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COMMUNITIES OF MUSIC EDUCATION
Saunders & Welch iMerc
Communities of Music Education
a pilot study
Communities of Music Education
a pilot study
Jo Saunders
Graham Welch
Communities of Music Education: a pilot study
ISBN10: 1-905351-20-8
ISBN13: 978-1-905351-20-6
© 2012 Jo Saunders and Graham Welch
Published in Great Britain in 2012
International Music Education Research Centre (iMerc)
Department of Culture, Media and Communication
Institute of Education
University of London
20, Bedford Way
London WC1H 0AL
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All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of
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mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission from
the publisher.
Communities of Music Education | 5
Contents
Contents 5
Executive Summary 8
1. Introduction and Context 11
1.1 Music Education: A Changing Context 11
1.2 Music Education: Differing approaches 15
1.3. The Terminology of Teacher and/or Musician 20
1.4 Young People and Music 22
1.5 Summary of Introduction and Context 31
2. Communities of Music Education: the research methodology 33
2.1 Research foci 33
2.2 Research methodology 34
2.3 Research schedule 36
2.4 Data Analysis 37
3. Communities of Music Education: ‘Joining Up’ the Musical Offer 39
3.1 Communities of Music Education: Identifying the Issues for Case One 41
3.2 Communities of Music Education: Identifying the Issues for Case Two 46
3.3 Communities of Music Education: Identifying the Issues for Case Three 50
3.4 Effective Partnership working across Communities of Music Education 53
4. The Outcomes of Musical Learning: Session Observations 59
4.1 Evidence of ‘good practice’ in session leadership 62
4.2 Comparison with ‘good practice’ in other areas of music leadership 84
4.3 A Consideration of ‘Quality’ in Musical Learning 86
4.4 Summary of the Outcomes of Musical Learning: Session Observations 91
4.5 Summary of the Outcomes of Musical Learning: Discussion 93
5. The Experiences of Young People 101
5.1 Young Person One: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Outcomes 102
5.2 Young Person Two: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Outcomes 104
5.3 Young Person Three: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Outcomes 105
5.4 Young Person Four: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Outcomes 106
5.5 Young Person Four: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Outcomes 107
5.6 Summary of the Experiences of Young People 108
6. Implications of Findings 111
7. Implications for Further Research 115
Acknowledgements 117
References 119
Appendices 129
Appendix 1 130
6 | Saunders & Welch
Appendix 2: Session Leader/Teacher Activity Schedule 135
Appendix 3: Young Person/Pupils Activity Schedule 137
Appendix 4: Memorandum of Understanding (Example) 139
Communities of Music Education | 7
8 | Saunders & Welch
Executive
Summary
This research has involved three providers working in Youth Music Ac-
tion Zones in England. In each case, the research has explored the ways in
which music provision is conceptualised, structured and delivered. Particu-
lar attention was paid to the nature of the partnership between the provid-
ers and other organisations, and the extent to which these partnerships
strengthened provision. Interviews were held with key members of staff,
observations were made of music provision and the young people de-
scribed their experiences.
The main findings of the research suggest that:
o The young people involved with this research tell of very different paths
through the formal education system. What they have in common is a
recognition that the time that they have invested in music making in the
non-formal sector, through the provision of musical opportunities by the
case providers, has had a positive impact on their musical lives and, in ad-
dition, impacted on elements of their lives beyond their musicality, such
as that of self-confidence, team working, the ability to focus or concen-
trate, listening skills, working to guidelines, relating to others, forming
positive work relations and making friends.
o Most of the young people involved in this research do not describe them-
selves as ‘musicians’ as an outcome of either the formal or non-formal mu-
sic education that they have received. Nevertheless, a young person who
experiences a successful concept of ‘musical me’ within several different
contexts may be able to cultivate a wider understanding and lived experi-
ence of musicality, beyond that of the binary distinction of ‘musician’ and
‘non-musician.’
o In the brief descriptions of these young peoples’ experiences, the formal
and non-formal musical provision may exist as musical pathways that run
on parallel or opposing pathways, with little or no overlap. The young
people included in the research have enjoyed relatively long term relation-
ships with the non-formal sector and most continued to attend formal ed-
ucation settings. In these cases, the lack of joining up would appear to
stem, in part, from the young person’s desire to explore different concep-
Communities of Music Education | 9
tions of musicality within different settings, a perceived lack of suitable
instruments within the formal context or a perceived mismatch between
the academic (written) approach in formal settings and the practical (mu-
sic making) approach in non-formal settings.
o The process of ‘joining up’ music education provision would appear more
complicated than previously expressed. There is a need to consider the
process not only from a structural perspective, enabling formal and non-
formal providers to work more effectively together, but also from a peda-
gogical perspective, ensuring that the inherent strengths of musical provi-
sion in the non-formal sector are not diluted from the young person’s per-
spective, thus guaranteeing that the access to high quality musical experi-
ences in a variety of contexts are the automatic right of every young per-
son.
o The case music providers have drawn attention to a perceived lack of mu-
tual understanding between partners in the formal and non-formal set-
tings, in terms of their ‘ways of working’ and common understandings of
terminology. Research evidence (see Section 4), that seeks to illustrate
both commonalities and differences may begin to provide a common un-
derstanding and a common language that will enable meaningful conver-
sations between partners.
o A positive pupil-teacher relationship has been associated with higher lev-
els of identification with music at school (Lamont, 2002:54; Saunders,
2010:448) and in turn, pupil-teacher relationships have been found to be
more positive where pupils feel that they are able to achieve (Spence,
2005:51). The responses in this research suggest that the young per-
son/practitioner relationship is more complex. The young people de-
scribed a relationship in which the practitioner was respectful of, and in-
terested in, the young person’s musical opinions and preferences. To build
and maintain a positive relationship, the practitioner accommodates the
young person as a musically ‘significant other’ who is able to mediate mu-
sical encounters in social contexts beyond the immediate setting of the
practitioner.
o Working with partner organisations was seen as a positive process, as
there were strengths in the ‘different methods of delivery and ways of
working.’ Providers stated that there was not only a ‘huge amount to learn
from one another,’ but that they could achieve better ‘value for money’
through the ‘sharing of resources.’ This was felt to be important as
through shared resources (such as office space) partners would be able to
communicate more effectively and ‘find out about things by simply being
there.’ In addition, effective working between partners would enable the
young people to gain experience of a ’variety of ways of working with mu-
sic, outside the mainstream’ of school music.
o Trust is needed so that partners feel that they are able to openly discuss is-
sues, whilst time is required to revisit aspects as needed and clarify issues
for all concerned (e.g. Hallam, 2010). Those case providers who reported
repeatedly successful programmes with partner organisations were those
who had, over an extended period of time, developed open and strong re-
lationships. A key element underlying the variable success of partnership
working would seem to be lack to time. Sufficient lead time must be in-
troduced into planning stages that allows for each of the partner organisa-
tions to agree their aims and their roles well in advance of beginning the
programme.
10 | Saunders & Welch
o The professional development of staff is central to the ongoing success of
any programme. Findings suggest that there is a need to ‘define common
content and teaching standards, but allow for diverse approaches and
styles’ (Robinson, 1998:38).
o In the best examples of music provision, the young people themselves play
a role in the decision making process. Case providers describe how they
consult with young people at the earliest planning stages, how steering
groups of young people are formed and how the young people are trained
independently to evaluate the outcomes of the provision. By so doing, the
providers ensure that the young people’s voice, in both a musical and advi-
sory role, is heard.
o Evidence from the research suggests that there is an ongoing need to pro-
vide engagement activities that act as ‘hooks’ in order for young people,
particularly vulnerable young people, to re-engage with the learning pro-
cess. Although these short term engagement activities may lead to a long-
er and deeper engagement with music provision, they also play a vital part
in offering young people a high quality musical experience and a lifeline.
For some young people, the patchwork of ‘short term kicks’ can be seen
instead as a series of stepping stones across potentially stormy waters.
Communities of Music Education | 11
1. Introduction
and Context
1.1 Music Education: A Changing Context
The organisation of Music Education has been under review for a number
of years. From the earlier suggestions of the Music Manifesto (DfES,
2004)1 to the most recent review of Music Education (DfE, 2011a)2, there
has been an increasingly vociferous call for formal and non-formal sectors
of music provision to work more collaboratively in order to create a ‘uni-
versal music education’ (Hallam and Creech, 2010:342). The ‘Henley Re-
view’ (DfE, 2011a) was undertaken at the request of the Secretary of State
for Education3 on the understanding that ‘every child should receive a
strong, knowledge based cultural education and should have the oppor-
tunity to learn and play a musical instrument and to sing’ (DfE, 2011a:4).
Broadly, the review set out to establish how the ‘distinctly patchy pro-
vision’ of music could be addressed through the establishing of a ‘National
Plan for Music Education’, delivered through partnerships between exist-
ing providers (DfE, 2011a:5). The following section of this report high-
lights the main issues concerning three of the aspects covered in the re-
view: (i) working in partnership (Section 1.1.1), (ii) issues of best practice
(Section 1.1.2) and (iii) aspects of local delivery (Section 1.1.3)
1.1.1 The Henley Review: Working in Partnership
There was a stated need for the providers of Music Education to work
more closely as ‘working in partnership [would] be absolutely key to devel-
oping a vibrant future for Music Education in this country’ (DfE,
2011a:7). In the government response to the review, working in partner-
1 For online access to the Music Manifesto Report see
https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/1-84479-533-5
2 For online access to the Henley Review of Music Education see
https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/standard/publicationDetail/Page1/DFE-00011-
2011
3 Michael Gove currently serves as Secretary of State for Education.
12 | Saunders & Welch
ship was described as a means of ‘transforming the way that music educa-
tion is provided across the country’ (DfE, 2011b:2), on the basis that those
organisations were also able to make use of ‘knowledge of what the best
music educators already achieve; ensuring that providers work together to
plan the best possible music education for every student’ (op.cit).
The ‘patchy provision’ previously cited (see Section 1.1) was felt, in
part, to be a by-product of the complex and diverse range of providers
working in Music Education. A ‘multitude of agencies...provide an array
of musical and educational services to an increasingly diverse audience,
often in an uncoordinated, mutually exclusive fashion’ (Robinson
1998:32). By sharing elements of best practice and establishing joint aims
and objectives across providers, it was suggested that areas with less suc-
cessful provision could be improved. In addition, increased partnership
between providers could address the need to support breadth as well as
depth within Music Education. It was argued that, whether within the
formal or non-formal sector ‘no single organisation [could] hope to pro-
vide the full range of tuition and experiences that constitute a sound music
education’ (DfE, 2011b:5). A more collective approach would address the
musical needs of a wider range of children and young people.
However, as a potential consequence of the variety of providers offer-
ing a plethora of musical opportunities, there was an equal risk that provi-
sion would overlap or fail to address the needs of a particular client group.
The need for an increased level of communication and awareness of aims
between organisations was also described as a necessary and positive step
towards creating a plan that embraced the child’s musical education
throughout their lives. It was felt that the National Plan ‘should set out a
clear pathway’ (DfE, 2011a:15), through which every child or young per-
son would be able to access a high quality musical education suitable to
both their developmental and musical progression. These pathways were
to be signposted so that the individual was able to access the most age or
ability appropriate provision. All children (aged 0-14), would be entitled
to a level of music education that would exist within the Early Years
Foundation Stage and the National Curriculum (DfE, 2011a:12). As well
as this basic entitlement, additional aspects that enabled children to access
increasingly specialised provision beyond the classroom setting and in both
formal and non-formal contexts would be formally signposted so as to
clarify paths of progression for teachers, parents and young people alike.
1.1.2 The Henley Review: Best Practice
Over and above the declared support for Music to remain as a statutory
requirement within the National Curriculum (DfE, 2011a:15), and subject
Communities of Music Education | 13
to continued regular inspection by Ofsted4, there was a stated need for best
practice to be more widely disseminated in order to improve standards
across all aspects of Music Education provision. The acknowledgement of
best practice would serve to inform both the formal contexts, such as Pri-
mary schools, in which ‘successive Ofsted reports on music have indicated
that the confidence and skill levels of primary class teachers prevent the
delivery of a sound music education’ (DfE, 2011b:10) and non-formal
contexts, such as arts organisations, for which ‘there has been no single
definition of what constitutes best practice’ (DfE, 2011a:15). Earlier part-
nerships between the formal (schools) and non-formal (arts organisations)
had, it was felt, suffered from mismatches of expectations and outcomes.
Previously, ‘there [was] a perception that not every arts organisation pro-
vides projects that [we]re focused on learning objectives that tie in with
the rest of the child’s education’ (DfE, 2011a:13). This criticism chimes
with findings from Davies et al., (2007), who reported that musicians
working for non-formal providers were less likely to be aware of national
strategies. As a result, young people involved in both formal and non-
formal settings were liable to experience the provision as disconnected
events rather than as part of a coherent whole.
The review suggested that ‘schools should be unafraid of being more
demanding’ of the organisations that they work alongside in order to en-
sure that ‘any programmes that they buy in fulfil the criteria of learning
outcomes that tie in with their overall curriculum objectives’ (DfE,
2011a:13). As evidence from the arts organisations will show (see Section
3.1, 3.2 and 3.3), there is a continued need for both sides of the formal
and non-formal relationship to work harder to create an understanding of
what the provision is able to achieve and the place of the provision within
the young peoples’ wider educational experience.
1.1.3 The Henley Review: Local Delivery
The ‘Henley Review’ proposed that;
‘Schools, local authority music services, arts council England cli-
ent organisations and other recognised delivery organisations
should work together to create Music Education Hubs in each
Local Authority area.’ (DfE, 2011a:18)
The aim behind the creation of such ‘hubs’ is the formation of a diverse
range of providers of a wide range of approaches to Music Education. In
some areas, this partnership around a central provider has already begun to
4 The Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted) inspects or
regulates local services, child minders, child day care services, children’s centres, children’s
social care, Cafcass, state schools, independent schools, teacher training providers, colleges
and learning and skills providers in England.
14 | Saunders & Welch
be established in terms of delivery and coherence of provision5. In others,
there is a more stratified or discrete approach that will take time to orches-
trate 6. By formalising the relationship and streaming direct funding
through the ‘hub’ or central organisation, the breadth and quality of Music
Education may increasingly be defined by the regional variations in modes
of delivery. Ideally, it was proposed that these ‘hubs’ would act as more
than ‘a loose collective body of music-making organisations’, instead
demonstrating that ‘they [we]re able fully to cater for the Music Education
needs of all children in their particular area’ (DfE, 2011a:18).
Youth Music, through its strategic goals, is attempting to bridge the
gap between formal and non-formal providers responsible for the local
delivery of music education, in order to ensure that those who can benefit
from either provision are able to do so. The aim of this research is to begin
to identify how formal and non-formal providers work together effectively
to ensure equality of access to progressive musical learning for children
and young people. The following sections (Section 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4) pro-
vide a brief summary of the concepts underpinning music education in
formal and non-formal learning contexts.
5 Local Authority Music Plans (LAMPS), for example, where in place, seek to broaden and
organise music provision within a locality, including both formal and non-formal providers.
6 Due to necessary changes in provision and organisation, it is envisaged that the funding
mechanism for Music Education will remain the same for 2011-12 financial year, with the
new model becoming operational for the 2012-13 financial year.
Communities of Music Education | 15
1.2 Music Education: Differing approaches
Young people access aspects of their musical educations in a variety of
ways. For the purpose of this research, differences in music education pro-
vision in formal (predominantly classroom based in school contexts
through the delivery of the National Curriculum) and non-formal oppor-
tunities are outlined below. Traditionally, the categorisation of music edu-
cation opportunities can be seen to exist on two axes; (i) formal vs. non-
formal, and (ii) statutory vs. non statutory. In addition, activities may
adopt a generalist or specialist approach (see Figure 1, below) for one way
of illustrating this diversity.
Figure 1: A 'globe' model of opportunities in music education (Hargreaves, Marshall and
North, 2003).
However, the established dichotomy between formal and non-formal
learning is increasingly less distinct. As discussed below (see Section 1.2.1,
1.2.2 and 1.2.3), the traditional divisions between contexts and approaches
have been investigated so as to suggest more effective ways to provide
more young people with meaningful musical experiences.
1.2.1 Music Education: Formal contexts
Music education in formal settings has historically fallen into two discrete
traditions; that of the specialist or generalist framework. Hargreaves
(1986:148) describes the specialist framework as one in which a minority
16 | Saunders & Welch
of ‘talented’ pupils enter into a ‘master and apprentice’ model of instru-
mental tuition. The model is based upon a view of education as subject-
centred, skill or fact oriented, where the teacher represents both authority
and the accepted body of knowledge. By contrast, the generalist model
proposes, ‘that music can be performed, appreciated and enjoyed by all
pupils at all levels’ (op.cit). The music practitioner working within the
generalist framework provides opportunities for young people to create and
appraise music by ‘finding out for themselves’ within a semi-structured
environment.
1.2.2 Music Education: Formal contexts, Non-formal Practices
Music educators working in the formal context7 have sought to address an
ongoing issue of engagement experienced within the classroom (particular-
ly at secondary level) setting8. Resnick (1987:15) describes the formal con-
text as ‘schooling’; a setting in which there is ‘not supposed to be much
continuity between what one knows outside school and what one learns in
school.’ Adolescents have been found to increasingly ‘devalue school-
organised music, and instead begin to favour musical activities that they
can organise themselves’ (Boal-Palheiros and Hargreaves, 2001). Research
findings have argued that for an adolescent, a musical activity must be
increasingly perceived to be voluntary. ‘Since the endeavour to regulate
mood [is] based on personal goals, the satisfaction of these goals [is] guar-
anteed only by personally pursuing them in self selected ways’ (Saarikallio
and Erkkila, 2007:93).
These findings may have far reaching implications for any form of mu-
sic education, if, as proposed, ‘the adolescents’ appreciate freedom in their
choice of playing, want to make their own decisions about the kind of mu-
sic...and aim to engage with music because they feel like doing so, not be-
cause they should’ (Saarikallio and Erkkila, 2007:94). The argument was
echoed by the suggestion that ‘schools and music providers connect their
music provision more meaningfully with young people’s own interests,
passions and motivations’ (Hallam and Creech, 2010:343), and further
explored as part of the extensive work undertaken by the Musical Futures9
project, who have sought to explore ways to re-engage secondary school
pupils with music. Early research from work in pilot schools indicated that
7 It would seem overly simplistic to assume that the division between formal and non-formal
is clearly defined; there are conventions and ‘accepted ways of being’ demonstrated in all
contexts with young people displaying an implicit understanding of the ‘rules.’
8 Research suggests that classroom music at Key Stage 3 may struggle to address the emer-
gent musical identities and preferences of the young people involved, leading to disengage-
ment (cf. Saunders, 2010).
9 See http://www.musicalfutures.org.uk for more details. Musical Futures seeks to create a
music entitlement for all young people, by bringing together in- and out-of-school experi-
ences, and making music learning relevant.
Communities of Music Education | 17
it was vital to find an alternative method of teaching music and to person-
alise the nature of the musical opportunities on offer. The work of the
Musical Futures project began with the premise that formal classroom
music teaching has historically depended on traditional teaching methods,
despite changes made to the curriculum (Green, 2002b). The previous
introduction of a wider range of acceptable musics10 to the music class-
room did not fully address issues of relevance or engagement. Indeed with-
in the formal setting, it has been suggested that the personal territory of a
musical genre invested in by a young person would be ‘vigorously defend-
ed’ (Richards, 1998:17) rather than welcomed. Any attempt ‘to approach
[the musical genre] with a critical, demystifying intent’ would be met with
‘determined resistance’ (ibid). It was argued that the traditional teaching
methods did not suit the breadth of available musics and bore little resem-
blance to the ways in which popular musicians learn in non-formal con-
texts (Green, 2002a). Despite the variety of music, the unchanging meth-
ods of learning created a ‘peculiar, classroom version of music... bearing
little resemblance to its existence in the world outside’ (Green, 2003:269).
In the Musical Futures approach, the music teachers were encouraged to
adopt the role of facilitator in which they observed and modelled material
while the pupils learnt through listening and copying recordings of music
that they both liked and identified with. The defining principals of the
approach have been distilled thus:
o pupils work with music chosen by themselves that they enjoy and identify
with;
o pupils work aurally through listening and copying;
o pupils work with peers in groups chosen by themselves;
o skills and knowledge can be gained in a rather haphazard fashion (on a
basis of need) with whole ‘real’ pieces at the core; and
o listening, performing and composing are integrated throughout the learn-
ing process.
(Philpott, 2010)
This approach to musical learning relates to the work of Folkestad
(2005) who suggests that it is not the type of music, or the site of the
learning experience that differentiates between formal and non-formal
learning, but rather the orientation of the learner to playing and making
music. Non-formal learning, he argues, occurs when playing and making
music. Formal learning occurs when learning how to play music. In this
sense, during a musical experience, the young person is most likely to en-
10 Publications from the Department for Education and Skills (1985). Music from 5 – 16.
Curriculum Matters 4. London: HMSO, and Department for Education (1995). Music in
the National Curriculum. London: HMSO, describe a need to include music from a wide
geographical and cultural context as well as from popular genres.
18 | Saunders & Welch
gage in an ongoing dialectic between formal and non-formal learning,
irrespective of the physical context.
1.2.3 Music Education: Non-formal Context
“ It may be said that community music is not the
name of a new type of music nor even a musical en-
deavour. It does not include any particular kind of
music or any particular kind of performer. ”
(Dykema, 1916:218)
This definition of what music in the non-formal sector, or ‘community
music’ is, by defining what it is not, is a persistent problem. It will be re-
visited later in this research by an individual working in music in the non-
formal sector nearly 100 years after the statement above was published (see
Section 3.1.1). Verblen (2007:1) highlights that the agreed definition of
community music is as yet undecided. Koopman (2007) reports an ongo-
ing lack of a consensual definition and instead offers three main character-
istics of community music; that of (i) collaborative music making, (ii)
community development, and (iii) personal growth. Within collaborative
music making, Koopman (2007:153) suggests that activities are most likely
to be (i) collective, (ii) active, and (iii) adaptive. In terms of both commu-
nity development and personal growth, he identifies that community mu-
sic is ‘aimed at the well-being of people’ within a social dimension, as well
as a personal dimension (op.cit). Writing as an experienced community
musician, Mullen (2002) refers to the practice of community music within
‘the tradition of community arts’ based on the three principles of access,
participation and inclusion for all. This understanding of the centrality of
access and inclusion is shared by Koopman (2007:153) who states that the
strength of community music is ‘that it can reach out to people who for
social, cultural or financial reasons are least likely to develop their music
potential.’ Creech (2010:314) describes community music as ‘collaborative
music making outside of formal educational contexts’, as well as ‘music
education outreach work within schools’ (ibid). Nevertheless, the inherent
danger in trying to define community music is that ‘it diminishes the par-
ticularity of event-based activities, and strips them of the specificity of
cultural, political or social context’ (Phelan, 2008:145). For the purpose of
the following research, an amalgamation of both the Mullen (2002) and
Koopman (2007) definitions has been adopted; i.e., the provision of col-
Communities of Music Education | 19
lective, active and adaptive musical experiences based on the principles of
access, participation and inclusion11.
Music education in the non-formal sector may take the form of either
the specialist or generalist framework (see Section 1.2.1.), or be based on
‘informal music learning practices’ (Green, 2002a:16) according to the
needs of their client group. In some settings, the generalist approach draws
in and engages otherwise disengaged young people with accessible and
achievable musical experiences. In other settings, young people are able to
enter into sustained provision that supports them as they deepen their skill
levels and interests in specific musical genres or musical skills. In addition,
musicians working within the non-formal sector are often able to provide a
broader understanding of ‘ways of working’ and the demonstration of ‘in-
formal learning practices’, a wider definition of ‘musical model’ and a
breadth of expertise in terms of acceptable ‘musics.’ However, researchers
continue to investigate alternative approaches to ‘informal learning prac-
tices’ (cf. Green, 2002a, Gullberg and Brändström, 2004; Salavuo, 2006).
Such research exploring the musical learning practices that take place out-
side school (formal) contexts as well as those that rely on technological
advances, have shifted the focus of music education away ‘from teaching to
learning’ and from ‘how to teach’ to ‘how to learn’ (Folkestad, 2006:136).
11 This is an imperfect definition, but seeks to distance the definition of musical practices in
community music from (i) the professional identity of the musician leading the activity, (ii)
the physical context of the activity and (iii) the pedagogy employed within the activity.
20 | Saunders & Welch
1.3. The Terminology of Teacher and/or Musician
The terminology that describes the work undertaken by musicians who
teach and/or lead music12 is complicated by the individual’s need to accu-
rately portray their own professional identity, the desire for the wide varie-
ty of music education providers to identify their own distinct qualities
and/or approaches and the tendency in common usage to attribute all mu-
sicians who work with ‘novice’ musicians, the title ‘teacher’. The following
discussion explores these terms in further detail.
1.3.1. Music Teachers
Kemp (1996) suggests that some traditionally trained musicians who be-
come music teachers believe their sense of identity to emanate from being
a ‘real’ musician, and as a result direct their energies towards extracurricu-
lar groups, thereby retaining a sense of ‘musical persona’ through the overt
direction of concert performances. By contrast, some teachers may be able
to obtain more modest levels of satisfaction within the realms of classroom
teaching activity. Kemp (1996:217) suggests that what makes a ‘good mu-
sician’ does not necessarily guarantee good potential as a teacher and vice
versa.
Evidence suggests that in formal educational settings such as schools,
music teachers create a ‘teaching persona’ that is built upon their individu-
al ‘musical authority rooted in skills, techniques and knowledge about mu-
sic’ (Finney, 1999:237). Through this ‘musical authority’ they implicitly
and explicitly ‘know how music of the Western tonal tradition is taught’
(ibid). However, these same individuals are also likely to lack the ‘same
instinctive teaching knowledge for popular music’ (Dunbar-Hall,
1996:217). Some have considered the highly specialist musical training
undertaken by many secondary school teachers to ‘be inappropriate for the
demands of the contemporary secondary school’ (Hargreaves et al., 2007).
Contrary to these findings, proposals from the Henley Review recommend
that Music Conservatoire graduates should be encouraged to enter into
the formal educational sector as, it is argued, ‘taking the very best perform-
ers and placing them into school environments will be beneficial both to
the pupils and to the individuals concerned’ ( DfE, 2011a:27). Some prac-
titioners within community music have argued that the traditional role of
music teacher to be inappropriate, highlighting instead the need to move
away from the model of ‘expert teacher and willing pupils models of
transmission’ towards a ‘more dynamic and interactive community of par-
ticipants’ (Mullen, 2002:1).
12 See Section 1.2.2 for further discussion concerning the relationship between ‘community
music’ and the teaching of music.
Communities of Music Education | 21
1.3.2. Music Leaders
Musicians from a non-formal musical background, will, most likely, have
received some formal music education (Green, 2002:6). Those who would
consider themselves, or be considered as ‘community musicians,’ are now
often referred to as ‘Music Leaders’ (Music Leader, 2009). That the indi-
viduals involved are most likely to refer to themselves as ‘musicians’ rather
than ‘teachers’ or ‘leaders’ reflects the predominance and valuing of musical
skill over pedagogical knowledge (Swanwick, 2008:13).
1.3.3. Music Facilitators
It has been argued that those working within ‘community music’ should be
referred to as music facilitators and take on the role of a ‘boundaried facili-
tator’ (Mullen, 2002:3). This role would include responsibility for ‘conven-
ing the group, clarifying’ the aims of the group and would seek ‘to inquire,
to echo and to affirm’ (op.cit). The term ‘facilitator’ has also been adopted
in the Musical Futures research (see Section 1.2.1). Koopman (2007:157)
suggests that this approach creates an artificial and unhelpful distinction
between facilitating and teaching activities. In basic terms, the role of fa-
cilitator is to make an action (or process) easy or easier and, as such, could
be used to describe the work undertaken by the musicians observed within
this study (see Section 4). However, to prevent confusion, the term ‘practi-
tioner’ predominates throughout the following discussions to indicate a
person actively engaged in an art, discipline, or profession.
Within any musical learning context, whether formal or non-formal,
the understanding of ‘musician’ (or alternative appropriate label) and mu-
sical model presented can strongly influence the way in which young peo-
ple come to recognise themselves as ‘musician’ or, conversely as ‘non musi-
cian.’ There is a need for the ‘musical role model to be both relevant and
attainable’ (O’Neill 2006:471). Mismatches between the ‘goodness of fit’
and the young persons’ demonstration of their own musical identity may
lead to a loss of engagement, or the rejection of music within a specific
context (Saunders, 2010:237).
22 | Saunders & Welch
1.4 Young People and Music
“ Young people have an instinctive respect for each
other’s musical tastes and aptitudes and are genu-
inely fascinated by the musical palette available to
them. But they do not want to be told what is best,
any more than they want to be told what to wear,
what to laugh at, or what to eat. Good music teach-
ers and community musicians realise that engaging
with the musicians of tomorrow means a dialogue,
not a lecture. ”
Howard Goodall, July 2005, Music Manifesto Re-
port no. 1 (2005)
An important theme underlying this exploratory research is the young per-
son’s experience of the musical provision that they engage with. The ex-
tent to which the musical provision encountered is a ‘dialogue’ or a ‘lecture’
rests upon the successful interaction of number of elements. In the follow-
ing section, research findings concerning (i) the way in which young peo-
ple relate to the musical experiences they encounter (see Section 1.4.1), (ii)
the ways that young people use music to identify themselves (see Section
1.4.2), and (iii) the ways that young people use music to support their psy-
chological needs (see Section 1.4.3) are discussed.
1.4.1 Musical Experiences: Appropriate tasks and supportive environments
Research has suggested that we all have the capacity to be ‘musical’ (Gard-
ner 1983; Sloboda 1985), that it is ‘extremely rare to meet a child who is
‘unmusical’ given an appropriate task and supportive environment’
(Welch, 2000) and that all young people enter a learning context with
musical knowledge, musical skills and musical abilities (Hargreaves,
1986:83). In addition to having a ‘capacity to be musical’, Welch
(2005:117) suggests that ‘we are musical.’
If the capacity to be musical depends upon the successful provision of
‘appropriate tasks and supportive environments’, the contexts in which
musical encounters are most likely to take place are an important consider-
ation. One learning context that the majority of young people will encoun-
Communities of Music Education | 23
ter is the music classroom. Research has highlighted a ‘decline in positive
musical identity and in [the] degree of identification with music lessons’ as
pupils move through the first three years of secondary school (Harland et
al. 2000). Once established, a negative musical identity may be ‘resistant to
change and disconfirmation’ and operate ‘a constraining influence on
young people’s musical engagement and understanding of what it means to
be a musician’ (O’Neill 2002:79). Within a compulsory setting13, there is
evidence that ‘many pupils and their teachers operate in different ‘musical’
codes’ (Wright and Davies, 2010:47).
It has been argued that music in a formal setting would always struggle
to attract the attention of young people ‘given the enormous social and
cultural investment that the pop scene represented’ (Ross, 1995:189) This
criticism of ‘school music’ presupposes that it is, of itself, a model of ‘mu-
sic’ and ‘musician’ that stands in opposition to all other forms of ‘popular
music’14. By moving the social context of their musical encounters outside
the classroom, young people are able to experience a rich diet of music;
whereas in schools, the selection is often mainly the preserve of the Gov-
ernment and teachers (Kwami, 1998). In this ‘other than school context’
the boundaries of musics are ‘stretched’, with music that is culturally, so-
cially and spatially located (ibid).
The provision of an ‘appropriate task and supportive environment’ is
linked to the young persons’ understanding of their ability to learn. A cru-
cial social cognitive motivational process is self-efficacy, defined as ‘the
conviction that one can successfully execute the behaviour required to pro-
duce the outcome’ (Bandura, 1997:79). Self-efficacy is strengthened
through mastery of a particular domain, where the difficulties are inter-
preted as mild and infrequent. Difficulties and mistakes are used to inform
future learning strategies and the rate at which the young person ‘bounces
back’ after a difficulty distinguishes between high and low achievers (Ban-
dura, 1997).
For a young person who has an ‘entity theory’ of intelligence, ‘appro-
priate tasks’ are those that are easily achievable, as excessive challenge (or
an inappropriate task) may threaten their self-esteem (Dweck and Leg-
gett, 1988). An ‘incremental theory of intelligence’, however, accepts that
intelligence may be ‘cultivated through learning’ (Dweck, 1999:3). Re-
search suggests that our understanding of musical ability is often ‘defined
by an end-state’ in which the individual will be able to play, sing or com-
13 Music is a compulsory part of the National Curriculum from the age of 5 until the age of
14 (from Key Stages 1 to 3). Post Key Stage 3, young people are able to choose from a
framework of examination subjects from the ages of 14 – 16 years old (Key Stage 4). There
has been a persistent trend in the uptake of music at GCSE at around 8% of the total cohort
(http://www.dfes.gov.uk/rsgateway/DB/SFR).
14 Musical Futures has since sought to introduce alternative ways of working into the school
classroom that embrace informal learning (see Section 1.2.1)
24 | Saunders & Welch
pose (Hallam, 2006:103). To reach this ‘end state’ the young person re-
quires prior knowledge, motivation, effort and perceived efficacy. Difficul-
ties encountered during the learning process may be attributed to ‘a lack of
musical ability leading to a loss of self esteem, loss of motivation, less prac-
tice, and a downward spiral’ (Hallam, 2006:99). Perceived success may
also be influenced by young person’s belief about their abilities to improve.
A young person who holds an incremental theory of intelligence may react
to difficulty by deciding to practise more, so as to improve. By contrast, a
young person who accepts an entity theory may attribute the difficulty to a
‘perceived lack of ability’ over which they have no control, leading to a
‘reduction in motivation and [the young person] giving up playing’
(op.cit).
As a result, young people’s beliefs concerning their competencies with-
in different domains have been found to be the strongest predictor of
achievement (Eccles et al., 1983). For a young person in a (formal or non-
formal) learning context who holds a belief that they cannot achieve (as a
result of low self efficacy in the musical domain) and a belief that musical
ability is largely innate (an entity theory of intelligence), there would seem
little point expending effort in the first place (Saunders, 2010:183) unless
these underlying beliefs can be addressed.
“ Whether you play music, sing it, listen to it, com-
pose it, study it or teach it, music can be taken on
and worn rather like a piece of clothing, to indicate
something about your class, ethnicity, gender, sexu-
ality, religion, sub-culture, political values and so
on. ”
Green, 2010:31
1.4.2 Musical Identity
Identity ‘is constantly being reconstructed and renegotiated according to
the experiences, situations and other people with whom we interact in
everyday life’ (Hargreaves et al., 2002:2). Identity is no longer considered
as static, but rather a continuing process of identification and dis-
identification (Skeggs, 1997) and it is through the constant process of
(dis)identification that the ‘self’ is constantly refined (Skelton, 2001).
Similarly, the development of a musical identity15 stems from the bio-
15 The musical identity can be thought of a one part of an individual’s multifaceted identity,
as various self-concepts coexist within the individual that relate to different domains and
Communities of Music Education | 25
logical predispositions towards musicality that are then shaped as a result
of the social and musical interactions that the individual encounters as part
of their everyday lives (Hargreaves et al., 2002:7). ‘Identities in music’ are
based on social categories and cultural musical practices (op. cit). For ex-
ample, research suggests that by the age of 7, pupils are able to self-
describe as ‘musician’ or ‘non-musician’ based their experience of the music
classroom (Lamont, 2002:47). By contrast, ‘music in identities’ relates to
the way in which music is used as a resource in the formation of personal
identity (Hargreaves et al., 2002).
In some circumstances, when young people ‘engage in musical activi-
ties’ they are required ‘to engage in music whose delineations may corre-
spond or may conflict with their self images, their social backgrounds,
their public or private identities, values and desires’ (Green, 2010:32).
Conflict is more likely to occur from the ages of 13-14, as young people
increasingly need to identify personally with a particular genre or artist.
This contrasts with the period of ‘open-mindedness’ experienced during
middle childhood (at around age 8) when young people are more likely to
be open to a wide variety of musical genres (Hargreaves and North, 1999).
In terms of becoming a ‘musician’, for some young people, the expression
of musical identity is best accomplished when ‘school music’ (or the musi-
cal experiences they encounter in the school context) is treated as ‘other
than my music’ and those who value school music as ‘other than me’
(Saunders, 2010:458). Pupils ‘negotiate their position in any given situa-
tion, according to their evolving story lines, their own continuously revised
understanding of the social world’ (Jones, 1995:138). Through the negoti-
ation of what is meant by ‘musician’ some pupils will create a narrative in
which they are not musicians within a particular context, or in which they
are musicians but that school music is not ‘real’ music (Saunders,
2010:458). Of those who continue their musical education within the for-
mal context, ‘a process of self-selection’ takes place by which only young
people ‘with exceptional talent or interest are likely to persevere’ (Green,
1997:227). Some individuals are able to ‘disregard perceived pressures to
conform to stereotyped gender schema’ and opt instead for a form of indi-
vidualism (Kemp, 1996:115). As a result, they are ‘concomitantly less like-
ly to be de-selected at a later stage’ (Green, 1997:227).
‘Music in identities’ relates to the use of music as a tool in identity
formation. For most young people, music is an easily accessible and con-
stantly changing shared resource and as a result many have become mas-
sive consumers of media products and materials, particularly via new me-
dia (Palladino, 1996; British Music Rights Survey, 2008)). Media con-
sumption is not a passive procedure, but rather an ‘active process through
contexts (Coleman and Hendry, 1999).
26 | Saunders & Welch
which individuals begin to make sense of the world around them and de-
fine themselves and their place within it’ (Kehily, 2007:272). A multiplici-
ty of media fulfils a wide variety of needs, including entertainment, stimu-
lation, coping, as a way of identifying with aspects of youth culture and in
identity formation (Swidler, 1986; Arnett, 1995; Shaw et al., 1995). This
consumption of music and media allows, encourages and involves adoles-
cents in the exercise of agency (Kehily, 2007:274). Through such con-
sumption and the process of selection and/or de-selection, the elements
that are rejected (and labelled as ‘not like me’) may be as indicative of ‘self’
as those with which they identify (and labelled as ‘like me’). Figure 2 (be-
low) illustrates the relationship between the individual, various social con-
texts and available musics. The development of a young person in relation
to music is dependent on the contextual influences and social interactions
in which the musical encounters take place. In this model, various contexts
are proposed as potential sites for musical experiences. The young person
is able to sift through their understandings of their musical selves within
these contexts, attributing value to some whilst rejecting others.
Figure 2: 'Musics available to me' (actual and potential): An inter-personal perspective
(Saunders, 2010:233)
The young person exists within a series of microsystems16, such as the
16 This argument stems from the Bronfenbrenner (1979) ecological model of human devel-
Communities of Music Education | 27
home or school, in which they negotiate meaning through face to face
interactions. Significant others within these microsystems also interact, for
example parents (family context) and teachers (school context) creating
mesosystems. These significant others are also responsible for mediating
the wider beliefs represented by the exosystem with which the young per-
son is less likely to have direct contact. The media materials chosen repre-
sent or reflect important aspects of themselves and their views of the
world. Interest in these sources may be short lived ‘in their pursuit of in-
formation about the possibilities of life’ (Arnett et al., 1995:514). An
emergent or evolving musical genre may dictate codes of dress, behaviour
or language. Music is able to act as a label, or ‘badge’ of identification
(Frith, 1981) and, through affiliation to a particular tribe or ‘badge’, young
people are able to display an identity that differentiates the in-group from
all others (Dolfsma, 1999). By asserting a sense of ownership over a par-
ticular musical genre, the young person is able to make two linked but
separate distinctions: by not only claiming the music as the authentic
property of one group, but by excluding and discrediting the involvement
of all ‘others’ (Hyder, 2004:40).
Figure 3 (below), represents the personal relationship that a young per-
son has with music from an intra-personal perspective. Here, the individu-
al is situated in relation to the musics that they have encountered and,
consequently, actively engaged with. Through each musical encounter the
individual is storing elements that support their views of themselves as
musical beings and rejecting those that do not. Through this process of
assimilation and rejection, the information stored on the ‘deck of cards’ is
under constant revision. The prominence of any one element is dependent
on a number of factors, including the social and psychological context and
the social or emotional need.
opment, in which the different environments are conceptualised as a series of nested struc-
tures. See Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) The ecology of human development. Harvard Univer-
sity Press: Cambridge, MA.
28 | Saunders & Welch
Figure 3: 'Me and my music': An intra-personal perspective (Saunders, 2010)
The relative importance of one ‘card’ in relation to another may also
change over time, according to context, musical activity, emotional state,
social grouping and other influences on identity. It is possible for an ado-
lescent to maintain multiple versions of ‘me, and, my music’ depending on
the potential disparity between the different musical contexts that they
encounter (Saunders, 2010:233).
Further to this, recent research (Saunders, 2010) suggests that for
young people to engage meaningfully with music in the formal context
(specifically the Key Stage 3 Music classroom) they need to be able to ap-
ply ‘other than school’ learning (see Figure 3, ‘Me, and My music’) to a
school (formal) context. In an analysis of young peoples’ responses, general
themes were identified, both within and across groups. In total, seven cat-
egories of young people and their types of musical engagement were iden-
tified within the formal (school) context. These were defined as (i) disen-
gaged traditional musicians, (ii) engaged traditional musicians, (iii) en-
gaged alternative musicians, (iv) disengaged alternative musician, (v) en-
gaged non-musician, (vi) partially engaged non-musicians, and (vii) disen-
gaged non-musicians17. Those young people who were able to engage most
effectively with the Key Stage 3 classroom did so because they perceived
that they had received implicit and explicit confirmation that their ‘musical
me’, as presented in the classroom context, was valued and valid. A young
17 The characteristic responses given by young people are given as Appendix 1.
Communities of Music Education | 29
person who fails to receive this message of value may interpret that the
classroom curriculum simply ‘ignore[s] what they themselves know, to pass
it over as essentially worthless’ (Salmon 1998:89). This lack of confirma-
tion of ‘musical me’ may force a young person to reassess the definition of
musical identity they hold to be valid. For some pupils, this experience will
strengthen the perception of music in school to be ‘other’ and not a valued
musical context to them. Young people invest heavily in their chosen mu-
sical genres and as such, are less likely to reject them as identifiers of ‘self’
because they counter the musical message as proposed by the school con-
text. Instead, they are more likely to reject music in the formal (school)
context (Saunders, 2010).
1.4.3 The Uses of Music
Music and musical experiences serve other purposes in addition to the
formation of identity. Music offers the individual an ‘opportunity to turn
off the self’ (Roe, 1995:544). Listening to music is an activity that is cho-
sen ‘deliberately as a response to negative emotional states’ (Collins,
1996:47), as both listening to and playing music has been found to ‘facili-
tate a detachment from emotional preoccupations and worries’ (Saarikallio
and Erkkila, 2007:98). Music also allows young people to ‘transform from
the uncertainties of the everyday world’ to a ‘leisure sphere’, in which risk
management appears to be in the control of the individual (Beck, 1992).
Young people who struggle to exert control and demonstrate autonomy in
everyday interactions can experience control through the direction of mu-
sical parameters.
Music affords the young person the opportunity to affirm or challenge
stereotypical gender roles. Young women singing within a popular genre
inhabit an arena in which they can explore a sexualised identity within the
protective context of the performance space, although ‘attention is likely to
be paid to the nature of [their] display’ and of ‘the level of ‘attractiveness’
which she signifies’ (Green, 1997:165). Young men may explore more
flamboyant behaviours through musical genre and performance style
(Dibben, 2002:129). The emergence of overtly camp, gay and bisexual
imagery and performers in popular music and the media has provided ap-
propriate models through which young people can experiment with gender
roles and challenge traditional assumptions (op.cit).
For many young people ‘being in a crowd is one of the defining fea-
tures of school’ (Salmon, 1998:31). For some students, the music room
may offer a physical escape where they can be occupied, engaged and ac-
commodated away from the crowds. Music practice rooms offer even
greater level privacy. Within the school context and beyond, many ‘leisure
opportunities are restricted through conventions governing the use of
30 | Saunders & Welch
space’ (Coakley and White, 1992). Specific groups of pupils habitually
populate areas of the school and by default inhibit others from doing so.
Many traditional leisure settings are considered to be male preserves,
and that this lack of access to leisure ‘space’ for girls has meant that they
often retreat into home-based activities (Hendry et al., 1993) In addition,
the leisure patterns of young people have been theorised as moving
through three age-related stages: (i) organised leisure, (ii) casual leisure,
and (iii) commercial leisure (Hendry, 1983). The first, organised leisure
includes adult-led activities, tending to decline at around 13-14 years of
age. Casual leisure includes hanging around with friends and, as such, may
lack a specific physical context as offered by organised leisure. The last,
commercial leisure (including clubs, pubs and cinemas) can only become
dominant as the young person becomes financially independent (ibid).
Musical activities in a non-formal context can provide adult led activities
(organised leisure) with the opportunity to spend time with the peer group
(casual leisure) as well as attend performances and gigs within the same
context (commercial leisure). As a result, young people are able to inhabit
a leisure setting that offers safety, support, entertainment, learning oppor-
tunities and a wide range of age appropriate facilities.
1.4.4 The Terminology of Youth
The terms ‘teenager’, ‘youth’ and ‘adolescent’ have all been used at differ-
ent times and in different contexts to describe the ‘life stage between
childhood and adulthood, the transitional period between being depend-
ent and independent’ (Kehily, 2007:3). Social constructivists and those
working with young people are most likely to refer to them as ‘youth’ ra-
ther than ‘adolescents’ or ‘teenagers’ and, by so doing, emphasise the im-
portance of cultural influence over biology. Despite the difference in terms
used, it is the social construction and understanding of what it is to be a
‘youth’ that forms the basis of the following discussions, although to ad-
here to the wishes of the young people involved the terms ‘young person’
and ‘young people’ are used throughout.
Communities of Music Education | 31
1.5 Summary of Introduction and Context
Music has the potential to play a fundamental part in the life of young
people, either in the formation of an identity in music (I am a musician) or
in the use of musics to form an identity (I listen to this music, therefore, I
am like these people) (Saunders, 2010:221). Music offers relief from anx-
iety (Collins, 1996), an arena in which to explore who you are (Dibben,
2002, Hyder, 2004) and a safe context in which to learn how to interact
with the rest of the society (Kehily, 2007). Research suggests also that
young people listen to music as either a passive or interactive activity for
up to 6 hours a day18, that music collections (in whatever form) are consid-
ered to be one of their most valued possessions (Kamptner, 1995; British
Music Rights, 2008) and that the average digital music collection contains
over 8,000 tracks19 (Bahanovich and Collopy, 2009). Youth Music provid-
ed 130,869 young people with musical experiences during 2009-10 (Dick-
ens, 2010). Musical experiences are taking place for a considerable number
of young people. However, there are continuing calls for music providers
to work more closely together, to create a joined up musical offer (Creech,
2010) rather than ‘short-lived musical kicks’ (Koopman, 2007).
18 Passive listening is defined as background music and accounts for just over half of all lis-
tening. Interactive listening is described as music being the main focus of their attention
(British Music Rights Survey, 2008).
19 In a recent online survey of young people, 68% were found to listen to music on their com-
puter on a daily basis, whilst only 15% listened to CDs.
http://www.ukmusic.org/assets/media/uk_music_uni_of_herts_09.pdf
Communities of Music Education | 33
2. Communities
of Music
Education:
the research
methodology
2.1 Research foci
Creech (2010) suggests that the formal and non-formal musical learning
sectors are not always ‘joined up’, and discusses a debate that pitches ‘mu-
sic education’ from formal providers against ‘short-term musical kicks’
from non-formal providers. Youth Music20, through its strategic goals, is
attempting to bridge the gap between formal and non-formal providers to
ensure that those who can benefit from either provision are able to do so.
The aim of this research was to identify how formal and non-formal
providers could work together effectively to ensure equality of access to
progressive musical learning for children and young people. It was ex-
pected that this aim could be achieved through four further objectives:
o the investigation of the outcomes of musical learning that take place in
formal and non-formal settings (for children and young people, the work-
force, and the settings);
o the identification of issues experienced by schools and non-formal music
organisations in working together;
o the exploration of the effects of ‘joining up’ the musical offer from schools
and non-formal music organisations on musical, personal, social and edu-
cational outcomes;
o the recommendation on further empirical work exploring the objectives
above.
20 Established in 1999, Youth Music is a national charity that is committed to providing
quality musical experiences to young people.
34 | Saunders & Welch
2.2 Research methodology
The methodology for the Communities of Music Education research project
consisted of the following two elements21:
(i) Reviewing the published literature relating to music education in
formal and non-formal contexts. In addition to a review of previous find-
ings, this considered the formation of a musical identity in adolescents and
the impact of this on young people’s ability to engage with different musi-
cal learning contexts. It also reviewed the influences on the formation of
musical and pedagogical identities of music leaders working in non-formal
contexts;
(ii) Conducting three case studies of non-formal music providers rep-
resenting a variety of relationships with formal providers.
The intention of the research project was to gather information from a
wide circle of stakeholders. The individual paths of the research differed
according to context, but, broadly, adhered to the same overall design. An
initial period of fieldwork in each setting was used to explore initial rela-
tionships and interview key members and users of the organisations.
Emergent themes from the initial analysis were used to create research
tools that were used during a second period of fieldwork. The second,
longer period of fieldwork, working alongside the providers allowed the
researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the context.
During fieldwork visits, the researcher undertook:
(i) Semi-structured interviews - Each case comprised the non-formal
music provider (identified by Youth Music). Within each case, key indi-
viduals were identified from different groups of stakeholders. In the first
instance, (exploratory fieldwork) semi-structured interviews were carried
out with these individuals with a view to uncovering pertinent issues for
working successfully in partnership. It was expected that these may include
aspects such as training, funding, evaluation, communication, and liaison.
The number of key individuals varied according to the context of the case
provider.
(ii) Observation of workshop sessions – previous research suggests that
there are observable characteristics of more effective and less effective
learning and teaching in music by formal providers (Saunders et al., 2011).
Timed observations of both learner and teacher activities were made over
the duration of a workshop, detailing the interaction between individuals
and levels of engagement. The main foci of the observations of the practi-
tioner included: (i) effective planning and setting of objectives; (ii) teach-
ing methods that enabled the young people to learn effectively; (iii) ques-
tioning techniques; (iv) provision of feedback; (v) provision of a plenary;
21 This research has been conducted according to BERA guidelines (see
http://www.bera.ac.uk/files/2011/08/BERA-Ethical-Guidelines-2011.pdf)
Communities of Music Education | 35
(vi) musical behaviours, and (vii) organisation of resources. There were 26
categories of young people activity, with the provision to add novel activi-
ties if necessary. These were compared with previous (Saunders et al.,
2011) and ongoing research in other settings in order to explore potential
commonalities and differences between music education in formal and
non-formal contexts.
(iii) Identification of participants for the completion of self-perception
rating scales - to indicate the emergent musical identity/preferred musical
learning style of young people participating in the non-formal music pro-
vision. Where possible, these were compared with findings from young
people participating in the formal provision of music education.
36 | Saunders & Welch
2.3 Research schedule
The fieldwork phase of the research was undertaken from March to June
2011. Initial visits to each case established working relationships, further
explained the research questions and identified the key members of staff.
Additional site visit included conversations and interviews with staff, tours
of facilities, attendance and/or observations of workshops.
Communities of Music Education | 37
2.4 Data Analysis
(i) Semi-structured interviews
Notes were taken of conversations with participants and from these,
emergent themes noted and discussed with the participants during subse-
quent meetings. Sections of the draft report were provided so that the key
members of staff could check for clarity and accuracy of message. Subse-
quent changes were made to the text in negotiation with the participants.
(ii) Observation of workshop sessions
The observations schedules22 were used to record the micro-events of
the session over time. For both the young person and practitioner observa-
tion schedules, activities witnessed were recorded at one minute intervals,
allowing more than one activity to be recorded during any one minute.
Following the session, each record of activity was coded according to a
colour (for example, all observations of the practitioner singing or playing
an instrument were coloured bright red). This created a visual record of
the activities played out over time (see Figure 4, below). Running through
each record were ‘ribbons’ of colour, showing the dominant activities ob-
served within the session.
Time%in%minutes
10
20
30
40
50
Attentive'(static)
Active'participation
Imitating
YP'shared'thinking
YP'leading/demonstrating
YP'listening'to'peers'perform
YP#singing/playing
Practitioner%singing/playing
Recap,previous,lesson
Intro',learning,objective,(LO)
Place,learning,in,wider,context
Plan,for,needs,of,IEP,pupils
Outline,success,criteria
Practitioner,modelling/scaffolding
Sets,challenging,tasks,related,to,LO
Explaining
Questioning,pupil,K,open
Questioning,pupil,K,closed
Diagnostic,feedback,(oral)
Enables,peer,assessment
Enables,self,assessment
Asks,pupil,to,demonstrate,LO
Achievements,celebrated
Lessons,placed,in,context,
Conducts/directs,rehearsal
Communicates,enthusiasm
Listening,to,singing/playing
Organising,Young,People
Organising,technology
Organising,room/furniture
Time%in%minutes
10
20
30
40
50
Additional%Musical%
Behaviours
Classroom%Organisation
Young#Person#Engagement
Young#Person#Behaviour
Effective%Planning%&%Setting%
of%Objectives
Effective%Teaching%Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Plenary
Figure 4: Colour coded record of observable activities by practitioner and young people.
Further to this pattern of activity over time, explanatory notes were
added that sought to describe the interactions between the practitioner
and the young people, and reveal both the shape and pace of the session.
22 See appendix 2 for the practitioner version of the observation schedule and appendix 3 for
the young person’s version of the observation schedule.
Communities of Music Education | 39
3. Communities
of Music
Education:
‘Joining Up’ the
Musical Offer
The following section is an initial exploration of the themes and issues
that arise when the non-formal and formal sectors of musical learning
work in partnership. For each of the three cases (see Section 3.1., 3.2. and
3.3. below) the definition of ‘partnership’ is different; the opportunities for
‘joining up’ the musical offer dependent upon a complex web of stakehold-
ers.
Throughout the extended semi-structured interviews, three issues be-
came very clear. These relate to each of the three different settings:
(i) The organisation of music provision (across non-formal and formal
sectors) is multifaceted, complex, increasingly competitive and currently
facing a wave of upheaval and reorganisation. These are challenging times.
Despite this, each of the participants were adamant that an increasingly
‘joined up’ musical provision would be a positive move forward for the
young people involved;
(ii) Any possible solutions and methods of working to ‘join up’ the mu-
sical offer would need to take into account the particular requirements of
the locality and the young people that they serve. There was a concern that
‘one size fits all’ structures may cause irreparable damage; these providers
perceived themselves to be highly skilled in creating tailor-made solutions
within their local contexts. This is not to suggest that best practice cannot
be shared, or that further guidance is not needed, but simply to highlight
the depth and breadth of knowledge that these providers have of music
provision and young peoples’ needs in their own areas;
(iii) There is a confusion amongst music education providers that
40 | Saunders & Welch
stems from the discourse surrounding ‘community music’ and the non-
formal sector. Terms and labels are insufficiently precise or overlap. This is
not a new phenomenon, but can hamper clarity in communication be-
tween partners.
Communities of Music Education | 41
3.1 Communities of Music Education: Identifying the Issues for
Case One
As Strategic Director (SD)23 of a Youth Music Action Zone serving the
South East region, the interviewee was able to describe in detail both the
structural and educational impact of working in partnership with different
stakeholders. A thoughtful yet pragmatic approach to her work allowed
her to reflect upon both the past experiences and concrete ways to improve
future partnerships.
3.1.1 Communication across communities of Music Education
An aspect of organisation that was felt to impact upon communication
within and across the communities of Music Education relates to venue
ownership. Dependent on hiring external venues across the region to
house the sessions, each of the practitioners would visit multiple sites dur-
ing the working week. SD was concerned that this made it ‘less likely to
bring all of the tutors together’ on a regular basis, making transfer of profes-
sional practice and the everyday communication that occurs between col-
leagues less frequent. This issue was, where practicable, being partially
addressed by establishing desks within host institution offices that provid-
ed a central point of contact, expert advice and a friendly face. These mu-
sic practitioners’ posts were largely part time.
SD was particularly skilled in giving voice to the ongoing debate con-
cerning terminology. She described a tendency for non-formal provision to
be seen ‘against formal’ provision and that the term ‘community’ was seen
to have ‘happy clappy’ overtones that undermined the value and expertise of
those involved. The discourse surrounding ‘community music’ was, she
explained ‘not developed enough’ and to describe the provision as non-
formal was to label it according ‘to what it isn’t, not what it is.’
Problems have also arisen in terms of the amount of detail a school
provides about a scheme of work when asking the provider to provide ‘one
off sessions’ SD explained, describing a Primary school that had planned
an ‘African week’. Brought in at the last minute, with little background
information, the Nigerian drummer had arrived to find that the school
enjoying ‘Tanzania week.’ Had she had the detailed information, SD knew
that she could have provided a musician with exactly the right expertise to
provide an authentic, geographically appropriate musical experience that
suited the pupils needs.
Information had also been difficult to obtain regarding the Special Ed-
ucational Needs of the pupils. Schools had under reported the extent of
23 For ease of reference, each of the participants are referred to by the initial letters of their
given job title.
42 | Saunders & Welch
special needs within a class. SD thought that schools feared that ‘it will put
you off the work, but it is better to have more information and then you can plan
for it.’ As a consequence of the lack of information SD added, she ‘needed
tutors who can improvise a lesson according to the needs and abilities of the
young people in front of them. Planning and outcomes are dependent on the
quality of the music experience.’ However, planning for outcomes within an
improvised session is an additional burden for the practitioner already
forced to ‘think on their feet.’
Staff within the schools often approached the provider with a confused
understanding of the differences between technology based provision and
instrumental provision. At Secondary level in particular, SD found that
the young people were ‘very clear about what they want, but the teachers
aren’t.’ However, in a school setting, the ‘teacher interprets what pupils want
and you can’t always talk with the pupils before [hand].’ In this case, it would
seem to be a breakdown in communication within the formal sector (pupil
and teacher dialogue) as well as between sectors (formal and non-formal).
In some of the least successful circumstances, SD described how an enthu-
siastic Head teacher might invite the non-formal practitioner into a
school. However, on the day ‘no-one knows why you’re there... pupils are
timetabled for something else... you’ve worked through the outcomes with the
Head but the teacher doesn’t know... the young people are not prepared for a
change in the day and the disturbance is more than some young people can cope
with...’ In the best cases, SD counters, ‘the young people are involved with
the planning and know [what is planned] ahead of time.’ In both of the above
examples, it would seem of paramount importance that needs of the young
people are positioned at the centre of decisions made so as to take into
account their preferences and prepare them so that they are more able to
get the best out of the session. In addition, further planning between staff
within the school is required in order to agree a statement of aims and
outcomes from the contracted external organisation. A formalised state-
ment of this type would aid communication within the school, as well as
with partners working beyond the school context.
3.1.2 Co-operation across communities of Music Education
Partnerships between formal and non-formal providers tended, in her ex-
perience, to work best ‘when they approach us – then we’re starting from a
positive.’ The strongest examples existed where the ‘teacher we’re working
with actually wants to work with us.’
Issues concerning the hourly pay rate of the non-formal practitioners
could cause resentment amongst formal sector (usually salaried) teachers.
‘They’re surprised by what we pay our staff; schools often find the hourly rate
expensive.’ Such misunderstandings based on a seeming inequality of hour-
Communities of Music Education | 43
ly rates could feed negatively into other aspects of working relationships.
Working in partnership with schools (formal provision) brought with
it a particular set of demands in terms of co-operation. These demands
included (i) the provision of suitable ‘spaces’ for the intervention, (ii) the
provision of appropriate staffing to support the intervention, and the need
for (iii) an agreement of terms under which the intervention would take
place. Often, SD described, practitioners were asked to carry out their
sessions in the classroom setting, where noise from surrounding classes or
the restricted space for movement impinged on their work. There was a
need for schools, where possible to appreciate and facilitate the different
ways of working that the non-formal practitioners embraced. Practical
issues concerning working with and in schools included ‘restrictions in
timetabling’ and the effect that the structure of the school day had on the
music provision. For example, she described how they were able to use the
‘school hall for workshops, but had to pack it all away at lunchtime.’ Sessions
provided for whole classes have also created issues for the non-formal
practitioners. SD felt that thirty pupils was in some cases too many, as
often ‘the teacher and TAs would disappear.’ This would have implications
for the practitioners in terms of behaviour management and the use of
appropriate sanctions. In an effort to address these issues, SD encouraged
schools to agree by email the terms upon which a practitioner would visit,
in particular to address the issues concerning venue and staffing. However,
the school’s initial approach to SD was often ‘so last minute that we don’t
have time.’ SD later acknowledged that these issues relating to (i) the pro-
vision of suitable ‘spaces’ for the intervention and (ii) the provision of ap-
propriate staffing to support the intervention used to be more of a problem
than it was now as ‘schools are more used to having artists in school’ and in-
creasingly understood the difference in both approach and needs and by so
doing, ‘they can see the value.’
Keen to establish new ways of working with partners, SD was working
with music therapists to ascertain where overlaps occur, ways that the pro-
vider could work differently and where they could work together. She felt
that music therapists had previously seen the work completed by her staff
to be ‘a watered down version of music therapy,’ whereas she felt there more
similarities than differences. ‘In a traditional music therapy setting’ she ex-
plained, the therapists ‘work with people with disabilities’ whilst in a ‘tradi-
tional community music setting, the musicians may work with young offenders.’
There was, she argued, a potential overlap between these two approaches
suited to the needs of those young people accessing children and adoles-
cent mental health services.
SD felt that positive steps were being made towards adopting best
practice, irrespective of the formal/non-formal label. She described how
the ‘lines were blurring between the different types of practice’, as provision
44 | Saunders & Welch
was increasingly based around the needs of the user group rather than the
preferred working style or context of the provider. This included, in their
area, the local music services staff undertaking sessions that conformed
more to the non-formal model of provision for some vulnerable young
people such as looked after children.
One factor that arose during the discussion was the impact of direct
funding on a provider’s ability to work across different partnerships. There
was the potential to ‘overlook the wider picture’ when, as a result of direct
funding, a provider was able to feed into partnerships beyond the immedi-
ate scope of the funding.
Strong working relationships had been fostered with the research team
of Youth Music, resulting in a positive impact on their way of working.
SD felt that, as a result of ‘feeding into a bigger picture,’ the research and
evaluation work undertaken had ‘led to a more critical dialogue around our
work.’
3.1.3 The Outcomes of Music Provision
One of the most passionately stated points SD made, with reference to
outcomes as a result of music provision, was the need to relate the im-
portance and value attributed to the outcomes to the individual young per-
son undergoing the experience. She described how, in some cases, the out-
come ‘can be tiny, but really signi ficant. It can be a hand opening; it can be
sitting still for a moment.’
One aspect of provision that was thought to impact on how outcomes
could be agreed between partners was the influence of a dedicated rehears-
al space24. The provider occupied administrative offices in a prominent
position in the city centre. All sessions were organised in a variety of ven-
ues across the region. Although this was thought to support equality of
access, SD questioned the extent to which the aims of the host venue im-
pacted upon the aims and outcomes of the session and remarked that, in
some ways, a dedicated rehearsal space within which to work would ‘be
easier.’
Issues concerning the language of outcomes included the problems
that non-formal practitioners have experienced communicating with
school teachers. Some non-formal practitioners ‘don’t necessarily know the
National Curriculum’ SD explained ‘and some don’t read music.’ A music
24 In the two other cases (see Section 3.2. and 3.3) the provider has office and administrative
premises located within the same building as rehearsal and recording studios. Young people
become habituated to visiting one building to receive a high proportion of their contact with
the provider. The beneficial effect of permanent housing for young peoples’ music provision,
as opposed to a series of hired venues, may in some cases, especially for the vulnerable, be
profound (see Section 5.1, where one of the young people describes the building as a ‘second
home.’)
Communities of Music Education | 45
practitioner ‘may not use the same language musically, so misunderstandings
arise.’ SD went on to describe how they were ‘working to demystify music
theory’ in order to alleviate some of these issues.
3.1.4 Summary of Findings for Case One
SD and the staff employed in the South East region are already working
hard to address many of the issues that have arisen during their partner-
ships with the formal sector of music education. They are addressing
knowledge gaps in their music practitioners; they are liaising with school
staff to try and ensure the best provision for the pupils and increase the
likelihood of positive outcomes. They see themselves as working work
hard to push forward their own and others understanding of what they do
and what quality music education might look like. They are already active-
ly seeking further partnerships with external organisations and seem to
have established a blueprint through the maintenance of ongoing success-
ful partnerships that will stand them in good stead for the future.
46 | Saunders & Welch
3.2 Communities of Music Education: Identifying the Issues for
Case Two
As Programme Manager (PM) of a Youth Music Action Zone serving the
Thanet region, the interviewee was able to describe in detail both the
structural and educational impact of working in partnership with different
stakeholders. He displayed a passionate belief in his work and a commit-
ment to enabling young people to gain experience of a wide range of urban
music as well as preparing them for the world of work. He was open and
honest about past experiences working with the formal sector and used
these experiences to inform current practice.
3.2.1 The Potential Effects of a ‘Joined Up’ Musical Provision
PM expressed some concern that the joining up of formal (school) and
non-formal provision might resemble fitting a ‘square peg in a round hole,’
especially if such a partnership was founded by ‘adopting ground rules from
the school ethos.’ This doubt arose from an understanding that the two sec-
tors stem from a fundamentally different ‘understanding of how to teach
young people.’ Some schools were described as having a ‘consistent approach’
to young people across the age groups, irrespective of the subject. PM de-
scribed how some experiences of teaching in the formal sector had led to
negative feedback from other teaching staff in the school; the style of
learning and ‘way of being’25 introduced by PM had ‘negatively impacted on
learning in other lessons.’ The young people, once introduced to a different
‘way of being’ within the non-formal context had found it difficult to read-
just back to the ‘consistent approach.’ In short, they had seemed rowdy, talk-
ative, and challenging. PM described how the teaching style adopted in
non-formal provision was not one a ‘school was able to adopt.’
Where PM had worked with schools that shared a similar understand-
ing, there had been ‘really productive workshops’ in which ‘other members of
staff were feeding into the process’ and in turn participation in the workshops
had ‘fed into other things that the staff did.’ In these cases, the only issues
that could undermine the success of the partnership were based around a
‘lack of planning and agreement.’ Here, PM described how insufficient
planning and agreement about the aims and outcomes of a workshop
could adversely affect the quality of workshop delivery and be ‘disconcerting
for the young people involved.’
PM described how he (and the other staff) were ‘prepared to be the most
flexible element in any partnership with statutory bodies,’ since what was of
25 See Section 4.5 for a discussion relating to the ‘ways of being’ and learning styles observed
within case study workshops. See Section 1.2 (1.2.1 and 1.2.2) for a brief discussion of the
traditional approaches to learning and teaching in formal and non-formal contexts.
Communities of Music Education | 47
importance was the provision of a ‘quality musical experience’ for the young
people involved. From his point of view, it was vital to be able to find a
‘way into the infrastructure’ of a school so as to best understand the context.
He acknowledged the specialist expertise that Secondary school music
teachers possessed in specific areas of their subject. However, he also un-
derstood that with one music teacher within a school setting, it was also
likely that any teacher would have gaps in their knowledge or experience.
PM described how there could be strength in a ‘patchwork provision;’
where the non-formal provider could fill the knowledge gaps by providing
specialist input in areas beyond the experience of the school music teach-
er26.
3.2.2 The Necessary Changes for a Successful ‘Joined Up’ Provision
PM perceived there to be two main changes necessary in order for a joined
up provision between formal and non-formal sectors to work successfully.
Firstly, PM described how schools needed to be ‘more open minded about
external provision.’ Secondly, his organisation needed to ‘be able to explicitly
describe what they can achieve’ when working with young people. In addi-
tion, the music practitioners working in the non-formal sector needed to
‘have a level of understanding and ability’ that enabled them to ‘deliver
workshops in school’ and understand the ‘basics of different learning styles.’ He
argued that there was a need for the ‘accreditation of workshop leaders work-
ing in the school sector’ as well as ‘better provision of training for Primary school
music teachers.’ PM proposed that through the additional training in and
awareness of each sector’s different approach, partnerships between them
could be made to work at a higher level. He described the need for INSET
provision, or experience during the NQT year for all Primary teachers, and
especially those taking on music co-ordinator roles. This provision would
address the use of ‘the arts as a tool for engaging’ young people. As such, the
workshops in schools could ‘support learning up to and including Key Stage
3,’ as well as supporting pupils in taking GCSE courses and those ‘consid-
ering career choices in the music industry.’ In addition, there was always scope
for ‘fun experiences’ in which the young people could ‘experience total immer-
sion into an activity’ and enjoy ‘the kinaesthetic feedback of physical learning.’
PM considered how the continued ‘blurring of boundaries’ between
26 The struggle to maintain and understand contemporary music resources has been described
within formal music education as an endless battle as ‘many subjects, both academic and
vocational, change so rapidly that often motivated students, with access to the latest infor-
mation via the Web, know as much or more than the teacher’ (Harkin et al., 2001: 31). It is
‘notoriously difficult for teachers to know more than students about popular music’ and to
persuade the students that ‘what teachers know is more and important’ (Richards, 1998:17).
For many music teachers working in the secondary school context this may present ‘a formi-
dable challenge to their professional identity,’ both as musicians and as teachers (Harkin et
al., 2001: 31).
48 | Saunders & Welch
the formal and the non-formal sector had exciting possibilities. He
acknowledged that music was an ‘intertwined element of a young person’s life’
and ‘a fundamental strand of who they are.’ Music Education according to
his understanding was ‘not just about learning musical skills but understand-
ing the young people’s musical culture.’ The balance between musical skills
and the understanding of musical culture was largely ‘overlooked in the for-
mal sector.’ It was his suggestion that there was a need to ‘implement path-
ways from nursery provision upwards’ to support the development of the
musical identity early on. He spoke of how there was ‘a natural attraction
between music and young people’ and that while the musical experiences
needed to be of a high quality, thus ‘ensuring that the young people learn
musical skills’ they should also enjoy themselves. Music, he argued, ‘was the
vehicle on which to travel to somewhere else.’
PM also described the need to address each context and each formal
provider as a ‘unique partnership,’ encouraging each side to consider the
strengths of the other. Short term provision ‘could cause damage’ if the pro-
vider ‘parachuted in without an exit strategy.’ There was a need to consider
the lasting impact of a short term project. ‘Would changing the learning ex-
perience of the young people for a brief period’ be in their best interests?
3.2.3 The Defence of a Discrete Non-formal Provision
Whilst PM considered there to be numerous potential benefits to ‘joined
up’ provision, he also acknowledged the strength of discrete non-formal
provision that they were able to provide within their organisation. This
included some particularly successful intervention projects, such as a vehi-
cle fitted out as a mobile recording unit. At the request of the police, or
local neighbourhoods, this vehicle was driven to a street where groups of
young people were seen to be gathering and perceived to be a problem.
Offered the chance to create a track and have the finished product sent to
their mobile phones, this intervention was a key method of dissipating
potential gang issues and engaging young people in musical activities27.
PM valued the ability for the organisation to be able to attend any
venue and ‘remote deliver’ services and yet also be able to plan and deliver pro-
jects that used their ‘own spaces, like the recording studio.’ It created a ‘context
that the young person could connect with and feel safe in.’ The ‘young people had
decorated the walls of the venue’, been able to ‘share positive experiences’ that
they remembered having within the building and ‘relive these experiences.’
27 Such short term interventions have been questioned as to their ability to create meaningful
outcomes, and the part they play in terms of a continuing musical education (Creech,
2010:326). However, in conversation, this provider was adamant that such short term inter-
ventions provided a ‘hook’ that allowed a young person to momentarily re-engage with learn-
ing and achieving. As such, this ‘hook’ had the potential to draw the young person towards
future longer term commitments.
Communities of Music Education | 49
The shared concept of the building as a positive and nurturing space for
the young people to make use of, was, he felt, an important element of the
organisations provision.
3.2.4 The Outcomes of Music Provision
PM stressed that in every circumstance, the organisation aimed to gain a
musical outcome for the young person involved. This outcome might vary
according the length of time the young person spent with the organisation
and could vary from a recording of a track, a performance, to an accredita-
tion. In addition, PM argued for ‘musical experiences with transferable life
skills’ as well as ‘opening young people’s eyes to possible career paths and future
directions.’
3.2.5 Summary of Findings for Case Two
There has been a steep learning curve reported in the some of the partner-
ship working undertaken by PM and his organisation. However, the net
effect for the organisation and its staff has been the opportunity to reflect
and consolidate those aspects of music provision in which they excel. Sub-
sequent partnerships with the formal sector have included hugely success-
ful projects. Such successes do not just happen. They are built on a foun-
dation of experience, reflection, a willingness to adapt, a willingness to
learn and the ability to listen. There is a strong belief in music for music’s
sake within the organisation, as well as an aim, through quality musical
experiences to enhance young people’s life skills and life chances.
50 | Saunders & Welch
3.3 Communities of Music Education: Identifying the Issues for
Case Three
As Project Manager (PM) for the Youth Music Action Zone serving
Greater Manchester, the interviewee was able to describe in detail the
close working relationships that had developed over ten years of working
with partner organisations. She revealed an in-depth knowledge of the
musical opportunities provided throughout the city and spoke passionately
about the need to widen access wherever possible. In addition, the Direc-
tor of the company (D) was able to provide further details concerning both
the history and structure of the organisation, particularly related to issues
concerning strategy and provision within the city.
3.3.1 Communication across communities of Music Education
One element considered by D to be crucial in the ongoing success of the
company, was the creation of an overarching brand (Brighter Sound), un-
der which several different strands of music provision (including the Youth
Music Action Zone) could be organised. The branding was perceived to
be an effective signpost that provided ‘a means of talking about the company’
(D) as ‘a music hub for the city’ (D). The provider had created a very simple,
but effective overall model in which a series of ‘engagement projects’ fed into
central network of musical opportunities that continued throughout term
time and the holiday period. PM described how the ‘engagement projects
were seen as a stimulus to further progression routes’ within the musical offer.
D described a ‘strong relationship’ with the local music services, who acted
as a route into the schools. Communication between the organisations was
open and based upon an ‘unwritten understanding that they have strengths,
and so do we.’ The ability and openness to allow providers to work to their
strengths is underpinned by a strong working relationship developed over
a number of years and a continued ‘recognition that there is a need’ for the
skills that the non-formal specialists can provide in schools.
3.3.2 Co-operation across communities of Music Education
Across all elements of their non-formal provision, the provider stressed the
importance of ‘Engage, progress, achieve.’ In terms of their work to engage
young people, especially those in challenging circumstances, ‘On top of the
World’ was ‘a bespoke programme offering a first time opportunity for music
making’ for young people. This scheme ‘grew with the young people’ with
‘many returning participants’, some of whom were involved for 5 years or
more. Working alongside the Local Authority, housing trusts and Youth
Services (amongst others), the provider had initiated ‘strategic conversations
with the partners with funds’ (D) in order to address specific issues in the
Communities of Music Education | 51
locality. The ‘issues’ were ‘usually specific to a geographical area, such as Friday
night teenage drinking’ (D). Central to the success of this programme was
the way in which the young people were placed at the centre of decision
making. The provider organised a ‘period of consultation with the young peo-
ple’ (PM) after which they could work out expertise requirements. In addi-
tion, young people who sustained a commitment to the programme later
acted as ‘trainee deliverers’ giving them additional skills and experience.
Working with young people in challenging circumstances, PM de-
scribed how they were ‘building new local networks.’ Working specifically in
areas identified as having problems with knife crime, gang violence and
high levels of drug use, the provider offered engagement projects. In addi-
tion, they were planning how Youth Music mentors could ‘feed more effec-
tively into the programmes’ (PM).
Young people aged between 16-18 years old were identified as having
specific needs with regards to the transition between statutory education
and further career opportunities. PM described how, whilst they were ‘just
ambitions at the moment, they were making solid progress’ towards creating a
partnership with local colleges that enabled the company ‘to supply the nec-
essary accreditation to get young people onto the college courses.’ Through the
provision of City and Guilds (Sound Recording) or Gold level Arts
awards (attracting UCAS points), the provider was able to offer ‘stepping
stones for young people who may have become disengaged from the school con-
text,’ but be able to re-engage with the alternative curriculum of the local
colleges. PM described how they ‘were talking to secondary schools about the
breadth of their musical offer.’ Some schools in the locality had Arts College
status, but were in need of additional support, for example, in ‘the provision
of ensembles that are atypical, the need to widen the musical offer beyond the
traditional’ (PM). The collaboration with local schools also included
‘working with urban and rock artists to re-engage disaffected young people’
(PM).
Working in partnership with local primary and secondary schools, PM
spoke of a ‘transition model’ in which they were ‘bringing the non-formal
into the formal setting to try and re-engage Year 5 pupils in feeder primaries
and Year 7 pupils from the secondary schools...and their teachers.’ Working over
a 12 week period, PM highlighted the ‘huge commitment’ that pupils made
to the project, which, as after school provision, also required the young
person to stay in school all day. The focus for this project is those young
people ‘in danger of disaffection’ for whom the aim ‘is to re-engage them with
school’ through positive and enjoyable music experiences.
PM told of a programme designed at the request of a local music ser-
vice to provide a musical offer for ‘a group of fi fteen 9-10 year old boys at risk
of total disengagement’ (PM). Working at MCing and lyric writing, the
young people were encouraged to focus on the issues that were affecting
52 | Saunders & Welch
their experience in school, mainly those of literacy and concentration. The
young people thought of the programme as ‘a treat’, or time away from the
everyday problems of the classroom. However, by completing the pro-
gramme and performing as part of a local music service concert, the young
people were able to experience success and ‘re-engage with school life’ (PM).
3.3.3 The Outcomes of Music Provision
PM was proud to describe how much of the music created within the or-
ganisation was original and ‘comes directly from the young people’ (PM). Ex-
amples of this included a youth led recording project through which the
young people were shortly to release an album. The skills demonstrated by
the young people involved in the project stretched beyond the musical
ability needed to create the music, but also to issues relating to sound en-
gineering, organisation, management skills and design. In response to the
Olympic Programme in the North West, PM described how they had
instigated a ‘cultural Olympiad.’ Led by a ‘regional steering group of young
people’ to create ‘a youth led programme of events’ those individuals taking
part were able to gain a wide variety of skills and experiences. Young peo-
ple were trained over the course of a yearlong project to become independ-
ent researchers, others experienced the role of ‘creative producer’ (PM). In
addition to the practical experience and real life opportunities created, PM
described their ongoing commitment to providing training and accredita-
tion for the young people as well as signposting progression routes as they
move towards employment and career choices.
3.3.4 Summary of Findings for Case Three
The obvious strengths of Case Three as a provider of musical experiences
were three fold; (i) they were able to acknowledge their own strengths as
well as the strengths of other providers (whether formal or non-formal).
As a result, they demonstrated a secure understanding of how they could
best work in partnership with other organisations to enhance the musical
offer across different contexts and for different groups of young people, (ii)
they demonstrated a strategic understanding of the breadth of provision
within their geographical area and were proactive in addressing the per-
ceived gaps in provision. The staff at Case Three embraced change and
development and were eager to try new ways of working, and, (iii) they
worked hard to place the voice of the young people at the centre of their
work. This was most strongly evidenced during visits to the Case Provider,
in the everyday interactions with the young people who used the facilities,
one of whom described the building as her ‘second home.’
Communities of Music Education | 53
3.4 Effective Partnership working across Communities of Music
Education
The following list of potential benefits (and problems) of a joined up offer
of musical provision across communities of music education has been cre-
ated from the combined responses of the non-formal music provision that
experts described above (see Section 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3) and related to both
the twelve aspects of effective partnership working as suggested by Hallam
(2010) and the six aspects of effective community based music provision as
suggested by Robinson (1998).
3.4.1 Strategic and Delivery Functions
Working with partner organisations was seen to as a positive process, as
there were strengths in the ‘di fferent methods of delivery and ways of work-
ing.’28 Providers stated that there was not only a ‘huge amount to learn from
one another,’ but that they could achieve better ‘value for money’ through
the ‘sharing of resources.’ This was felt to be important as, through shared
resources (such as office space), partners would be able to communicate
more effectively and ‘find out about things by simply being there.’ In addition,
effective working between partners would enable the young people to gain
experience of a ‘variety of ways of working with music, outside the main-
stream’ of school music.
3.4.2 Leadership
As demonstrated by Case Provider Three, partner organisations should be
able to initiate and lead programmes according to the needs of the young
people. Those organisations with a secure understanding of their own
strengths and the strengths of others can more easily adopt sophisticated
models of leadership that enable different people to ‘lead at different times,
according to their skills and expertise’ (Hallam, 2010). Partner organisations
that are less able to do so ‘may increase the lead time before partners are able
to respond to changing circumstances.’
3.4.3 Membership
Within the networks of music providers, ‘the appropriate membership is crit-
ical to a partnership’s success’ (Hallam, 2010). Of key importance is the
membership of, or access to, those who are able to make decisions. All of
the members of staff cited above have roles on steering groups, advisory
panels or liaison roles that give them direct access to those who make deci-
28 Each of the extracts in italics is taken from the responses of the case providers (see Section
3.1, 3.2 and 3.3).
54 | Saunders & Welch
sions, or, in some cases, the power to make decisions themselves. In addi-
tion, established partnerships and trust between members of organisations
can ‘strengthen funding applications’ by drawing on the accumulated experi-
ence and knowledge.
3.4.4 Aims
In order for partners to work effectively together, the aims, objectives and
reason behind the partnership must be clear (Hallam, 2010). The case
providers reported that the process of working more closely together ‘push-
es the discourse and how sectors think and talk about what they do’ and by so
doing, refine and clarify their aims and objectives. Failure to do so and
’disagreeing can lead to not being able to move forward.’
3.4.5 Clarity of Roles
As with the aims of the partnership (see 3.4.4), the roles and responsibili-
ties of those within the partnership must be clarified explicitly (Hallam,
2010). Some of the case providers had suffered negative experiences with
partner organisations as a result of a misunderstanding of the others’ roles;
for example, practitioners working in school context without the class
teacher present to explain or impose sanctions. Mullen (2002:1) states
that, faced with the expectation of ‘teaching’ (in a formal sense), the ‘musi-
cian colludes unthinkingly with this perceived expectation.’ It is imperative
that in such situations each of the partner organisations understands the
part that they play; the musician, to provide a musical experience which
requires the ongoing support of the class teacher in order to best achieve
this. Some organisations create written agreements with all partner organi-
sations that state the expectations and roles involved (see Appendix 4).
3.4.6 Trust and Time
Trust is needed so that partners feel able to openly discuss issues, whilst
time is required to revisit aspects as needed and clarify issues for all con-
cerned (Hallam, 2010). Those case providers who reported repeatedly suc-
cessful programmes with partner organisations were those who had, over
an extended period of time, developed open and strong relationships. The
competitive nature of funding encouraged ‘some non-formal organisations
[to be] closed to dialogue and suspicious of sharing, as they are in competition
with one another.’ Some case providers felt that there were ‘assumptions and
stereotypes’ in existence about working practices and that there was a risk of
‘suspicion and competition amongst providers.’ In the examples given above
(see Section 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3) where working in partnership was less suc-
cessful, a key element underlying the variable success would seem to be a
Communities of Music Education | 55
lack to time. Some of these issues stem from those partnerships (particu-
larly with schools) that have an extended period of the year during which
staff cannot be contacted to finalise plans. Sufficient lead time must be
introduced into planning stages that allows for each of the partner organi-
sations to agree their aims and their roles well in advance of the beginning
of the programme.
3.4.7 High Quality Experience
The partnership must achieve in terms of delivery (Hallam, 2010). In sim-
ple terms, this refers to the number of young people who are able to par-
ticipate in high quality musical experiences, or the case providers’ ability to
‘engage children in active music making and the attainment of music literacy’
(Robinson, 1998:38). ‘Di fferent young people respond to different ways of
learning and one might get them hooked. It’s not just about pathways but also
how you initiate contact with them.’ The case providers felt that a joined up
approach is more likely to ensure that ‘provision isn’t replicated,’ that there
is ‘consistency of offer’ and that there are an increased number of ‘performance
opportunities.’
Delivery also includes ensuring that the professional development of
staff is monitored and supported (Hallam, 2010). Suggestions from the
participants in the research, that practitioners working in the non-formal
sector should have training with regards to the National Curriculum are in
accord with findings from the Music Leader research (Davies et al., 2007).
Findings from practitioners suggest that they felt knowledge of such texts
to be outside their responsibility. There is a need to ‘define common content
and teaching standards, but allow for diverse approaches and styles’ (Robinson,
1998:38). In order to address these issues ‘a new qualification should be de-
veloped for music educators, which would professionalise and acknowledge their
role in and out of school’ (DfE, 2011a:26)29.
3.4.8 Senior Managers
Aspects of communication, leadership and responsibilities apply equally to
the delivery stage of the project (Hallam, 2010). In the successful case
providers, management at all levels was reported to be a particular strength
of the organisation. This included not only the upper level of manage-
ment, dealing with strategic, leadership and funding issues, but also those
29 There is already an increasingly varied provision of qualifications and professional devel-
opment for musicians working in community music. Amongst these, Youth Music has been
instrumental in establishing a Music Leader network that supports the professional develop-
ment of musicians working in the formal and non-formal sector. In addition, foundation
degree level, undergraduate degree level, and Masters level qualifications in Community
Music are offered by HEIs across the country. Other music or performing arts based degrees
include community music as part of their courses.
56 | Saunders & Welch
with the day-to-day responsibility for the delivery of high quality musical
experiences. When describing less successful partnerships, the case provid-
ers highlighted the need for head teachers that show an initial interest in
programmes to identify a named member of staff who can take responsi-
bility for liaising with the partner organisations and by so doing ‘offer sup-
port for music that goes beyond rhetoric’ (Hallam and Creech, 2010:332).
3.4.9 Young People
In the best examples ‘young people themselves [are] able to contribute at all
stages’ (Hallam, 2010). Case providers describe how they consult with
young people at the earliest planning stages, how steering groups of young
people are formed and how the young people are trained to independently
evaluate the outcomes of the provision. Partners need to ensure that their
provision is ‘centred on the needs and interests of the learner’ (Robinson,
1998:38). The Case providers are ideally suited to doing this as through
‘being flexible both musically and socially, community music does not require
people to accommodate to some pre-existing format. It can devise tailor-made
programmes addressing the needs and preferences of specific groups’ (Koopman,
2007:154). At its best, it can ‘recognise the unique ways in which children
learn and adjust delivery methods accordingly’ (Robinson, 1998:38) and by so
doing, ‘help students develop a sense of personal and cultural identity through
music’ (op.cit).
3.4.10 Planning, Monitoring, Evaluation and Feedback
Time is required to plan, monitor, evaluate and feedback so as to ensure
best value for money and impact (Hallam, 2010). Each of the case provid-
ers works to ensure that each programme is evaluated and the findings fed
back so as to improve future developments. In partnerships, this must in-
clude all members so as to ensure that improvement is made across the
community. The success of planning, monitoring, evaluation and feedback
is, in part, dependent on established trust and sufficient time between
partners.
3.4.11 Communication with Potential Stakeholders
There is a need for partners to ‘create a vibrant musical culture in their com-
munity, involving children, parents, teachers, students, and all other interested
parties’ (Robinson, 1998:38). It has been noted that ‘often children do not
access opportunities to participate in music because their parents and carers are
unaware of the full range of activities offered by many different providers in
their locality’ (DfE, 2011a:28). Examples of best practice amongst case
providers are where this message is suitably simplified and conveyed on a
Communities of Music Education | 57
regular basis, ensuring that the most vulnerable or hard to reach young
people are included.
Communities of Music Education | 59
4. The
Outcomes of
Musical
Learning:
Session
Observations
Previous research suggests that there are observable characteristics of more
effective and less effective learning and teaching in music by formal pro-
viders (Saunders et al., 2010, Saunders et al., 2011). In these studies,
timed observations of both learner and teacher activities were made over
the duration of a classroom-based lesson, detailing the behaviours of the
individuals concerned. As part of the present research, this same technique
has been applied during the observations of workshops and sessions with
non-formal providers. Using the same framework in a different setting
allows the data to be compared with previous research (op.cit.) and also
ongoing research so as to explore the commonalities and differences be-
tween formal and non-formal contexts30.
The sessions observed below31, formed part of the everyday provision
30 The previous research cited focused predominately on the use of voice and the teaching
behaviours of adult practitioners as vocal leaders. Therefore, for the current research, the
research tool was amended so as to reflect differences in the teaching behaviours of instru-
mentalists. In addition, the previous research focused on horizontally grouped (age-based)
classes of young people, so, again, the research tool was adapted to accommodate the poten-
tial differences in the observations of vertically age grouped young people. Finally, the re-
search tool has previously been used predominantly within classroom settings, but the peda-
gogical approach of the practitioners observed varied widely. The aim of the observation is to
capture observable behaviours that can be compared across contexts.
31 One observation was made for Case Provider One. As this session was taken by two practi-
tioners who demonstrated different ways of working, their behaviours have been separated in
the analysis and presented as individual charts (see Section 4.1.1, Figure 1 and 2 and Section
60 | Saunders & Welch
of musical experiences within the different case study sites. To this end,
one of the case providers had, at short notice, to cancel the planned work-
shop32. Therefore, descriptions are given for two of the three cases.
The researcher sat in the sessions, adopting a position that allowed
them to observe both the session leader(s) and the young people, whilst
not disturbing the flow of the session and completed two observation
schedules (see Appendix 1 and 2) that recorded the micro-events of the
sessions as they unfolded. On the first observation schedule, the researcher
recorded the behaviour of the session leader33 for each minute of the ses-
sion. In order to capture the complexity of the session leader’s role, multi-
ple entries could be recorded during any one minute34. The elements of
the session that were focused on included the session leader’s demonstra-
tion of:
(i) Effective planning and setting of learning objectives;
(ii) Teaching methods that enabled the young people to learn effectively;
(iii) Questioning techniques;
(iv) Provision of feedback and assessment;
(v) Relating learning objectives to learning outcomes and the provision of a
plenary;
(vi) Singing/playing and associated musical behaviours.
Using the second observation schedule (see Appendix 2), the research-
er recorded the behaviours demonstrated by the young people taking part
in the session. There were 26 categories of a young person’s behaviour,
with the facility to add further categories as necessary. As with the leader
observation, a measure of young person behaviour was recorded for each
minute of the session. Together, the completed observation schedules de-
4.1.2, Figures 3 and 4). Three observations were made for Case Provider Three. As the prac-
titioners within these sessions either worked alone, or when team teaching, worked in very
similar ways, each session is presented without separating the practitioners in the analysis (see
Section 4.1.3, Figures 5 and 6. Section 4.1.4, Figures 7 and 8, Section 4.1.5, Figures 9 and
10). In addition, one workshop was attended (Case Three) without a formal observation
schedule being completed, allowing the researcher time to watch and appraise the musical
experience. Findings from this workshop are reported as a series of descriptions only (see
Section 4.1.6).
32 In this instance, the Case provider had experienced some difficulties with the young people
committing to attending regularly and punctually, and had, as a result, cancelled one work-
shop, and subsequently delayed the beginning of a course rather than run the series of work-
shops with poor attendance levels.
33 For clarity, observations made in the formal sector use the terms ‘teacher’ or ‘vocal leader’
to describe the adult practitioner, and ‘pupil’ to describe the learner. Observations made in
the non-formal sector use the terms ‘session leader/practitioner’ to describe the adult practi-
tioner and ‘young person/people’ to describe the learner.
34 Multiple entries within any one minute of observation were common, with many of the
session leaders carrying out a number of musical and pedagogical activities, such as, for ex-
ample, directing the rehearsal with the nod of a head, modelling the down beat with a tap-
ping foot, modelling the melody on the guitar and acknowledging the achievement of the
improvisation of a young person with a smile.
Communities of Music Education | 61
tailed both the behaviours of, and interactions between, the session leaders
and young people. The following charts (see Figure 5 onwards), illustrate
some of the diversity of approaches adopted by the session leaders in creat-
ing successful musical experiences.
62 | Saunders & Welch
4.1 Evidence of ‘good practice’ in session leadership
In the following analysis of the observed sessions, each chart (see Figures 5
through to 14, below) presents a central ‘ribbon’ of colour that indicates
how much of the session the young people (shown in orange) and the ses-
sion leaders (shown in red) were singing/playing. In each pair of charts,
the first displays the detailed pattern of activity over time. In the second of
each pair, the detailed patterns are supplemented with explanatory notes,
which, along with the descriptive text, begin to reveal the shape and pace
of the session observed35.
4.1.1 Practitioner I (Case Provider One) undertaking Live Band Workshop
The session leader taking this 2 hour workshop acted in partnership with
another practitioner36. The first hour of the workshop is shown below (see
Figure 5) so as to make comparisons between sessions more clear. Based in
a mobile classroom of a Special school for 11 to 16 year olds, this session
provided musical experiences for pupils in Year 10 with special educational
needs37. On the day of the observation, two young people (one male, one
female) attended for the duration of the session, with a third young person
(male) arriving for the final 45 minutes of the session38. The session leader
played guitar and provided technical support via a laptop and recording
equipment. The first section of the session comprised a short spoken in-
troduction, sufficient only to introduce the researcher to the group and
establish the learning objectives of the session. The leader played the
group a recording of the work that they had completed during the previous
session and linked these achievements with the new material. A short me-
lodic line from the new song was played by the session leader and briefly
put into historical context. When the song was introduced, the young
people had initially reacted negatively, stating that they ‘don’t like singing’,
but recordings of previous sessions revealed all members of the group us-
ing their voices successfully. One young person played drums and another
35 For each of the observed sessions, particular strengths demonstrated by the session practi-
tioner are highlighted at the end of each description. Each list is not exhaustive, but rather
reflects those aspects of the session felt to be most successful within that particular context.
These lists feed into the final list of characteristics (see Section 4.2).
36 See Section 4.1.2 for the analysis of Practitioner II working in Case 1. The practitioners in
this session have been treated separately as they demonstrated different ways of working
within the session.
This Special school caters for young people with Autism and associated communication and
language difficulties (ACLD).
37 This Special school caters for young people with Autism and associated communication
and language difficulties (ACLD).
38 This low level of attendance was described as unusual. Both the practitioners and the con-
tact member of staff had expected to see a higher number of young people attend the session.
The low attendance was reported as being caused as a result of a school trip to London that
had returned the young people to the school site later than expected.
Communities of Music Education | 63
played the keyboard (a monosynth that by design allowed the performer to
concentrate on the right hand only, using the left hand to experiment with
the pitch and timbre of the sound). The session leader continued to play
the melodic line or model an appropriate rhythm for the drummer, ena-
bling the young people to begin to master their parts. The constant mod-
elling of the melodic line was interspersed with reinforcement of the suc-
cess criteria.
As the session progressed, the session leader increasingly asked the
young people to demonstrate the melody or the rhythm and, as they were
more able to do so, lead the performance. Specific praise was given when
the young person was successful. Oral feedback was particularly strong
during this session, for example when the leader was able to create small
but specific steps for improvement that the young person was able to im-
plement immediately. The session leader was reactive to the process of
learning and able to provide verbal scaffolding that helped the young per-
son to progress. A constant musical loop (using ICT to create a drum
track), supplemented by the practitioner’s playing, created a sonic back-
drop against which the young people could master the material and begin
to improvise. Positive shaping provided by the session leader in response
to mistakes made by the young person encouraged the keyboard player to
repeat the ‘mistakes’ as a beginning to a solo. Making these potential ‘mis-
takes’ into positive learning points created a supportive atmosphere in
which the visible anxiety of one of the young people, who stopped and
commented negatively about his ability each time he deviated from the
melody, decreased over the duration of the workshop. The musical loop
was mirrored by a cyclical pattern of verbal and musical reinforcement of
the success criteria. This interwoven pattern of talk and modelling created
a high energy session in which the young people were observed to achieve
much, both musically and socially.
After approximately 20 minutes of the session (see Figure 5 and 6, be-
low) the session leader shifted the pace of the session slightly so as to cre-
ate an extended period in which the young people were allowed to practise
and master the musical material without overt intervention. The session
leader maintained a musical backdrop, developing a more complex and
thickly textured accompaniment in response to the second practitioner
playing the electric bass. Watching the young people, it became obvious
that they were able to use this time to make connections for themselves,
working in and through the music. The session leader made a note of the
verse and chorus structure on the interactive whiteboard. After a pause in
the performance from the young people, taking time to explain the musical
structure, both of the young musicians responded that they didn’t want to
read about ‘how’ it went, but rather ‘to get on and do it’. The young people
were able to recognise that physical repetition and forming an underlying
64 | Saunders & Welch
kinaesthetic memory was the best (and most enjoyable) way for them to
learn. The strength of the musical communication between the two practi-
tioners was a valuable asset during the session. The constant repetition of
the melody may have become dull and uninspiring for the young people,
but instead, the two practitioners were able to bounce simple ideas from
one another and maintain a high level of creative energy and impetus.
They were also able to work from the ideas and ‘mistakes’ of the young
people to demonstrate that they valued their contributions. For a final
section of the session (when the third young person had arrived) the ses-
sion leader acted as sound engineer making recordings of the progress and
achievements made. In addition, the session leader supported a young per-
son to use the ICT and to develop an understanding of both the recording
process and the equipment used. During this time, the session leader
helped the young person with aspects of literacy as well as recording. Each
of the young musicians took turns to perform the part that they had prac-
tised, while the others assisted in the recordings. The session leader was
able to use the ICT fluidly, talking through the process and adjusting the
equipment, whilst maintaining the focus of the young people. During
their recordings, the young people were focussed and respectful, highlight-
ing the successes in one another’s performances. When recorded, the
group decided which of the takes was the best version and would be used
to create a loop. Each of the loops was layered to create a recording that
celebrated the best that they had achieved within the session. This was a
highly successful and immediate way of celebrating and valuing the
achievements of the young people.
Particularly successful elements demonstrated by Practitioner I in the
session included:
(i) The seamless integration of ICT into the learning experience, sup-
porting and scaffolding the young people through the recording and loop-
ing of tracks, linking previous recordings of achievements with the lesson
objectives and, later, reviewing recordings to relate learning outcomes to
learning objectives.
(ii) The subtle adaptation of teaching style to suit the needs of the
young people with learning disabilities. There was a high degree of di-
rected input, frequently repeated so as to ensure that the learning objec-
tives were clear and uppermost in the young people’s minds. The pace of
progression was relatively slow, enabling the young people to absorb new
material. In short, more time was given over to achieve smaller, more con-
crete steps in learning.
Communities of Music Education | 65
LiveBand(Practit ionerI) Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
60
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstr ating
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedsof IEPpupils
Outlinesuc cesscriteria
Practitioner modelling/scaff olding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
QuestioningYPopen
Questionin gYPclosed
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
AsksYPt odemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningtos inging/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
60
YoungPerson
Behaviour
YoungPerson
Engagement
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
Classroom
Organisation
EffectivePlanning&
Settingof
Objectives
EffectiveTeaching
Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Plenary
Figure 5: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner I from Case One undertaking live band workshop
66 | Saunders & Welch
LiveBand(Practit ionerI) Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
60
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstra ting
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedsof IEPpupils
Outlinesucc esscriteria
Practitioner modelling/scaffo lding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
QuestioningYPopen
Questionin gYPclosed
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
AsksYPt odemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningtos inging/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
60
Plenary
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
Classroom
Organisation
YoungPerson
Engagement
YoungPerson
Behaviour
EffectivePlanning&
Settingof
Objectives
EffectiveTeaching
Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Settingclear
learningobjectives
(LO)forthesession
andpositioningLO
withinreallife
situations.
Quicklyestablishespattern inwhich
youngpersondemonstrates
masteryofthemusicalmaterial and
ispromptlypraisedfordoingso.
Careful,specificexplanation of
theaimsofthesessionand
howtoachievethem.
Reinforcedreg ularly
throughouttheearlysection
ofthesession.
In additiontodiagnostic
feedback,practitionerprovides
positivefeedbackthroughbody
languagewithbothfellow
practitionerandyoungpeople
throughoutsession.
Subtle,butvitaluseof
technologytosupport
musicians andproviderecord
ofprogress ov ert ime.
Specific, tightlybound
feedbackthatfocuseson
improvingonesmallelement
ofperformanceprovided
throughoutthesession.
Practitionerplays guitarthroughout
thesession,providingmelodicand
rhythmicsupportforthedrummer
(YP)andkeyboardplayer(YP),pausing
onlytosupportlearning,repair
equipmentororganiseICT.
Throughoutthesession,
practitionerconstantlymodels
themusicaltheme,modelsthe
downbeatforthedrummer
andsupportsYPwhentheyare
'lost'.
Initialperiodwhere
YPareableto
absorbwhat they
willachieveduring
thesession.
Pattern establishedinwhichtheYP
areaskedtoleadtherehearsal,
demonstratemasteryofthe
materialandbegintoimprovise.
Extendedperiod ofconcentrated engagementby bothYP
astheymasternewskills.Increasinglyfocused, self
directinglearningwheretheYPbeginto commenton
theirownabilities.
Figure 6: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner I from Case Provider One undertaking liver band workshop (explanatory).
Communities of Music Education | 67
4.1.2 Practitioner II (Case Provide One) undertaking Live Band Workshop
The practitioner shared the leadership of this session in a Special school
for young people in Year 10 (as described above, Section 4.1.1). After the
initial introduction of the session, the practitioner modelled a melodic line
on the synthesiser. The practitioner provided strong support of the other
session leader, complementing areas of expertise and ways of working. He
spent a concentrated period of time repeatedly modelling pitches needed
to complete the melody and, as the young person gained confidence in the
pitches, modelled the rhythm. Through clapping and the use of voice, the
practitioner was able to communicate the necessary ‘feel’ of the music,
thereby ensuring that the young person gave a stylistically authentic and
personally rewarding and enjoyable performance. The practitioner was
skilled at judging the need for the young person to rehearse without fur-
ther commentary, allowing them to feel a sense of ownership of the mate-
rial and of the learning process, before moving on to something more dif-
ficult. Due to the low number of young people present at the observed
session, each participant was able to have the full attention of one of the
practitioner musicians. This close partnership between practitioner and
participant created an intense session in which the young people seemed
greatly to enjoy being immersed in music making.
The practitioner made links between the learning objective and the
wider musical context (see Figures 7 and 8). When performing, the practi-
tioner introduced additional stylistic elements to vary the performance. He
established a ‘cut’, initially modelled using the bass, but later led by the
young person who directed the performers and controlled the structure of
the piece. The young person was then supported to not only to direct the
‘cut’, but to develop a simple improvised solo exploring the different tim-
bres available on the synthesiser. The practitioner demonstrated positive
body language; he visibly enjoyed the music produced by the ensemble and
reflected this back to the young people through smiles, nods and physically
moving with the downbeat of the song. This enjoyment demonstrated
through bodily movement, seemed to encourage the young people to be
less self conscious of their own physical reactions to the music. The young
person playing the synthesiser reacted positively to this and moved rhyth-
mically in time to the music, becoming still during silences and ‘feeling’ the
rests by raising his hands into the air. The young person playing the drums
spent much of the session with her head down, her fringe covering her
eyes. As the session continued, she was able to meet the practitioner’s eyes
in response to his praise and smile. The supportive and accepting atmos-
phere was hugely enabling for these pupils with learning difficulties.
68 | Saunders & Welch
Particularly successful elements demonstrated by Practitioner II in the
session included:
(i) One to one modelling and scaffolding of musical content that was
finely judged to suit the particular needs of the individual young person.
This included an awareness of the need to allow extended periods of time
when the young musician could rehearse, both physically (by playing the
synthesiser) and mentally (periods of time when the young person concen-
trated on ‘feeling’ the offbeat for the beginning of the melody). In addition,
during modelling, the practitioner demonstrated the ability to suggest al-
ternative and appropriate strategies to master new material.
(ii) Enriching the quality of the musical experience by drawing on an
understanding of a wider range of styles and genres and by bringing those
elements, in an appropriate way, into the session.
Communities of Music Education | 69
LiveBand(Practit ionerII) Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
60
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstra ting
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedsof IEPpupils
Outlinesucc esscriteria
Practitioner modelling/scaffo lding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
Questioningpupilopen
Questioningpupilclosed
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
AskspupiltodemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningtos inging/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
60
Classroom
Organisation
YoungPerson
Engagement
YoungPerson
Behaviour
EffectivePlanning&
Settingof
Objectives
EffectiveTeaching
Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Plenary
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
Figure 7: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner II from Case Provider One undertaking live band workshop.
70 | Saunders & Welch
LiveBand(Practit ionerII) Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
60
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstr ating
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedsof IEPpupils
Outlinesuc cesscriteria
Practitioner modelling/scaff olding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
Questioningpupilopen
Questioningpupilclosed
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
AskspupiltodemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningtos inging/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
60
Plenary
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
Classroom
Organisation
YoungPerson
Engagement
YoungPerson
Behaviour
EffectivePlanning&
Settingof
Objectives
EffectiveTeaching
Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Initialperiod
whereYPareable
toabsorbwhat
theywillachieve
duringthesession.
Pattern establishedinwhichthe
YPareaskedtoleadthe
rehearsal,demonstratemastery
ofthematerialandbeginto
Extendedperiod ofconcentrated engagementby
bothYPastheymasternewskills.Increasingly
focused,selfdirectinglearningwheretheYP begin
tocommentontheirownabilities.
Quicklyestablishespattern inwhich
youngpersondemonstratesmastery of
themusicalmaterialandispromptly
praisedfordoingso.
In additiontodiagnosticfeedback,
practitionerprovidespositive
feedbackthroughbodylanguage
withbothfellowpractitionerand
youngpeoplethroughoutsession.
Specific, tightlyboundfeedback
initiatedinresponseto
improvisationbyYP.
Working fromtheinitialexplanation
fromfellowpractitioner,provides
furtherspecificexplanationand
reinforcing oftheaimsofthesession
andhowtoachievethem.
Practitionerplays bassguitar,keyboard
andpianothroughoutthesession,
providingmelodicandrhythmicsupport
forthedrummer(YP)andkeyboardplayer
(YP),pausingonlytosupportorprovide
onetoonelearningwithYP.
Figure 8: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner II from Case One undertaking live band workshop (explanatory).
Communities of Music Education | 71
4.1.3 Practitioner I and II (Case Provider Three) undertaking voice work-
shop
This session began the third day of a weeklong series of workshops. Last-
ing in total 45 minutes, the session was held in a well lit, modern perfor-
mance space with ample room for both equipment and participants. At
any one time, up to 24 young people attended, but the population within
any one rehearsal space was somewhat fluid. Practitioner I played the elec-
tric bass, assisted the young people in playing stringed instruments and
occasionally took on a directing role. Practitioner II modelled different
vocal techniques and supported the young people as they explored their
own interpretations and performances. The young people arrived in small
groups, some carrying instrument cases and used the first few minutes of
the session to refresh friendship groups. The practitioners leading this
session had already established a simple funk style riff and performed this
as the young people entered the rehearsal space. As the young people ar-
rived to a venue already filled with sound, there was no need for ‘teacher
talk’; no need to speak about what they would do. By immersion into the
activity already established, each participant would add their own musical
element and, by so doing, begin to understand the structure of the music
from the inside. As this was the third day of the workshop sessions, the
young people were already aware of an expected ‘way of being,’ enabling
some to immediately join the ensemble.
For the first section of the session, Practitioner II began MCing39,
with an extended section of freestyling (see Figures 9 and 10). During this
section, he outlined the learning objectives through the use of improvised
lyrics. He also improvised an individual welcome for the young people as
they entered the rehearsal space and commented positively on a specific
skill that they had already demonstrated during the previous workshops.
This created a positive atmosphere in which the learning objective (to gain
experience and further expertise in MCing and freestyling) was explicitly
modelled as well as providing a personalised welcome and appraisal of the
young people’s achievements. As the young people joined the ensemble,
Practitioner II advised and modelled the correct microphone technique,
encouraging the participants not to adopt stereotypical stances (with mi-
crophones held upside down, smothered by a closed fist) for the sake of
sound quality. Practitioner II was able to use real world recording studio
examples to explain (in rap) that this was a case of ‘style over substance’. The
second section of the session (after approximately 10 minutes, see Figure
10, below) began with Practitioner II establishing an additive structure to
39 Both the practitioners and young people referred to this activity as MCing, or rapping
interchangeably.
72 | Saunders & Welch
the ongoing instrumental riff. Groups of young people watched the two
practitioners model an additional strand that the participants then imitat-
ed to create a complex structure of individual parts. The practitioners con-
tinued to model the separate strands to ensure that the young people had
mastered the new material. Practitioner I was able to adapt the chord se-
quence played by one young person on the keyboard to provide a pitch
support for two female participants singing backing vocals. By providing
an alternative source of support for the backing vocalists in their task of
maintaining sustained notes ascending in thirds, the practitioners freed
themselves to focus on other young people.
Practitioner I modelled technique and melodic lines to a number of
young guitarists and bass players. The approach was that of horizontal
learning, where one mastered the material and passed the knowledge onto
another. Occasionally, specific elements of instrumental technique or gen-
eral musicianship were touched upon, particularly with reference to bal-
ance and the use of amplifiers. For those young people with more restrict-
ed instrumental ability, Practitioner I was adept at adapting material by
simplifying aspects. For the instrumentalists amongst the group, the ex-
tended period of playing the same material over and over again allowed the
less competent to master the material and extend their skills and the more
competent to master the material and begin to experiment with different
aspects. Practitioner II encouraged both instrumentalists and vocalists to
consider the texture of the piece and the need to allow each strand to be
heard.
In the third section of the session (after approximately 21 minutes, see
Figure 10, below) Practitioner II introduced a segment of freestyling in
which the young people took turns to improvise over the ensemble. Limit-
ing the length of each solo enabled each participant to refine their work
during subsequent turns. During this section, Practitioner I provided hand
gestures that indicated ascending and descending pitch for the backing
vocalists, ‘felt’ the upbeat with a held stance further assisting the young
people to anticipate the start of their solos and gave diagnostic feedback.
The feedback was delivered in a stylistically appropriate form, as Practi-
tioner I was able to enter into a conversation with the young person in
much the same style as ‘battle rapping’, although with a positive slant.
Latecomers to the session were absorbed into the performance without the
need for explanation or direction. Both practitioners in this session were
skilled in enveloping the ideas of the young people into the developing
piece. The atmosphere of the rehearsal was both fluid and supportive.
Young people who improvised successfully were rewarded by these ele-
ments being woven into the music. Those young people who experienced
difficulties were encouraged to continue to practise by revisiting and refin-
ing their ideas.
Communities of Music Education | 73
Particularly successful elements demonstrated by Practitioner I in the
session included:
(i) One to one modelling and scaffolding of musical content that was
finely judged to suit the particular needs of the individual young person.
This included an awareness of the need to allow extended periods of time
when the young musician could rehearse the new material and to reach the
stage where muscle memory began to take over. Where necessary, Practi-
tioner I skilfully simplified tasks without stripping them of stylistic au-
thenticity.
(ii) The criteria for success were made explicit (although rarely through
spoken instruction40) and reinforced repeatedly throughout the session as
needed. This included a subtle blend of modelling and reinforcing of the
musical material combined with specific praise of the young peoples’ musi-
cal output.
Particularly successful elements demonstrated by Practitioner II in the
session included:
(i) A musical beginning and ending to the session where the practi-
tioner immediately established a ‘way of being’ that started in sound and
continued to value the musical experience, not only as an outcome, but as a
means of working and communicating.
(ii) The ability to monitor and assess the young person’s performance
and give musically informed feedback (usually through modelling) with
clear indications of how to improve. This practitioner was able to do so by
adopting the stylistic conventions of the genre, so that diagnostic feedback
became an integral part of the performance.
40 For example, Practitioner I positioned himself in the eye line of the young people who
persisted in adopting an incorrect grip, providing a visual cue. Also, when the young people
experienced difficulty ‘feeling’ the syncopation of a line, he demonstrated this bodily, rising
onto his toes for the upbeat and bouncing to indicate the rhythm. The young people mir-
rored these behaviours and, by so doing, improved the quality of their performances.
74 | Saunders & Welch
Figure 9: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner I and II from Case Provider Three undertaking voice workshop.
VoiceWorkshop Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstr ating
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedso fIEPpupils
Outlinesuc cesscriteria
Practitione rmodelling/scaff olding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
Questioningpupilopen
Questioningpupilclosed
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
AskspupiltodemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningto singing/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
Classroom
Organisation
YoungPerson
Behaviour
YoungPerson
Engagement
EffectivePlanning&
Settingof
Objectives
EffectiveTeaching
Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Plenary
Communities of Music Education | 75
Figure 10: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner I and II from Case Provider Three undertaking voice workshop (explanatory).
VoiceWorkshop Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstr ating
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedsof IEPpupils
Outlinesuc cesscriteria
Practitioner modelling/scaff olding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
Questionin gpupilopen
Questionin gpupilclose d
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
Askspupilt odemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningtos inging/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
Plenary
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
Classroom
Organisation
YoungPerson
Engagement
YoungPerson
Behaviour
EffectivePlanning&
Settingof
Objectives
EffectiveTeaching
Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Afterinitialdemonstration
ofmusicalgenre,littletalk
takesplacebetween
practitionersandYPand
betweenYPs.
Limitedquestioning ofYPduring
earlypartofthesession.
Communicationthroughmusicnot
aboutmusic.
Limitedfeedbackprovidedduring
earlypartofthesession.YPs
encouraged toexperiment for
themselves.
Successcriteri a
demonstratedthrough
musicbypractitioner,
includingmicrophone
technique.
Practitionerconstantly
modellingbesttechnique,
musicalcommu nicationwith
otherpractitionersand
shapingperformances
throughmusicalinterjections.
Tightlywovenpattern ofYPbeingsupportedinthe
processofrefiningownworkthroughspecific input
frompractitioner,demonstrationand
experimentation,followedbyfurther feedback.
Tightlywovenpattern ofYPbeingsupported inthe
processofrefiningownworkthrough specificinput
frompractitioner,demonstration and
experimentation,followedby furtherfeedback.
Extendedperiodofperformance
during whichtheYPsareableto
enterintothemusicalworldand
exploretheirvoices,gaining
confidenceandtryingoutideas.
Practitionerable to
relateactivitiestoreal
lifesituationsand
suggestpragmatic
solutions.
76 | Saunders & Welch
4.1.4 Practitioner IV (Case Provider Three) undertaking live band workshop
This session took place in a rehearsal space that adjoined the main
stage and lasted just under an hour. The practitioner played the drums,
supporting one young person with rudimentary drumming ability and
modelling technique for another young person with considerable drum-
ming abilities. The practitioner was aided in this live band workshop by a
young guitarist who led the other stringed instruments and directed part of
the session. A particular observed strength of this practitioner was the
willingness to distribute leadership amongst the young people. The session
took the shape of an extended rehearsal for the upcoming performance.
There was a limited amount of revision or reinvention of musical material.
The ensemble ran through the piece repeatedly to ensure mastery. There
was some focus on small sections of the piece, for example ensuring that
breaks and solos were fixed and fully rehearsed. There was a limited
amount of ‘teacher talk’ based around the need to perfect and polish the
piece. After an initial run through and reminder to the ensemble that last-
ed less than five minutes (see Figures 11 and 12, below), there was a pat-
tern of specific guidance, leading to subtle changes in the performance.
The practitioner also encouraged the young people to assess their own
performances. After each brief element of feedback and self evaluation,
there was an extended period of rehearsal that allowed the young people
the time and space to reflect on the advice, to work to address the issues
raised and consolidate the new material or techniques introduced. This
cycle was repeated for the first thirty minutes of the session, after which
the band was led by the young guitarist, with brief interjections and cele-
brations of achievement provided by the practitioner.
Particularly successful elements demonstrated by Practitioner IV in the
session included:
(i) Enabling the young person’s voice to be dominant within the ses-
sion, either being expressed in song or sound, through musical ideas, or
used to question, reflect and review their own progress;
(ii) The ability to monitor and assess the young person’s performance
and give musically informed feedback (usually through modelling) with
clear indications of how to improve.
Communities of Music Education | 77
LiveBandWorkshop Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstr ating
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedso fIEPpupils
Outlinesuc cesscriteria
Practitione rmodelling/scaf folding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
Questioningpupilopen
Questioningpupilclosed
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
AskspupiltodemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningto singing/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
ClassroomOrganisation
YoungPerson
Engagement
YoungPersonBehaviour
EffectivePlanning&
SettingofObjectives
EffectiveTeaching
Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Plenary
Figure 11: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner IV from Case Provider Three undertaking live band workshop.
78 | Saunders & Welch
Figure 12: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner IV from Case Provider Three undertaking live band workshop (explanatory).
LiveBandWorkshop Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstr ating
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedso fIEPpupils
Outlinesuc cesscriteria
Practitione rmodelling/scaff olding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
Questionin gpupilopen
Questionin gpupilclose d
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
Askspupilt odemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningto singing/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
Plenary
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
ClassroomOrganisation
YoungPerson
Engagement
YoungPersonBehaviour
EffectivePlanning&
SettingofObjectives
EffectiveTeaching
Methods
Questioning
Feedback
Extendedperiod ofconcentrated engagementby bothYP
astheymasternewskills.Increasinglyfocused, self
directinglearningwheretheYPbeginto commenton
theirownabilities.
Pattern establishedinwhichtheYP
areaskedtoleadtherehearsal,
demonstratemasteryofthe
materialandbegintoimprovise.
Initialperiodwhere
YPareableto
absorbwhat they
willachieveduring
thesession.
Settingclear
learningobjectives
(LO)forthesessi on
andpositioningLO
withinreallife
situations.
Practitionerable to
relateactivitiestoreal
lifesituationsand
suggestpragmatic
solutions.
Practitionerconstantly
modellingbesttechnique,
musicalcommu nicationwith
otherpractitionersand
shapingperformances
throughmusicalinterjections.
Afterinitialdemonstration
ofmusicalgenre,littletalk
takesplacebetween
practitionersandYPand
betweenYPs.
In additiontodiagnosticfeedback,
practitionerprovidespositive
feedbackthroughbodylanguage
withbothfellowpractitionerand
youngpeoplethroughoutsession.
Specific, tightlybound
feedbackthatfocuseson
improvingonesmallelement
ofperformanceprovided
throughoutthesession.
Throughoutthesession,
practitionerconstantlymodels
themusicaltheme,models the
downbeatforthedrummer
andsupportsYPwhentheyare
'lost'.
Communities of Music Education | 79
4.1.5 Practitioner III (Case Provider Three) undertaking a song writing
workshop
This session took place in the rehearsal space adjacent to the main
stage with up to eight young people arranged in a circle around the practi-
tioner. The ensemble was made up of two guitarists, four drum-
mers/percussionists, a keyboard player and one young female who observed
in some places of the session and was absent for others. The practitioner
played the bass guitar and the bass clarinet during the session41.
From the outset of the session, the practitioner was focussed on polish-
ing the material that had already been decided on earlier in the week and
refining sections to create a more balanced whole. There was repeated
practice of breaks and re-entries to ensure that each of the young people
were both competent in and confident of their parts. The practitioner
highlighted the need to recap the structure of the piece, in particular the
improvisatory nature of the introduction that relied upon close communi-
cation between all of the musicians. The young musicians and the practi-
tioner were able to bounce musical ideas between themselves, developing
those felt to be helpful and discarding others. The practitioner was able to
facilitate equality amongst the young musicians; an atmosphere in which
any of those present might provide the next new idea.
There was a high level of technical musical language used by both the
practitioner and some of the young people, most often voiced over the
ongoing performance as a real-time commentary. Rather than confusing,
or being lost in the whirl of sound, these comments appeared to be ab-
sorbed and acted upon, by both practitioner and the young musicians. The
practitioner was able to act as mentor and musical model whilst providing
a solid pulse (through a stomping foot). On two separate occasions, after
15 and 21 minutes (see Figures 13 and 14, below) the practitioner’s dis-
cussion about the structure of the piece was brought to a close by the
young people who exclaimed ‘let’s just do it’ and ‘let’s just play it.’ The young
musicians preferred working through the music rather than abstracting the
process through talk. The practitioner was open to these mild criticisms
and worked with the young people to solidify the structure of the piece.
The practitioner displayed high levels of skill in being able to formalise
and extend the ideas that were offered, making sure that all of the young
people could access the material. The practitioner was also able to take
immediate responsibility for his own mistakes, for example when he had
instigated a repeat of a section in which a young drummer had played
41 There was an additional adult practitioner present who played the drums, but provided
limited additional guidance to the young people during the session. Therefore, the following
analysis refers to only one practitioner who acted as session leader.
80 | Saunders & Welch
through a break, only to find that he played through the break the second
time. As a result of this, the practitioner encouraged the young people to
be bold in their playing rather than playing in a timid style for fear of
making a mistake. To this end, he frequently checked the settings of the
keyboard player who turned down the volume so as not to be heard.
The practitioner was able to employ a strategy of ignoring low level
posturing and distracting behaviour displayed by one of the members of
the group. This demonstrated that he did not feel the need to police be-
haviour that did not affect the engagement of the rest of the group. Grad-
ually, this young person was drawn back into the performance. She had
received no response as a result of her behaviour, either as negative atten-
tion (being told off) or positive attention (a request to join in). Having
failed to gain attention, she eventually became bored and chose to join in.
Particularly successful elements demonstrated by Practitioner IV in the
session included:
(i) A suitably paced session in which periods of the session had a slow-
er pace that allowed space for discussion, self assessment and exploration
of ideas, whereas other sections were fast paced, high energy performances
that built to a crescendo and enabled the young people to create a quality
musical experience;
(ii) The ability to allow the young person’s voice to be dominant with-
in the session, either being expressed in song or sound, through musical
ideas or used to question, reflect and review their own progress;
(iii) The ability to respond to each of the young people’s performances
by monitoring, assessing and giving musically informed feedback (whether
through spoken instruction or more usually through modelling) with clear
indications of how to improve.
Communities of Music Education | 81
SongWritingWork shop Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstr ating
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedso fIEPpupils
Outlinesuc cesscriteria
Practitione rmodelling/scaff olding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
Questioningpupilopen
Questioningpupilclosed
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
AskspupiltodemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningto singing/playing
OrganisingYou ngPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
ClassroomOrganisation
YoungPersonBehaviour
YoungPersonEngagement
EffectivePlanning&Setting
ofObjectives
EffectiveTeachingMethods
Questioning
Feedback
Plenary
Figure 13: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner III from Case Provider Three undertaking song writing workshop.
82 | Saunders & Welch
SongWritingWorks hop Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
Attentive(static)
Activeparticipation
Imitating
YPsharedthink ing
YPleading/demonstrat ing
YPlisteningt opeersperform
YPsinging/playing
Practitionersinging/playing
Recappreviouslesson
Intro'learningobjective(LO)
Placelearningin widercontext
Planforneedsof IEPpupils
Outlinesucc esscriteria
Practitionerm odelling/scaffo lding
SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO
Explaining
Questioningpupilopen
Questioningpupilclosed
Diagnosticfeedback(oral)
Enablespeerassessment
Enablesselfassessment
AskspupiltodemonstrateLO
Achievementscelebrated
Lessonsplacedincontext
Conducts/directsrehearsal
Communicatesenthusiasm
Listeningtos inging/playing
OrganisingYoun gPeople
Organisingtec hnology
Organisingroom/furniture
Timeinminutes
10
20
30
40
50
Plenary
AdditionalMusical
Behaviours
ClassroomOrganisation
YoungPersonEngagement
YoungPersonBehaviour
EffectivePlanning&Setting
ofObjectives
EffectiveTeachingMethods
Questioning
Feedback
Extendedperiodofperformance
during whichtheYPsareableto
enterintothemusicalworldand
exploretheirvoices,gaining
confidenceandmastering
Pattern establishedinwhichtheYP
areaskedtoleadtherehearsal,
demonstratemasteryofthe
materialandbegintoimprovise.
Initialperiod
whereYPare
abletoabsorb
what theywill
achieveduring
Practitionerconstantly
modellingbesttechnique,
musicalcommuni cationwith
otherpractitionersand
shapingperformances
throughmusicalinterjections.
Tightlywovenpattern ofYPbeing supportedinthe
processofrefiningownworkthroughspecific input
frompractitioner,demonstrationand
experimentation,followedbyfurtherfeedback.
Afterinitialdemonstrationof
musical themes,littletalk
takesplacebetween
practitionersandYPand
betweenYPs.Communication
Practitionerplays bassguitar/bass clarinet
throughoutthesession,providing melodic
andrhythmicsupportforthedrummer (YP)
andkeyboardplayer(YP),pausing onlyto
supportorprovideonetoonelearning
In additiontodiagnosticfeedback,
practitionerprovidespositive
feedbackthroughbodylanguage
withbothfellowpractitionerand
youngpeoplethroughoutsession.
Specific, tightlyboundfeedbackthatfocuses
onimprovingonesmallelementof
performanceprovidedthroughoutthe
Figure 14: Illustration of session observation for Practitioner III from Case Provider Three undertaking song writing workshop (explanatory).
Communities of Music Education | 83
4.1.6 Practitioner II (Case Provider Three) undertaking an MC improvisation
workshop
The following session took place in a well lit, modern performance space
with ample room for both equipment and participants. As one of three
parallel sessions, the number of young people participating fluctuated, but
seven formed a core that worked with the practitioner throughout the du-
ration of the session. Of these seven, five were male and two female. At
the beginning of the session, the practitioner explained the aim of the ses-
sion was to encourage the young people to experiment with MCing in a
style beyond their usual practice. During an equipment check, there was
some posturing and questioning of masculinity amongst the male young
people. The practitioner was able to ignore this and instead draw their
attention by establishing a funk style riff over which they could vocalise.
Once the riff was settled, the two female young people were employed as
backing singers, providing a long ascending motif, moving in thirds. Over
this, the five males took turns to experiment in eight bar phrases. The un-
derlying riff was altered slightly and the process was repeated. As confi-
dence levels grew, the structure of the piece was developed, introducing a
sung melodic line that contrasted with the improvisations in rap. The
practitioner spoke of the need to create space for the music to breathe, but
by this stage the young people were so absorbed by the success of their
own music making that they struggled to impose restraints on themselves.
The practitioner was able to provide specific guidance for each of the
young people, helping them to improve their performances as they took
turns. Each time the underlying style of the instrumental accompaniment
changed, the young people were forced to react to a different rhythmic
emphasis, different genre, different instrumental ensemble or different
texture. As the session progressed, the practitioner began to select the
strongest of the elements to create a whole. Once established, this piece
was performed in an endless loop that allowed each of the young people
space and time to play with the elements. The male young people devised
a dance routine that accompanied the sung section of the piece. The fe-
male young people devised a call and response section based on the male’s
sung section that worked equally well against the MCing. By the end of
the session, the young people were performing the piece without the overt
intervention of the practitioner, but it was as a result of the skilful inter-
ventions by the practitioner that the musical outcome was of the high
quality achieved.
84 | Saunders & Welch
4.2 Comparison with ‘good practice’ in other areas of music lead-
ership
These six observations (see Section 4.1.1 to 4.1.6) have illustrated that
there are multiple approaches to successful musical experiences in non-
formal settings, drawing on the individual biographies and particular skill
sets of those involved. Nevertheless, across all of the illustrated examples
there are a number of specific elements that many of these sessions have in
common.
Sessions in which young people enjoyed high quality music experiences
were more likely to contain the following elements:
(i) A confident and musically expert model of session lead-
er/practitioner;
(ii) Young people were actively engaged for a high percentage of time
across the session;
(iii) The young person’s voice was dominant within the session, either
being expressed in song or sound, through musical ideas or used to
question, reflect and review their own progress;
(iv) A musical beginning and ending to the session were evidenced –
where the session leader establishes a musical ‘way of being’ within
the session;
(v) The criteria for success were made explicit (although not always
through spoken instruction or ‘teacher talk’) and reinforced repeatedly
throughout the session;
(vi) The young person’s performance was monitored and assessed and
musically informed feedback instantly provided (more usually
through modelling) with clear indications of how to improve;
(vii) Achievement was celebrated and valued and related to the criteria for
success;
(viii) A suitably paced session was evidenced – such as a fast paced high
energy session that enabled young people to gain mastery of material
through repetition, or a more intermittent pace that allowed space
for the sharing of musical ideas;
(ix) Learning is placed within a wider context of young person’s lives and
the potential professional life of a musician;
(x) As appropriate, there was a seamless integration of ICT elements in
supporting learning or assessment roles;
(xi) The session leader sought to widen the accepted discourse of ‘musi-
cian’ beyond that of, for example, class music teacher or pop idol.
Less successful aspects of sessions were more likely to contain an absence
of the elements listed above, as well as including some or all of the follow-
ing;
(i) Achievement was celebrated with global or blanket praise, or with-
out specific focused feedback that enabled the young people to im-
prove;
(ii) The pacing of the session was weak, or lacked momentum;
(iii) Young people were passively engaged or disengaged for a significant
Communities of Music Education | 85
percentage of the session42;
(iv) There was an over-reliance on talk instead of demonstration or
modelling by the session leader;
(v) Learning took place within a vacuum;
(vi) There was limited space for the young person’s voice or musical
identity to be heard, explored or acknowledged.
In comparing these findings with research undertaken to identify the
characteristics of effective vocal leadership in formal settings (Saunders et
al., 2011), it becomes clear that there are commonalities across the differ-
ent domains. The findings are also in accord with research outside the
field of instrumental or vocal leadership from across the educational do-
main: good teaching, irrespective of the subject, can be characterised by
empathy, enthusiasm, explanation, clarity, structure, an appropriate level
and pace (cf. Entwistle, 2009).
42 Higher levels of passive engagement are evident in less successful sessions in terms of musi-
cal outcomes. However, there is an important distinction to be made in analysing the behav-
iours of vulnerable young people in terms of ‘other than musical’ outcomes. See Section 5 for
further consideration of these differences from the young people’s viewpoint.
86 | Saunders & Welch
4.3 A Consideration of ‘Quality’ in Musical Learning
The elements identified as characteristic of quality musical experiences
(see Section 4.2, above) accord with guidance published by the Office for
Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted) in a report
that evaluated the quality of observed teaching across Key Stages43 in for-
mal (school) music education (Ofsted, 2009a). From the initial report44
(Ofsted, 2009a), two further reports for Primary (Ofsted, 2009b) and Sec-
ondary (Ofsted, 2009c) music were published indicating the ‘outstanding’
characteristics of a school music lesson. The following section adapts the
guidance from both the Primary and Secondary reports (op.cit.) and seeks
to correlate these with the relevant strand (in coloured brackets) from the
characteristic list produced from the observations made in the non-formal
(Youth Music provision) sessions (see Section 4.2).
“ The criteria for success are made explicit (alt-
hough not always through spoken instruction or
‘teacher talk’) and reinforced repeatedly throughout
the session ”
Be clear and simple –define a clear musical focus for the work
and make sure students know how to improve.
The clear learning focus identifies not only the specific skills
and/or knowledge to be learned but how it helps to improve the
musical quality of pupils’ responses; e.g. understand how correct
posture and breathing help to improve the quality of singing.
Primary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009b)
“ Achievement is celebrated and valued and relat-
ed to the criteria for success ”
There is a clear emphasis on increasing the musical quality and
depth of musical response, not just di fficulty of task. Students un-
43 In England, Key Stage 1 refers to school Years 1 and 2 (pupils aged between 5 and 7) Key
Stage 2 refers to school Years 3 to 6 (pupils aged between 7 and 11). Key Stage 3 refers to
school Years 7 to 9 (pupils aged between 11 and 14).
44 The initial report, ‘Making more of Music: An evaluation of music in schools (2005-
2008).’ can be accessed at www.ofsted.gov.uk/publications/080235
Communities of Music Education | 87
derstand that the musical quality of their response is more im-
portant than how many notes are used/played their work.
Secondary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009c)
Link all activities –develop effective integrated practice
All tasks are planned so that they built progressively and accumu-
latively, enabling pupils not only to consolidate but also to extend
their learning and enjoy a musical experience of quality.’
Primary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009b)
All tasks are used progressively and accumulatively to increase the
quality and depth of students’ responses; there is constant draw-
ing of connections between students’ work and the work of others,
including established composers.
Secondary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009c)
“ A musical beginning and ending to the session
were evidenced – where the session leader establish-
es a ‘way of being’ within the session ”
Start and finish with sound – always put the emphasis on aural
development.
There is no doubt this was a music lesson – all learning grows out
of what is heard; audio recordings of pupil’s work are constantly
used so that pupils can hear what they need to do in order to im-
prove their work further and can celebrate improvement; work is
constantly modelled.
Primary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009b)
There is no doubt this is a music lesson – all learning grows out of
what is heard; audio recording is used constantly for students to
celebrate and improve their work
Secondary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009c)
88 | Saunders & Welch
“ The young person’s voice is dominant within
the session, either being expressed in song or sound,
through musical ideas or used to question, reflect and
review their own progress ”
Give students opportunities to show and develop their learning
in di fferent ways.
Pupils helped define how they could show they had got better and
all knew how to improve their own and the class response – so all
gained a sense of individual as well as collective achievement.’
Primary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009b)
“ The young person’s performance was monitored
and assessed and musically informed feedback in-
stantly provided (more usually through modelling)
with clear indications of how to improve ”
Listen critically to their musical responses and maintain high
musical expectations
All pupils see themselves as musicians as a result of the high ex-
pectations for all and the constant emphasis on improving the
quality of their individual responses as part of the whole experi-
ence.
Primary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009b)
Help pupils to get better at music
Identify simple steps of progression – so pupils know how to im-
prove their work Pupils help to define how they will show they
have got better and all know how to improve their own and the
class response – so all gain a sense of individual as well as collec-
tive achievement.
Primary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009b
Communities of Music Education | 89
All students see themselves as musicians as a result of the high ex-
pectations for all and the constant emphasis on improving the
quality of their individual musical responses as part of the whole
experience.
Secondary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009c)
“ As appropriate, there was a seamless integration
of ICT elements in supporting learning or assess-
ment roles ”
Collect and use appropriate data to adapt work and increase ex-
pectations
Expectations are raised in direct response to the progress made;
simple records lead to pupils being actively involved in extra-
curricular activities and extra support was given to those who
needed more help to develop their musical skills.
Primary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009b)
Assessment is an integral part of the lesson through the way stu-
dents are encouraged to assess themselves against the agreed suc-
cess criteria; tasks are changed and response to the progress made;
simple records of attainment are kept and matched to broad tar-
gets by students and teachers.
Secondary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009c)
“ The session leader sought to widen the accepted
discourse of ‘musician’ beyond that of, for example,
class music teacher or pop idol ”
Increase depth of musical understanding – ask ‘why’, not just
‘what’ and ‘how’
Students are fully engaged through considering complex issues
about music – its role in society and how it reflects and influences
how people think and behave; and they apply this understanding
in their own work.
Secondary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009c)
90 | Saunders & Welch
“ Learning is placed within a wider context of
young person’s lives and the potential professional
life of a musician ”
Make it real – enable students to experience what it feels like to
be a professional musician
Tasks are chosen and developed so that students enjoy the same
challenges and opportunities that face professional musicians –
which are constantly made explicit by the teacher.
Secondary Guidance (Ofsted, 2009c)
It would be naive and simplistic to assume that a perfect correlation
between the different sources would exist. However, as is evidenced above,
there are commonalities in the characteristics of observed high quality mu-
sical learning across both the formal and observed non-formal contexts45.
45 The number of observations made during the pilot phase of this research project is small.
Further research would seek to increase both the number of sessions observed and the variety
of contexts in which the observations take place.
Communities of Music Education | 91
4.4 Summary of the Outcomes of Musical Learning: Session Ob-
servations
In summarising the findings from the session observations, the similarities
across the sessions were striking. In addition, there are aspects of the ses-
sions observed in the non-formal context that differed from those de-
scribed by Ofsted (2009) in formal settings. For example;
There was limited ‘teacher talk’, but where it was used it often took the
form of:
o Diagnostic feedback with specific guidance regarding technique;
o Diagnostic feedback with specific performance based guidance;
o Explanation that introduced a wider awareness of musical genres;
o Explanation that introduced a wider awareness of the definition of ‘musi-
cian.’
Scaffolding and modelling formed a large part of what a practitioner
did during the session including:
o Modelling the techniques of playing and performing;
o Modelling the ‘way of being’ as a musician, communicating through mu-
sic;
o Establishing horizontal46 learning relationships with more musically
skilled or more confident young people;
o Establishing a mentoring learning relationship with less musically skilled
or less confident young people.
Such patterns of behaviour are characteristic of traditional mas-
ter/apprentice –type musical learning found in many different cultures.
However, here there was also an emphasis in enabling the learner to have a
clear role in a shared musical product – likely encouraged by the ways in
which the practitioner’s own craft knowledge had been developed through
informal and non-formal playing experiences that characterise popular
genres (Creech et al., 2008).
In addition, specific ‘ways of working’ across the sessions were evi-
denced.
o Cyclical patterns were established in which the young person demonstrat-
ed a particular aspect of the learning objective. The practitioner provided
diagnostic feedback, either through spoken advice or by modelling (for
example, showing an alternative fingering or indicating an appropriate
point to breathe). The young person tried the adaptation for themselves
and, alongside the practitioner, assessed the improvement made. This cy-
cle of young person demonstration, practitioner assessment, practitioner
modelling, young person adopting and young person assessing was found
to be a common way of working and often a process without words. It was
often carried out within the musical performance, a learning conversation
46 The term ‘horizontal’ is used here to indicate the sense that the sharing of ideas was a
reciprocal process, rather than a vertical ‘master and apprentice’ model.
92 | Saunders & Welch
reliant on the young person’s ability to absorb the new information
through careful observation and listening.
o Extended periods of time within the sessions were dedicated to repeated
rehearsal of the same material. This allowed some young people to devel-
op mastery of material through kinaesthetic feedback; passages that had
felt clumsy and difficult at the beginning of the session fell more comfort-
ably beneath the fingers by the end. These extended periods could last
from between 20 minutes to nearly an hour. The emphasis was on ‘doing’;
working in and through the music.
o Peer to peer learning took place on the peripheries of the sessions.
Knowledge and techniques gleaned from practitioners was quickly and
democratically spread amongst the young people.
o There was an emphasis on aural skills; the young people developed their
ideas through listening to their own work and the work of others, making
audio recordings and referring to the recordings of established artists.
Members of staff made digital recordings of performance that would later
be uploaded for listening and viewing online. Other than in the creation
of lyrics47, and the finalisation of a performance programme, there was an
absence of written language or symbolisation in graphic form.
47 During a song writing session, young people were observed to compose song lyrics as text
messages that could be easily distributed amongst band members. During the process of
typing in the relevant words, as the phones software created a list of the possible words they
might mean, the young people used this list as a ‘word bank’, for example, typing in the word
‘hurting’ resulted in the additional options of ‘hitting’ and ‘gutting.’
Communities of Music Education | 93
4.5 Summary of the Outcomes of Musical Learning: Discussion
“ The difficult task now is in trying to map the
multiple pathways that can lead to generative musi-
cal development within diverse contexts and cul-
tures. By increasing our understanding in these are-
as, we will be in a much stronger position to assist
children and adolescents in taking an active role in
their own musical development. ”
O’Neill, 2006:472
The comparison of quality across music education in formal and non-
formal settings (see Section 4.3, above) was undertaken to highlight those
areas of practice within the non-formal context that would be most readily
understood by teachers working in the formal context. The case music
providers have drawn attention to a perceived lack of mutual understand-
ing between partners in the formal and non-formal settings, such as in
terms of their ‘ways of working’ (see Section 3.2.1, for example) and com-
mon understandings of terminology (see Section 3.1.3). Research evidence
such as outlined above (see Section 4) that seeks to illustrate both com-
monalities and differences may begin to provide a common understanding
and a common language that will enable fruitful conversations between
partners.
In the following section, elements that were observed within the ses-
sions that would appear to be particular characteristics and/or strengths of
musical experiences within the non-formal context are related to the exist-
ing research and literatures. These include;
o limited teacher talk (Section 4.5.1),
o scaffolding and modelling (Section 4.5.2),
o horizontal learning relationships (Section 4.5.3),
o cyclical patterns in ways of working (Section 4.5.4), and
o an emphasis on aural skills (Section 4.5.5).
These characteristics cannot be seen as entirely discrete behaviours,
and are instead part of an intimately connected system of practice demon-
strated both within the observed sessions and within a wider understand-
ing of non-formal learning practices.
94 | Saunders & Welch
4.5.1 Limited ‘teacher talk’
The role of music practitioner in non-formal settings has been described
as including ‘...some verbal instruction,’ but that ‘much of the teaching will
have the nature of demonstrating, playing and singing along’ (Koopman,
2007:160). As such, the evidence from the observed sessions concurs with
this viewpoint. Verbal input from the practitioners was limited; being
largely confined to a brief introduction and/or subsequent plenary. This
practice correlates with ‘popular music informal learning practices’ (Green,
2002:83). The structure and guidance generally provided through ‘teacher
talk’ is, in many of the observed sessions, largely replaced by scaffolding
and modelling (see Section 4.5.2, below).
4.5.2 Scaffolding and modelling
“ The child grows up in a world of things, sur-
rounded by people who serve as models for skills and
values. He finds peers who challenge him to argue,
to compete, to cooperate, and to understand; and if
the child is lucky, he is exposed to confrontation of
criticism by an experienced elder who really cares. ”
Illich, 2000:76
Within the sessions, practitioners dedicated much of their time to model-
ling instrumental and performance techniques. Practitioners (and skilled
peers – see Section 4.5.3, below) can facilitate learning in a horizontal
fashion, described by Bruner as ‘scaffolding’ to indicate a way in which
structure can be brought to a learning situation within the ‘zone of proximal
development’ (in Wood et al., 1976; Bruner and Haste, 1987). Tasks and
language are adapted so as to provide appropriate level of challenge
whereby the young person is able to construct understanding above their
current level of mastery. The intention is for ‘learners to engage with the
more competent adult or peer, in order that each student’s thought processes can
be stimulated to nurture ideas and enquiry and encourage competency’ (Harkin
et al., 2001:54). Similarly, the musical tasks within the sessions were mod-
elled (performed) so that the young person could watch, adapt and adopt
the material or models of playing. The young person was engaged in pur-
posive watching of more experienced players and peers in close collabora-
tion (Green, 2002a:82).
Communities of Music Education | 95
The combined actions of modelling and purposive watching enable the
young person to enter into a process of learning termed as ‘apprenticeship
learning’ or ‘situated learning’ as described by Lave and Wenger (1991).
Here, the acquisition of skills is achieved through the ‘legitimate peripheral
participation’ in a community of practice, slowly turning into full participa-
tion (op.cit.). The practitioner and expert peers comprise a ‘community of
practice’, in which less expert young people learn through watching, adopt-
ing and adapting skills. Music practitioners increasingly take the role of
‘facilitator’ in which there is ‘a withering of the teacher’s role as an authority-
figure’ and an emphasis on enabling musical encounters for pupils (Murray
Schafer, 1979:26), as well as an openness to engage in musical practice
that provides a framework for the pupils’ own musical interests to be val-
ued and utilised (Spence, 2005; Green, 2008). In addition to the notion of
a community of practice, in which the young person is able to move from
watching (peripheral participation) to leading (full participation),
Koopman (2007:157) describes a process of ‘authentic learning’ in which
the learner acts as part of a practice orientated, complex task situation,
with the opportunity for personal initiative and exploration and where the
learning task is connected to the real world. ‘The gateway to musical under-
standing is to work with sounds; to try things out for themselves’ and ‘to be told
about music is no substitute’ (Paynter, 1982:21).
The observed sessions created a learning environment in which the
tasks were not artificially isolated. There was an expectation that the learn-
er would watch and adopt specific practices and would, as the session pro-
gressed, adapt and adopt the musical material so as to move their own mu-
sical learning and the musical output forward. This could be seen as an
intensive, semi-structured, hybridised form of what has been defined as
‘informal music learning practices’ in which the young person ‘largely teach
themselves or ‘pick up’ skills and knowledge’ (Green 2002a:5). Within the
observed sessions, there was an ‘exchange of elementary musical building
blocks such as chords or scales, the creation and refinement of compositional and
improvisatory ideas through group negotiation, observation of other musicians
playing during performances and rehearsals, the giving and receiving of advice
on technique and information about theory’ (Green, op.cit:83). What differed
within the observed sessions was the practitioners’ informed intention to
create the necessary environment in which this process could most effec-
tively take place.
Green posits that an available community of practice would most likely
consist of peers48 rather than adults with greater skills (ibid). In the exam-
ples cited (see Section 4.1.1 to 4.1.6) young people have been able to enter
48 A peer based community of practice occurs when a group of young people gather to play
together and/or listen to recordings of other musicians. Within this model, there is an ab-
sence of adult guidance/presence (Green, 2002a).
96 | Saunders & Welch
into a period of apprenticeship with expert adult practitioners (as well as
peers).
In addition to modelling the necessary ‘musical building blocks’, practi-
tioners within the sessions were able to model an appropriate ‘way of be-
ing’49 as a musician. This moves beyond the transmission of specific skills
towards a model of situated learning in which ‘one can only learn what is
appropriate by participating in a particular musical practice, finding out what
‘works’ in a specific situation and how others act in such a situation’ (Koopman,
2007:158). ‘Most learning is not the result of instruction. It is rather the result
of unhampered participation in a meaningful setting’ (Illich, 2000:38) and as
such, the observed session provided ideal conditions for learning what ‘be-
ing’ a musician looks, sound and feels like. As an extension of the demon-
stration of ‘musician’ the young people were able to increasingly work as
musicians, when, under the ‘guiding role of the expert... the participants...
increasingly act independently and take over responsibility’ for the musical
decision making process (Koopman, 2007:160).
This process is especially important to adolescent instrumentalists who
report that they perceive their motivation to practise to be increasingly
intrinsic as they age (Renwick & McPherson, 2006 (in Austin et al.,
2006:225)). Former systems of support (and potential drivers of extrinsic
motivation) such as parental or teacher expectation are replaced by internal
feedback loops in which ‘being’ musical and experiencing periods of flow50
become increasingly relevant. A fundamental part of the experience is not
that the young person ‘practises the role of being a [musician],’ but that they
are able to ‘inherit the discipline itself’ (Bruner, 1996:84).
4.5.3. Horizontal learning relationships
Horizontal learning relationships occur in addition to those practices out-
lined above that described modelling and scaffolding (see Section 4.5.2).
Within any learning context, peer collaboration can enable the exploration
of ideas. It is within these horizontal dialogues between learners, that
49 The term ‘way of being’ is used to describe a number of elements that a practitioner uses to
establish ways of working, acceptable limits and learning expectations within a session. For
example, in Section 4.1.3 the practitioner immediately established a musical sound world into
which young people entered and joined. The voice of both the practitioner and of the young
people, was that of their singing rather than spoken voice (Saunders et al., 2011:22).
50 Flow is described as an intrinsically rewarding element of learning. Research has shown
that flow is often experienced in music (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993), but that it is only
thought to occur when there is an appropriate match between the young person’s skills and
challenge (Austin et al., 2006:216). Young people who encounter a task that exceeds their
skills may experience anxiety, with a negative effect on learning motivation. Those young
people who encounter a task with insufficient challenge may experience boredom, with a
negative effect on learning motivation. In neither case (too difficult or too easy a challenge)
will the young person be able to engage meaningfully with the task and without meaningful
engagement, flow cannot be achieved.
Communities of Music Education | 97
young people are able to test one another’s ideas, creating an additional
arena in which ‘intellectual development takes place’ (Harkind et al.,
2001:55). This way of working is characteristic of performance learning in
other-than-classical musical genres (Welch et al., 2008).
As part of ‘informal learning practices’, peer to peer learning was identi-
fied as sometimes taking place on the peripheries of the sessions; where
‘peer directed learning’ involved the explicit teaching of one or more per-
sons, by a peer (cf. Green, 2002a). Within each of the observed sessions,
activities between young people were noted during which the transmission
of new information took place. On occasion, these interactions were as a
direct result of a previous practitioner intervention. More often, these in-
teractions were triggered by a peer initiated request for help, or peer initi-
ated offer of help that resulted in one (expert) peer modelling and scaffold-
ing alternate strategies to the (less expert) peer. For example, during one
session, a guitarist was observed to turn away from the practitioner so as to
enable eye contact with a peer playing electric bass and subsequently, ex-
plicitly model the root note of each chord he played by over emphasising
his finger placement and nodding at the same time. After a number of
plays through the chord sequence, the bass player mastered the musical
material and mirrored the rhythmic nod of the head by his peer. With a
final nod of acknowledgement, the (expert) peer turned back to face the
practitioner. During this musical interaction, the young people have par-
ticipated in a dual process ‘of peer learning and peer critique’ (Jaffurs,
2004:197).
The peripheral peer directed learning/teaching not only enabled the
less expert young person to learn, but also supported the musical progres-
sion of the whole ensemble. There was no need for the involvement of the
practitioner; no need to stop the performance, to interrupt the flow, or to
use ‘teacher talk’. Examples of ‘group learning’ which occur as a result of
peer interaction but in the absence of explicit teaching included a percus-
sionist working as part of a live band workshop (Section 4.1.1) who
watched the body movements of a keyboard player to determine the
downbeat of the music. The dynamic between these two young people was
particularly interesting as they often watched and were guided by each
others actions, but without the other seeming to notice.
4.5.4 ‘Ways of working’: Cyclical patterns
Within many of the observed sessions, cyclical patterns were established in
which the young person demonstrated a particular aspect of the learning
objective. The practitioner would then provide diagnostic feedback, either
through spoken advice or (more usually) by modelling a possible solution,
for example an alternative fingering or indicating an appropriate point to
98 | Saunders & Welch
breathe within the musical phrase. The young person would try the adap-
tation for themselves and, alongside the practitioner, assess the improve-
ment made.
The cyclical process can be related to a ‘learning cycle’ as proposed by
Nixon et al. (1996:126), in which ‘triggers for learning’ create a series of
questions, demonstrations and reflections around a specific learning objec-
tive. This cycle also demonstrates ‘process directed education’ (Bolhuis and
Kluvers, 2000:87) in Koopman (2007:158)). Within the specific setting of
community music this has been described as occurring in three stages:
o Setting aims: participants are encouraged to set aims and determine the
order of activities;
o Orientation & Regulation: (i) mobilization of prior knowledge, (ii) draw-
ing on musical resources, (iii) monitoring of musical progress, and (iv)
making adjustments;
o Evaluation: naturally occurring part of music-making practices, forming
opinions about musical results and one’s own performance.
Koopman (2007:158)
Over some of the observed sessions, this process could continue un-
broken for half an hour or more and provided the young person with an
extended period of meaningful practice. Plummeridge describes how a
‘disjointed and casual experience’ is insufficient for the young person to ‘mas-
ter necessary skills, techniques and procedures (i.e. the grammars of music) to
understand what it is to be involved in musical pursuits’ (1991:40). The cycli-
cal process is one that requires time, unhurried periods of time, as well as a
support system of knowledgeable experts. This provides the young person
with the opportunity to learn the basic musical skills required and, as a
consequence, to make sense of experiential learning (Lamont, 2002).
4.5.5 An emphasis on aural skills
Within the observed sessions, there was a limited use of written language51
or spoken language (see Section 4.5.1). Instead, of central importance to
the manner in which the young people worked, was the ability to listen in
a variety of ways. ‘Purposive listening’ has been described as listening in
order to apply the new information after the listening event has finished
(Green, 2002a:23). This type of listening might be employed in order that
a young person could modify their contribution to a performance, for ex-
ample the percussionist who listened intently to an improvised keyboard
solo in order to ascertain the necessary length of a drum fill (see Section
51 In one session, the young people were required to write lyrics and did so using the text
messaging function on their mobile phones. In another session, a practitioner wrote the mu-
sical structure on a whiteboard, and as a final example, a practitioner used an A3 sheet of
paper to create a rehearsal schedule.
Communities of Music Education | 99
4.1.4). In addition, ‘attentive listening’ (ibid.) enables the young person to
attend to the music with the same intensity of concentration, but without
the need for the information to be directly related to the performance.
Attentive listening occurred at various points within the observed sessions,
especially amongst those young people who inhabited the peripheries of
the rehearsals.
4.5.6 Positive musical models
Music is thought to be inherently engaging for many young children
(Custodero, 2002) but as the individual ages (particularly as a young per-
son enters adolescence), identification with the music teacher (or other
relevant musical model) often becomes increasingly relevant. A positive
pupil-teacher relationship has been associated with higher levels of identi-
fication with music at school (Lamont, 2002:54; Saunders, 2010:448) and,
in turn, pupil-teacher relationships have been found to be positive where
pupils feel that they are able to achieve (Spence, 2005:51). Within the
formal setting, teacher behaviours such as ‘recognising individuals, listening
to students, showing respect, being friendly, sharing a joke, making some self
disclosure’ are fundamental aspects of a positive pupil-teacher relationship
(Harkind et al., 2001:83). The pupil responses in this research suggest that
the young person/practitioner relationship is more complex, in that there
must be an indication of a shared valuing of a particular instrument, genre,
or performance style of music, in addition to providing opportunities to
achieve and displaying friendly behaviours. Music educators are ‘always
searching for better ways to engage students in music learning’ (MENC,
2004:1). The young people above described a young person/practitioner
relationship in which the practitioner was respectful of, and interested in,
the young person’s musical opinions and preferences. To build and main-
tain a positive relationship, the practitioner accommodates the young per-
son as a musical ‘significant other’ who is able to mediate musical encoun-
ters in social contexts beyond the immediate setting of the practitioner (cf.
Spence, 2005:54).
The combined importance of ways of working (see Section 4.5.4), an
emphasis on aural skills (see Section 4.5.5) and the need for positive musi-
cal models (see Section 4.5.6) as evidence within the observed session
above, directly relates back to a statement published by the Henley Re-
view, proposing that young people ‘need to develop practical skills in singing
and playing instruments; and they need their eyes and ears opened to the widest
musical possibilities by being given the opportunity to see and hear professional
musicians at work’ (DfE, 2011a:14).
Communities of Music Education | 101
5. The
Experiences of
Young People
During the visits to complete session observations and site visits, informal
interviews were carried out with a small number of young people (n=5)
who felt confident to talk about their experiences of non-formal music
education provision52. Having observed the obvious enjoyment the young
people gained from participating in these sessions, the interviews were
kept as short as practicable and (where applicable) carried out in sight of
the continuing rehearsal, allowing the young person to pause the interview
and re-enter the musical space as they desired. The following sections re-
port how the young people described their experiences of both formal mu-
sic education (within a school or university setting) and non-formal music
education (predominantly through Youth Music provision)53.
52 This research has been conducted according to BERA guidelines (see
http://www.bera.ac.uk/files/2011/08/BERA-Ethical-Guidelines-2011.pdf). Further details
of the research methodology can be found in Section 2.2.
53 The session observed for Case Provider One took place in a Special School for young peo-
ple with learning difficulties. No interviews with young people were carried out in this set-
ting.
102 | Saunders & Welch
5.1 Young Person One: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Out-
comes
This young person was a 17 year old female54, currently attending college
studying AS levels. She planned to read English at university before em-
barking upon a year-long conversion course in order to enter the law pro-
fession. She had attended various sessions organised through the Case
Provider, including the choir, orchestra and being involved with the re-
cently established record label. Her relationship with the staff at the Case
Provider extended over three years and she described the building in which
many of the events took place as ‘a second home.’
5.1.1 Musical Outcomes
There was a degree of ambiguity in the way she spoke about her own mu-
sicality55. ‘I kinda play the piano, I kinda sing’ she commented. In relation to
the musical education she had received at school (studying Music AS Lev-
el) compared with the music education she experienced as part of the Case
Provider provision, she made a clear distinction between the two, stating
that ‘it would ruin it if it became too much like college.’ She found that she
enjoyed her college-based work less, especially activities such as ‘formal
analysis and picking apart Mozart.’ She described how she would rather
‘have an emotional reaction’ to Mozart than understand the structure of
particular work. She described how she ‘uses the skills’ that she learns out of
school in her work at college, but that ‘the feel’ of the work was very differ-
ent. She reported that much of her college work (both in Music and Eng-
lish) was based around ‘picking things apart to the point that I don’t enjoy it.’
It appeared, in conversation, that this very able young person saw herself
as disengaged from more intellectual aspects of analysis within the formal
context, whilst maintaining a strong emotional connection with music
through the non-formal context.
The musical pathways that she had most experience of, and described
(i.e. (i) generalist and specialist statutory provision leading to public exam-
inations in school, and (ii) extended provision within the non-formal pro-
vision of community organizations), appeared to exist as separate and
somewhat unrelated paths. The elements that she valued from the non-
formal provision included the ‘relaxed’ atmosphere, in which practitioners
‘don’t treat you like a child; they treat you like an equal.’56 She also valued the
54 This young person regularly attended Case Provider Three.
55 This ambiguity in her self-perception as ‘musician’ was somewhat contradicted by the
portrayal of ‘musician’, ‘performer’ and ’song writer’ that she gave during a performance of a
song later the same day.
56 During adolescence, there can be a ‘shift’ in which the parent as overt agent of social con-
trol is overtaken by the internal self-control exerted by the adolescent (Bernstein, 1971,
Communities of Music Education | 103
emphasis on aural training that she received as part of the non-formal pro-
vision, explaining that a musician needed to be able to ‘hear and feel’ the
music. Practitioners had helped her to ‘really listen and begin to hear [the
music] for yourself.’ They had also taught her to ‘try and stay silent in a piece,
like, not playing too much.’ She valued the way that the practitioners devel-
oped ideas from the young people, ‘picking out strong ideas to make new
pieces from.’ She described how she enjoyed ‘learning by modelling and prac-
tice, with time to develop my ideas’ and valued the ‘mentoring relationship’ the
practitioners established with her. ‘They’ll come over and show you how to
do it, show you and you can try yourself’ she explained. The practitioners
had introduced her to ‘different styles of music, new people all the time.’
It is worth noting that this young person did not describe herself as a
‘musician’ and when asked if she thought of herself in terms of being a mu-
sician, she replied ‘No.’ She did not consider music as a future career path
and despite committing considerable amounts of time and energy to mu-
sic, within both formal and non-formal sectors, did so in order to ‘experi-
ence the emotion and enjoyment of the music.’
5.1.2 ‘Other than musical’ Outcomes
She had developed a network of friends through attending workshops57.
She spoke of how attendance at different workshops had impacted upon
her self-confidence. ‘When I started, you learn to meet people, learn to talk to
random strangers. You learn to perform on stage. I can handle it.’ This had
implications for her future success as she could ‘talk to people of any age. If
you don’t have that skill you can’t do much.’
1975). During this process, the rules that govern parent-child interactions are renegotiated
and ‘rules’ gradually disappear and can be replaced by an ‘adult-like’ relationship based on
equality, trust and understanding (Brannen, 1999:219). It is this understanding of an ‘adult-
like’ relationship with the practitioners that the young person values.
57 Friends are described as those who form ‘small close-knit groups which give support, com-
panionship and re-affirm self identity’ (Coleman & Hendry, 1999:140). These friends per-
form four functions for the adolescent: (i) the partial replacement of the family unit as com-
panions and confidantes, (ii) the provision of a sense of belonging separate to the family unit,
(iii) the support and challenge of an emergent identity and (iv) the ability to learn about the
world through discussions and interactions (Berndt, 1999:51). Friends within the school
context will usually be of a similar biological age. In comparison, friendships formed outside
of school are more likely to be determined by geographical proximity (the neighbourhood) or
leisure activity, creating more vertical relationships.
104 | Saunders & Welch
5.2 Young Person Two: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Out-
comes
This young person was an eleven year old female58, currently in Year 7 of a
local school. She had started attending workshops in Year 6 as a result of a
teaching assistant at her Primary School passing on information about the
provision of a choir on Saturday mornings. Initially a member of the choir,
she described how ‘I used to do mainly singing and then we were jamming one
lunchtime and then I learnt the drums.’ She was one of the youngest present
at the workshops on the day of the observations.
5.2.1 Musical Outcomes
She described how the practitioners had helped her musically, by ‘going
over one thing and if you don’t get it they don’t worry, they just go over it again
and again and again until you get it.’ She contrasted this with her experience
of her school music sessions in which ‘if you don’t get it right, they say do it
again. If you don’t get it right again, it’s like...done.’ ‘Most teachers’ she ex-
plained ‘are really strict and they say ‘get it right’. But [the practitioners] want
us to do it for ourselves.’ Pausing for a moment, she added ‘it’s not about
them; they just want us to get better at what we’re doing.’ She explained how
she made use of the listening skills that she had gained at the workshops
in school, although she said she was unlikely to play drums in the school
setting, as they had ‘one set of drums’ and it ‘wasn’t her turn.’ She would
have liked it if ‘class music was like this’ [pointing to the ongoing workshop
with her hand]. She was considering opting for GCSE Music at school,
and stated that ‘I have an ambition of drumming.’
5.2.2 ‘Other than musical’ Outcomes
She described how attending the workshops had ‘builded my confidence
loads [sic]’ as she ‘used to be really shy.’ She now felt much more confident
‘and like I can do it.’ At school, she felt that she found performing easier as
a result. She also felt that she was able to work better as part of a team and
worked well with other people. She felt that the non-formal music provi-
sion helped her to focus and ‘keep things in your mind.’
58 This young person regularly attended Case Provider Three.
Communities of Music Education | 105
5.3 Young Person Three: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Out-
comes
This young person was twenty year old male working as an apprentice
with one of the Case Providers59. Having reportedly experienced a cheq-
uered educational career in school and college settings, this young person
had started a variety of courses, but finished few. Previously, he reported
that he had been criticised for his attitude towards learning, towards au-
thority and experienced significant clashes of personality with teaching
staff in different institutions. Despite showing expertise in particular areas,
this young person had failed to settle until hearing of an apprenticeship
with the Case Provider through friends.
5.3.1 Musical Outcomes
This young person was employed to design and build the website for the
Case Provider. As such, there are no musical outcomes to report.
5.3.2 ‘Other than musical’ Outcomes
Working with the Case Provider had had a profound effect on this young
person’s understanding, both of himself and the way he interacted with
others. He had been able to arrange his workspace and working day to
reflect ‘exactly how I work at home.’ He was able to ‘work at a pace that suits.’
He had been able, he explained, to work out through trial and error ‘exactly
where I stand in the team.’ He described how he now ‘knows where I should
go and who I need to talk to’ and in turn, was learning the appropriate way
to go about talking ‘with’ colleagues rather than at ‘them’. He spoke of how
being in the workplace was ‘all a learning process’ in which he was begin-
ning to see ‘how we work with one another.’ He also described how he
didn’t feel the need to hide problems as he felt confident to talk with
members of staff. ‘I know them’ he stated60.
59 This young person worked with Case Provider Two. Having attended a variety of non-
formal provision, this young person was now employed as an apprentice with the Case Pro-
vider.
60 This conversation took place with the Case Provider staff member present (at the agree-
ment of the young person). The staff member’s comments on this young person’s progress
since being involved with the case provider are illuminating. ‘This has been somewhat pain-
ful...you need to be able to recognise how you fit in and when you consciously decide to go
against people. It was a gamble. I knew it would take some time getting him to fit in the
organisation. He can leave a trail behind him and he needed to learn to deal with that. He’s
learning really well. He’s learning to do this as a job. He’s learning to deal with a working
environment.’
106 | Saunders & Welch
5.4 Young Person Four: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Out-
comes
This young person was a twenty one year old male who had attended a
variety of music provision from a variety of contexts. He played the guitar.
With a sound education including GCSE and A2 passes, he had had a
series of part time jobs without settling.
5.4.1 Musical Outcomes
Working alongside other practitioners in schools had helped this young
person to appreciate other musical genres, such as rap. He had realised the
importance of understanding this history of the genre and the historical
context. He had discovered how the political and social context experi-
enced by the musicians had influenced their writing and that this ‘came out
through their music.’ He had learnt practical skills involved with being a
professional musician, such as ‘setting up equipment for gigs’ and the practi-
cal issues involved with staging performances. Working alongside other
practitioners, he described how he had ‘learnt so much.’
5.4.2 ‘Other than musical’ Outcomes
He felt that an important outcome of his work with the Case Provider was
that he no longer felt ‘awkward in social situations.’ He found working with
other young people the ‘most rewarding’ aspect of his job. There was, he
explained ‘a lot more to being an employee than I thought. [This] has given me
the confidence that I could do it. I could do with being here and learning more
before I move on and do something else.’
Communities of Music Education | 107
5.5 Young Person Four: Musical and ‘other than musical’ Out-
comes
This young person had followed a more traditional career through the
formal sector of music education. Gaining five A*- C passes at GCSE, he
started a BTEC course in Popular Music (‘I loved it, I absolutely loved it’ he
said) before going on to read Commercial Music as a three year degree
course at university. He described himself as a drummer. Through an on-
going relationship with the Case Provider, this young person was now
working as a Project Development Officer on a part time basis.
5.5.1 Musical Outcomes
The young person had gained a lot of practical experience working in the
non-formal sector, whereas he had felt his degree course had been domi-
nated by essays. ‘More essays than making music’ he complained. A lot of his
contemporaries at university, despite being good musicians, had ended up
in ‘normal jobs.’
5.5.2 ‘Other than musical’ Outcomes
The young person had found that working with other young people was a
rewarding experience as ‘the young people want to be here.’ He contrasted
this with his experience of being at and visiting schools, stating that he
had ‘already decided not to become a teacher.’ His experiences had helped to
be more confident, especially in terms of talking to others, dealing with
people ‘especially on the phone.’
108 | Saunders & Welch
5.6 Summary of the Experiences of Young People
The interviews with the young people briefly described here represent a
very small sample of the many that choose to participate within the non-
formal music education sector. They tell of very different paths through
education; those who have followed the ‘traditional’ path of gaining quali-
fications at every stage to those who have only recently found something
in which they can engage and excel. One of the young people has a long
time still ahead of them in formal education provision; others have been
able to reflect over the time that they spent there. What they have in
common is a recognition that the time that they have invested in music
making in the non-formal sector, through the provision of musical oppor-
tunities by the case providers, has had a positive impact on their musical
lives and, in addition, impacted on elements of their lives beyond their
musicality, such as that of self-confidence, team working, focus, listening
skills, working to guidelines, relating to others, forming positive work rela-
tions and making friends. Notably, many do not describe themselves as
‘musicians’ as an outcome of either the formal or non-formal music educa-
tion that they have received61. As previously stated (see Section 1.4.2.),
‘identities in music’ are based on social categories and cultural musical prac-
tices, whereas ‘music in identities’ relates to the way in which music is used
as a resource in the formation of personal identity (Hargreaves et al.,
2002). In the cases above, it would appear that social categorisation of
‘musician’ is less important than the ability to claim a genre of music as the
authentic property of one group, and by so doing, exclude and discredit
the involvement of all ‘others’ (Hyder, 2004:40). There is evidence that
children hide their real musical interests in order to conform to group
norms62 (Finnas, 1987). The findings from the pupil interviews would
suggest that some pupils adopt multiple versions of their idio-cultures
(Keil, 1994) so as to belong simultaneously to several ‘in-groups’. This
adoption of multiple ‘in-groups’ may act as a risk management strategy,
preventing the young person from exclusion from all in-groups at any one
time. Research that identified seven characteristic types of adolescent mu-
61 The models of inter and intra personal perspectives in relation to available musics (see
Section 1.4.2.) were originally developed in relation to the emergent musical identity of
young people learning music within the formal context (secondary school). The apparent
mismatch in reported musical identities found within the present study requires further in-
vestigation to determine if this is as a result of (i) very small sample sizes, (ii) the setting in
which the research took place, (iii) the dominant musical model presented by the practition-
ers, or (iv) the dominance of ‘alternate Western Musician’ characteristics amongst the young
people included (Saunders, 2010).
62 There is a possibility that the young people who took part in this part of the research chose
to portray a particular understanding of their musical identities that related to the context and
perceived purpose of the research. In order to test this hypothesis, interviews with young
people would need to be carried out in several contexts in which musical experiences take
place in order to ascertain to what extent responses altered according to context.
Communities of Music Education | 109
sical engagement in school (Saunders, 2010) seems to support the hypoth-
esis that young people are able to engage with music on a number of dif-
ferent levels. By extending that research beyond the formal classroom, the
findings here would seem to indicate that these young people maintain
multiple musical identities according to the contexts with which they posi-
tively engage. Consequently, the adoption of multiple in-groups may also
act to dilute any single allegiance. For example, a young person who expe-
riences ‘musical me’ within several different contexts may be able to culti-
vate a wider understanding and lived experience of their musicality.
Creech (2010) suggests that ‘formal and non-formal learning are not al-
ways joined up’ as a consequence of short term projects in which the practi-
tioner has insufficient opportunity to explore the young person’s musical
experience. In the brief descriptions of these young peoples’ experiences,
the formal and non-formal musical provision exist as musical pathways
that run largely parallel, with little or no overlap. All of the young people
included within this section of the research have enjoyed relatively long-
term relationships with the non-formal sector and most continued to at-
tend formal education settings. Their experience of non-formal music
learning was not of a short term nature and yet, from the young person’s
perspective, there was little sense of ‘joining up’ between the two paths. In
such cases, this would not appear to stem from ‘insufficient opportunity to
explore the young person’s musical experience’ (Creech, op.cit.) but from (i)
the young person’s desire to explore different conceptions of musicality
within different settings (see Section 5.1.1), (ii) a perceived lack of suitable
instruments within the formal setting (see Section 5.2.1) or (iii) a division
between the academic (written) approach in formal settings and the prac-
tical (music making) approach in non-formal settings (see Section 5.5.1).
Therefore, the process of ‘joining up’ musical education provision (Creech,
op.cit.) would appear more complex than previously expressed. There is a
need to consider the process not only from a structural perspective, ena-
bling formal and non-formal providers to work more effectively together
(see Section 3.4 and 3.5), but also from (i) a pedagogical perspective, en-
suring that the inherent strengths of musical provision in the non-formal
sector are not diluted (see Section 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5), and (ii) from the
young person’s perspective, guaranteeing that access to high quality musi-
cal experiences are the automatic right of every young person.
Communities of Music Education | 111
6. Implications
of Findings
The young people involved with this research tell of very different
paths through the formal education system. Each recognises that
the time that they have invested in music making in the non-
formal sector, through the provision of musical opportunities by
the case providers, has had a positive impact on their musical
lives and, in addition, impacted on elements of their lives beyond
their musicality, such as that of self-confidence, team working,
focus, listening skills, working to guidelines, relating to others,
forming positive work relations and making friends.
Notably, most of the young people involved in this research do
not describe themselves as ‘musicians’ as an outcome of either the
formal or non-formal music education that they have received. A
young person who experiences a successful concept of ‘musical
me’ within several different contexts is likely to be able to culti-
vate a wider understanding and lived experience of musicality, be-
yond that of the binary distinction of ‘musician’ and ‘non-
musician.’
In the brief descriptions of these young peoples’ experiences, the
formal and non-formal musical provision may exist as musical
pathways that run on parallel pathways, with little or no overlap.
These young people have enjoyed relatively long-term relation-
ships with the non-formal sector and most continued to attend
formal education settings. In these cases, the lack of ‘joining up’
would appear to stem, in part, from the young person’s desire to
explore different conceptions of musicality within alternative set-
tings, a perceived lack of suitable musical instruments within the
formal context, or a perceived mismatch between the academic
(written) approach in formal settings and the practical (music
making) approach in non-formal settings.
The process of ‘joining up’ musical education provision would ap-
pear more complicated than previously expressed. There is a need
112 | Saunders & Welch
to consider the process not only from a structural perspective, en-
abling formal and non-formal providers to work more effectively
together, but also from a pedagogical perspective, ensuring that
the inherent strengths of musical provision in the non-formal
sector are not diluted and from the young person’s perspective,
guaranteeing that the access to high quality musical experiences
in a variety of contexts are the automatic right of every young
person.
The case music providers have drawn attention to a perceived
lack of mutual understanding between potential partners in the
formal and non-formal settings, such as in terms of their ‘ways of
working’ and common understandings of terminology. Research
evidence such as outlined above (see Section 4), that seeks to il-
lustrate both commonalities and differences, may begin to pro-
vide a common understanding and a common language that will
enable meaningful conversations between partners.
Elements observed within the sessions that would appear to be
particular characteristics and/or strengths of musical experiences
within the non-formal context include: (i) limited teacher talk,
(ii) an emphasis on scaffolding and modelling, (iii) the opportu-
nities for horizontal learning relationships in group learning, (iv)
cyclical patterns in ways of working, and (v) an emphasis on aural
skills. These characteristics cannot be seen as entirely discrete be-
haviours, and are instead part of an intimately connected system
of practice demonstrated in the observed sessions and also within
a wider understanding of non-formal learning practices.
A positive pupil-teacher relationship has been associated with
higher levels of identification with music at school (Lamont,
2002; Spence, 2005; Saunders, 2010) and in turn, pupil-teacher
relationships have been found to be positive where pupils feel that
they are able to achieve (Spence, 2005). The responses in this re-
search, suggest that the young person/practitioner relationship is
more complex. The young people described a relationship in
which the practitioner was respectful of, and interested in, the
young person’s musical opinions and preferences. To build and
maintain a positive relationship, the practitioner accommodates
the young person as a musical ‘significant other’ who is able to
mediate musical encounters in social contexts beyond the imme-
diate setting of the practitioner.
Working with partner organisations was seen to as potentially a
positive process, as there were strengths in the ‘different methods of
delivery and ways of working.’ Providers stated that there was not
only a ‘huge amount to learn from one another,’ but that they could
Communities of Music Education | 113
achieve better ‘value for money’ through the ‘sharing of resources.’
This was felt to be important as through shared resources (such
as office space) partners would be able to communicate more ef-
fectively and ‘find out about things by simply being there.’ In addi-
tion, effective working between partners would enable the young
people to gain experience of a ‘variety of ways of working with mu-
sic, outside the mainstream’ of school music.
Trust is needed so that partners feel able to openly discuss issues,
whilst time is required to revisit aspects of partnership as needed
and clarify issues for all concerned (cf. Hallam, 2010). Those case
providers who reported repeatedly successful programmes with
partner organisations were those who had, over an extended peri-
od of time, developed open and strong relationships. A key ele-
ment underlying the variable success of partnership working
would seem to be a lack to time. Sufficient lead time must be in-
troduced into planning stages that allows for each of the partner
organisations to agree their aims and their roles well in advance
on the beginning of a programme of work.
The professional development of staff is central to the ongoing
success of any programme. Findings suggest that there is a need
to ‘define common content and teaching standards, but allow for di-
verse approaches and styles’ (Robinson, 1998:38).
In the best examples of non-formal music provision, the young
people themselves play a role in the decision making process.
Case providers describe how they consult with young people at
the earliest planning stages, how steering groups of young people
are formed and how the young people are educated to inde-
pendently evaluate the outcomes of the provision. By so doing,
the providers ensure that the young people’s voice, in both a mu-
sical and advisory role, is heard.
Evidence from the research suggests that there is an ongoing
need to provide engagement activities that act as ‘hooks’ in order
for young people, particularly vulnerable young people, to re-
engage. Although these short term engagement activities may
lead to a longer and deeper engagement with music provision,
they also play a vital part in offering young people a high quality
musical experience and, for some, a lifeline. For some young peo-
ple, the patchwork of ‘short term kicks’ can be seen instead as a se-
ries of stepping stones across potentially stormy waters.
Communities of Music Education | 115
7. Implications
for Further
Research
During a song writing session, young people were observed to
compose song lyrics as text messages that could be easily distrib-
uted amongst band members. During the process of typing in the
relevant words, as the phones predictive text software created a
list of the possible words they might be intending, the young
people used this list as a ‘word bank’, for example, typing in the
word ‘hurting’ resulted in the additional options of ‘hitting’ and
‘gutting.’ Further research would seek to investigate the impact of
mobile technologies on song writing techniques.
The number of observations made during the pilot phase of this
research project is small. Further research would seek to increase
the number of sessions observed and the variety of musical genres
observed.
The majority of observations made during this pilot study were
all made in non-formal contexts. Further research would seek to
complete further observations of the same practitioners also
working in formal contexts so as to compare and contrast the ex-
tent to which the strategies and techniques used are transferable
across contexts.
Two of the case providers (see Section 3.2 and 3.3) have office
and administrative premises located within the same building as
rehearsal and recording studios. Young people become habituated
to visiting one building to receive a high proportion of their con-
tact with the provider. The beneficial effect of permanent hous-
ing for young peoples’ music provision as opposed to a series of
hired venues may, in some cases, especially for the most vulnera-
ble, be profound (see Section 5.1, where one of the young people
describes the building as a ‘second home’). Further research would
investigate the young people’s perception of and use of space
116 | Saunders & Welch
within the case provider in relation to their musical identities and
sense of self/social inclusion.
The models of inter- and intra-personal perspectives in relation
to available musics (see Section 1.4.2) were originally developed
in relation to the emergent musical identity of young people
learning music within the formal context (secondary school). The
apparent mismatch in reported musical identities found within
the present study requires further investigation to determine if
this is as a result of (i) very small numbers of participants, (ii) the
setting in which the research took place, (iii) the dominant musi-
cal model presented by the practitioners, or (iv) the dominance of
‘alternate Western Musician’ characteristics amongst the young
people included (cf. Saunders, 2010).
There is a possibility that the young people who took part in this
research chose to portray a particular understanding of their mu-
sical identities that related to the context and perceived purpose
of the research. In order to test this hypothesis, interviews with
young people would need to be undertaken in several contrasting
contexts in which musical experiences take place (such as home,
community, informal groups, within/beyond a particular organi-
sation) in order to ascertain to what extent responses altered ac-
cording to context.
A central theme to this exploratory research has been the poten-
tial differences between music provision within the formal and
non-formal sector. The ongoing debate regarding the appropri-
ateness of the terms ‘formal’ and ‘non-formal’ is further complicat-
ed by the provision of ‘non-formal’ style sessions within a ‘formal’
context; such as where the session leaders holds live band work-
shops on school premises, directly after the school day but with
the young people still clothed in school uniform. The extent to
which the understandings and preconditions of the institution
subsequently impact on the behaviours and interpretations of the
young people is not fully understood. Further research would ex-
plore the extent to which the behaviours of young people partici-
pating in musical provision differ according to context and ac-
cepted ‘ways of being.’
A central theme in this exploratory research has been the ways in
which partnerships are created and maintained between different
organisation and music providers. Given the continuing reorgani-
sation of providers and the latest National Music Plan emphasis
in organisational partnership, there is an ongoing need to widen
the study to include a larger number of providers working in a va-
riety of contexts.
Communities of Music Education | 117
Acknowledge-
ments
We are extremely grateful to the young people and musicians who gave so
freely of their time and expertise during the research visits. Their enthusi-
asm and commitment to quality music-making was most impressive. We
are also indebted to our colleagues in the case Youth Music Action Zones,
who not only provided access to the workshops, but insight into their ways
of working and the opportunity to begin to pick apart the complexity of
music education provision today. Their honesty and openness has been
invaluable. We also thank our colleagues at Youth Music for continuing to
share their expertise with us.
Communities of Music Education | 119
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Appendices
130 | Saunders & Welch
Appendix 1
Characteristics of Musical Engagement in Formal (School) contexts (Saun-
ders, 2010)
Figure 15: Variation in themes for type of musical engagement for Disengaged Traditional
Western Musician.
Communities of Music Education | 131
Figure 16: Variation in themes for type of musical engagement Engaged Traditional West-
ern Musician.
Figure 17: Variation in themes for type of musical engagement Engaged Alternative West-
ern Musician.
132 | Saunders & Welch
Figure 18: Variation in themes for type of musical engagement Disengaged Alternative
Western Musician.
Figure 19: Variation in themes for type of musical engagement Engaged Western Non-
Musician.
Communities of Music Education | 133
Figure 20: Variation in themes for type of musical engagement Partially Engaged Western
Non-Musician.
Figure 21: Variation in themes for type of musical engagement Disengaged Western Non-
Musician.
Communities of Music Education | 135
Appendix 2: Session Leader/Teacher Activity Schedule
(adapted from National Singing Programme, 2010)
School: Ye arGroup: Te acher :
RO:
Visit:
NSPR3PilotObservationSchedule
Cod e
TeacherAct ivity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A:Theteacherplanseffectively A1 Recappreviouslesson
andsetsclearobjectivesthat A2 Intro'learningobjective(LO1)
areunderstood A3 Intro'learningoutcomes
A4 Placelearninginwidercontext
A5 PlanforlearningneedsofIEPpupils
B:Theteachingmethodsenablethe B1 Out line succe sscrite ria
studentstolearneffectively B2 Modell ingandScaffolding
B3 SetschallengingtasksrelatedtoLO1
B4 Sharedthinking(teacherled)
B5 Explaining
C:Questioning C1 Questioningpupilopen
C2 Questioningpupilclosed
C3 Challenginghigherorderquestions
C4 Usesquestionstocreatedialogue
C5 Nohands/brainstorm
C6 Waittime
D:Feedback D1 Relate sLob jecti ve stoLou tcome s
D2 Diagnosticfeedback(oral/written)
D3 Timeforreflection/review
D4 Enablespeerassessment
D5 Enablesselfassessment
E:Pl enary E1 Re lat eLobj ecti ves toLout comes
E2 Askspupilstodiscuss/demonstrateLO1
E3 Achievementscelebrated
E4 Lessonplacedincontextforfuture/past
F:Groupsize F1 Groupwork
F2 Wholeclassteaching
F3 Individualwork
F4 Paire dwork
G:Singing/musicalbehaviours G1 Singing
G2 Transmitsenthusiasm
G3 Usesgesturestosupportsinging
G4 Listeningtosinging
G5 Playing(noteinstrument)
H:Classroomorganisation H1 Organisingtechnology
H2 Organisingstaff
H3 Organisingpupils
H4 Orgains ingroom /furni ture
H5 Dealingwithpupilbehaviour
Communities of Music Education | 137
Appendix 3: Young Person/Pupils Activity Schedule
(adapted from National Singing Programme, 2010)
NSPR3PilotObservationSchedule 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
PupilA ctivity
P1 Attentive(static)
P2 ActiveParticipation
P3 Imitating
P4 Questioningpeers
P5 Questioningteacher
P6 Peerworking(teacherled)
P7 Peerworking(peerled)
P8 Sharedthinking(pupilled)
P9 Sharedthinking(teacherled)
P10 Indepe ndentworking
P11 Leading/Demonstrating
P12 Reading
P13 Wri ting copy ing
P14 Wri ting creat ive
P15 Drawingcopying
P16 Draw ing creati ve
P17 Listeningtoteachersinging
P18 Listeningtopeerssinging
P19 Playing(noteinstrument)
P20 Singing
P21 Composing/Improvisi ng
P22 Requestinghelp(ofteacher)
P23 Requestinghelp(ofpeers)
P24 Wai ting
P25 Uninvolve d/Onlooker
P26 Offtaskbehaviour
Other
Other
Communities of Music Education | 139
Appendix 4: Memorandum of Understanding (Example)
Centre of Excellence: Memorandum of Understanding
Background
The Centre of Excellence has been developed and will be run as a
partnership between X School and X Football Club, with the education,
development and wellbeing of the students enrolled at its heart. The two
institutions share much in terms of their values and ethos, and each appre-
ciates supports and frequently shares the objectives of the other. This has
been demonstrated over several years in the highly successful post 16 Ad-
vanced Training Programmes run jointly by the Club and the school.
Agreed Purpose
To provide excellent educational, social and personal provision for 11-
16 year olds that incorporates the quality of coaching and the duration of
training required by potential professional football players.
Success Criteria
Students enrolled to achieve at a higher level educationally, socially
and personally than they would in standard 11-16 schooling, whilst their
football talent is developed to a higher level than would be possible outside
of the Centre of excellence.
X School Commits to:
o Make available up to 15 places in each year group for CoE students, and
consider requests by the club to increase this number
o Delegate the pre-selection of students for the CoE to the Club
o Nominate a member of staff to provide a link to club personnel, and to
provide academic mentoring to the students
o Listen to any concerns expressed by the Club regarding the sporting de-
velopment of CoE students and support the club and the student appro-
priately
o Allow equitable access to training facilities on the school site
o Work with the Club to ensure that students are fully integrated into the
life of the School, whilst their training needs are accommodated
o Provide a high quality academic, vocational and pastoral programme that
integrates with the football training programme
X Commits to:
o Maintain a students’ place on the CoE up to the end of Year 11, even if
their football potential diminishes, for as long as the student wants it and
is willing to commit fully to the programme
o Provide home to school transport for those students on the CoE who do
140 | Saunders & Welch
not qualify for free home to school transport
o Nominate a member of staff to lead and manage the Football side of the
CoE, and to liaise with school staff
o Ensure that training and coaching demands support rather than interfere
with students’ education, social and personal development
o Listen to any concerns expressed by the school regarding the educational,
social and personal development of CoE students and support the school
and the student appropriately
o Work with the School to ensure that students are fully integrated into the
life of the School
o Support the school in the provision of specialist training facilities for CoE
students where possible and appropriate
o Provide a high quality football coaching and training programme that in-
tegrates with students’ educational programme
Communities of Music Education | 141
142 | Saunders & Welch
