum, are regarded as phylogenetically and phenetically unrelated soil-borne forms and are not treated here. The phenotypic characters used include micro- and macro-morphology, physiology, including growth at 5, 15, 25, 30, 37°C, growth at 5 % NaCl and 15 % sucrose, and growth inhibition in presence of 1 % propionic acid, nutritional characters, including growth on urea, nitrite and creatine. All species have been analyzed for secondary metabolites (extrolites) and the profiles of these extrolites are highly species specific, and often of high consistency. In general features based on fungal differentiation (morphology and extrolites) are most diagnostic and consistent, but the classification proposed is also supported by the physiological and nutritional characters. The ecology and biogeography of the species is discussed and data on extrolites, both mycotoxins and pharmaceutically active compounds, is listed. Descriptions and colour illustrations of the colonies and micromorphology of the 58 accepted species are given. Keys to the taxa in the various series are given, but for a more detailed electronic database including partial beta tubulin sequences reference is made to http: //www.cbs.knaw.nl/ penicillium.htm.
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The study of aerosols in indoor air and the assessment of human exposure to aerosols are relatively recent activities. The terms indoor air and exposure assessment refer primarily to nonindustrial settings, such as homes, offices, and public-access buildings (e.g., museums, airport terminals, retail stores). Although many occupational settings are 'indoors', the aerosol concentrations and constituents, airflow regimes, and turbulence levels pose related, but different, aerosol measurement constraints. Until recently, it was commonly believed that the quality of indoor air was superior to that of the outdoor (ambient) air nearby. Several factors have influenced the apparent deterioration of indoor air quality: life-styles have changed; building construction techniques have changed; and people have become more concerned about environmental tobacco smoke (ETS).