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The Longitudinal Relationship Between Reading Fluency and Reading Comprehension Skills in Second-Grade Children
Abstract and Figures
Fluent readers can read connected text with accuracy, automaticity, and prosody. Without practice, automaticity cannot develop in reading, and readers must focus their attention on decoding, limiting their ability to simultaneously comprehend. Researchers have traditionally assumed that fluency and comprehension have a unidirectional relationship whereby fluency affects comprehension. However, a recent study by Klauda and Guthrie suggests that the relationship between fluency and comprehension may be reciprocal over time; that is, comprehension may also predict fluency. In the present study we examine this reciprocal relationship using structural equation modeling. We test various models that measure the relationship between fluency and comprehension over 3 time points spanning an academic year. The results indicate that compared to the traditional model in which fluency predicts concurrent comprehension, models exhibiting a reciprocal relationship do not fit the data better. We discuss the implications of these results.
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... Reading fluency is one of the three sub-processes of reading: word reading (decoding), reading fluency, and reading comprehension (Cadime et al., 2017). Decoding can be simplified to the accuracy of reading and refers to the ability to translate (groups of) letters into sounds (Lai et al., 2014;Silverman et al., 2013). Reading fluency is commonly defined through the automated reading of letters, words and sentences (Silverman et al., 2013). ...
... partly be prerequisites to each other (Lai et al., 2014;Psyridou et al., 2023). While learning to decode is usually completed after the first years of reading lessons, reading fluency continues to develop until late secondary school (van de Ven et al., 2017). ...
The coronavirus-related school closures in Bavaria, as in Germany as a whole, lasted from March to June 2020 and were therefore on an average scale internationally. This study investigates the impact of these closures on reading fluency in elementary students. To evaluate the short-term one month) and long-term (one year) effects of third-grade school closures on reading fluency, we use a longitudinal causal effects approach. The study involved 9,083 students in Bavaria,divided into two cohorts: one affected by third-grade closures, and a control cohort who experienced closures in second grade one year earlier. Data were collected over five measurement points, using the Salzburger Lesescreening (SLS) to assess reading fluency. The study employed a Difference-in-Differences approach with propensity score weighting to estimate causal effects, accounting for confounders like participation in a reading intervention, gender, educationalbackground, and migration status. Pre-COVID data and pre-trend analysis on the study sample indicated a linear increase in SLS raw scores over time. The affected cohort showed no significant deviations from this trend during the pandemic, suggesting neither short-term nor long-term impacts on reading fluency. However, variations in teaching efforts and other COVID-related effects could have influenced these results. In conclusion, findings indicate that school closuresdue to COVID-19 have not impacted reading fluency as one example of a consolidated ability, in third grade students in Southern Germany.
... Authorization to conduct this study was granted by the appropriate university and school district institutional review boards. Because finding a relationship between reading fluency and comprehension is higher in the earlier elementary grades (Lai et al., 2014), we recruited 672 participants from second (n = 346) and third grades (n = 326) from all elementary schools (N = .10) in two school districts in a Mountain West US state. ...
Critical thinking plays a pivotal role in reading comprehension, yet its specific mediating function between reading fluency and comprehension remains underexplored. This study investigates whether critical thinking, operationalized through inductive and deductive reasoning, mediates the relationship between reading fluency and comprehension in seventh-grade students. A sample of 360 students from three private, all-female schools in northern India completed assessments of reading fluency, reading comprehension, and critical thinking. Mediation analysis using the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2018) demonstrated that critical thinking significantly mediated the relationship between fluency and comprehension, increasing the explained variance from 9.4% to 28.7%. Both inductive and deductive reasoning contributed equally to this mediation effect. These findings align with the Direct and Indirect Effects of Reading (DIER) model, suggesting that higher-order cognitive processes facilitate reading comprehension beyond fluency alone. The results highlight the importance of integrating critical thinking instruction into literacy curricula to enhance students' reading comprehension abilities. Implications for educational practice and future research on the intersection of executive function, reading development, and critical thinking are discussed.
Background
We examine effects on oral reading fluency (defined as automatic word recognition and prosody) when phrase‐cued text (defined as marking the phrase boundaries in text) is layered on to readers theatre, an evidence‐based instructional format that includes multiple readings over a period of about 5 days as students practice and prepare to orally perform a poem or play for an audience.
Methods
Ten first‐ to third‐grade students (ages 6–9 years old) who were falling behind reading grade‐level expectations participated in the study. We used a randomised single‐case nonconcurrent multiple‐baseline research design that features a time‐staggered introduction of the instructional intervention across participants, along with an associated randomisation test statistical analysis. The design is particularly well suited to the present study because it yields valid results based on small sample sizes, contains its own control group (because each participant serves as his or her own control) and allows for the testing of the effectiveness of a specific instructional component – in this case, phrase‐cued text.
Results
As hypothesised, adding phrase‐cued phrases led to a statistically significant performance increase on the combination of two subscales of the Multidimensional Fluency Scale (MFS), expression and phrasing, subscales that represent the subconstruct, prosody.
Conclusions
Adding text with highlighted phrase boundaries enhanced the effect of readers theatre on two aspects of prosody: expression and phrasing.
Background: The impact of text reading fluency on reading comprehension has been extensively studied. However, a consensus on the direction of their relationship is lacking, which may be compounded by the nature of this relationship that continues to evolve during the course of reading development. Aims: This study aimed to examine the relationship between text reading fluency and reading comprehension, focusing on whether the pattern of this relationship varies across different reading development stages.Sample: A total of 416 elementary school students in China were selected as participantsMethods: Assessments were conducted twice at a 6-month interval for children studying in grades 2, 4, and 6. The cross-lagged panel model was constructed to explore the dynamic relationship between text reading fluency and reading comprehension. Non-verbal intelligence, decoding, vocabulary knowledge, word-reading fluency, and the auto-regressive effects of text reading fluency and reading comprehension were strictly controlled.Results: The results showed that for children in grade 2, the longitudinal effects between text reading fluency and reading comprehension were not significant. In 4th-grade children, text reading fluency in the first semester was found to be a significant positive predictor of reading comprehension in the next semester, whereas for children in grade 6, reading comprehension in the first semester significantly predicted text reading fluency in the next semester.Conclusions: The results suggested that the nature of the relationship between text reading fluency and reading comprehension is dynamic and complex, varying as a function of grade or the reading development stage.
Curriculum-based measurement of reading (CBM-R) is a common assessment educators use to monitor student growth in broad reading skills and evaluate the effectiveness of instructional programs. Computer-adaptive tests (CATs), such as Star Reading, have been cited as a viable option to formatively assess reading growth. We used Bayesian multivariate-multilevel modeling to compare growth measured via concurrently collected CBM-R and CAT data for 3,192 students across Grades 1 ( n = 298), 2 ( n = 1,149), 3 ( n = 1,062), 4 ( n = 462), and 5 ( n = 221). After standardizing outcomes, the average rate of weekly improvement on each measure was highly similar across grade levels. Between-student variability for growth on each assessment was highly similar across grade levels. The magnitude of residual variance, or error, differed markedly between assessments. In Grades 1 to 3, Star Reading yielded less precise estimates of growth relative to CBM-R, and the opposite results were observed in Grade 5.
One of the most common mental diseases in childhood, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often lasts into adulthood for many individuals. The neurodevelopmental condition known as ADHD impacts three areas of the brain: hyperactivity, impulsivity, and attention. The visual field is where attention is most affected by ADHD. Non-strabismic binocular vision disorder (NSBVD), which impairs eye coordination and makes it challenging to focus, has been linked to ADHD. Through a critical cognitive process called visual attention, humans are able to take in and organize information from their visual environment. This greatly affects how one observes, processes, and understands visual information in day-to-day living. Vision therapy is a non-invasive therapeutic approach that aims to improve visual talents and address visual attention deficits. This study aims to provide an overview of the research on the many approaches to treating ADHD, the relationship between NSBVD and ADHD, and whether vision therapy is a viable treatment option for ADHD. After a comprehensive search of many online resources, relevant studies were found. The review's findings provide insight into the range of ADHD patients' treatment choices. In order to improve treatment outcomes, non-pharmacological treatments can be employed either alone or in conjunction with medicine. Medicine by itself is insufficient and has several severe side effects when used continuously. The efficacy of vision therapy in improving visual attention and making recommendations for potential directions for further research in this field. Multiple studies are needed to identify the most effective treatment modalities for achieving positive outcomes for ADHD patients.
Young children’s prosodic fluency correlates with their reading ability, as children who are better early readers also produce more adult-like prosodic cues to syntactic and semantic structure. But less work has explored this question for high school readers, who are more proficient readers, but still exhibit wide variability in reading comprehension skill and prosodic fluency. In the current study, we investigated acoustic indices of prosodic production in high school students (N = 40; ages 13–19) exhibiting a range of reading comprehension skill. Participants read aloud a series of 12 short stories which included simple statements, wh-questions, yes–no questions, quotatives, and ambiguous and unambiguous multiclausal sentences. In addition, to assess the contribution of discourse coherence, sentences were read in either canonical or randomized order. Acoustic cues known to index prosodic phenomena—duration, fundamental frequency, and intensity—were extracted and compared across structures and participants. Results demonstrated that high school readers as a group consistently signal syntactic and semantic structure with prosody, and that reading comprehension skill, above and beyond lower-level skills, correlates with prosodic fluency, as better comprehenders produced stronger prosodic cues. However, discourse coherence did not produce consistent effects. These results strengthen the finding that prosodic fluency and reading comprehension are linked, even for older, proficient readers.
Damit Schülerinnen und Schüler beim Lesen die Zone der nächsten Entwicklung erreichen können, benötigen sie lernwirksames Feedback. Durch konkrete Hinweise sollen die Kinder nicht nur erfahren, was sie schon können, sondern auch was sie wie als nächstes Lernen sollen. Da die Kinder beim Tandemlesen durch Mitschülerinnen und Mitschüler Feedback erhalten, fällt dieses hier allerdings oft sehr holzschnittartig aus und beschränkt sich auf eine Korrektur der Lesefehler.
Die vorliegenden Unterrichtsmaterialien bieten eine einfach Möglichkeit, dem Lesetrainer strukturiertes Material an die Hand zu geben, um lernwirksames Feedback zu geben. Der Lesesportler kann damit seinen eigenen Lesefortschritt überwachen und sich Ziele setzen. Die Materialien umfassen eine kurze Anleitung sowie identische Kopiervorlagen in Postkartengröße (A6) bzw. Kopierpapier (A4).
Previous research used the learning hierarchy (LH) as a heuristic to select reading interventions based on the level of accuracy defined as the percentage of words read correctly. The current study examined the validity of the LH by reporting the prevalence of reading profiles proposed by the framework: Acquisition phase-inaccurate and slow, Proficiency phase-accurate and slow, and Generalization phase-accurate and fast to determine the extent to which the data could be used to drive reading interventions. The design also included a hypothetical phase of inaccurate and fast, which was not included in the LH. Reading fluency data from 223 second-and third-grade students were compared to accuracy (93%) and rate (national grade-level norms) criteria. When data were classified into the LH phases described above, 44.4% (n = 99) of the students were in the Acquisition phase, 23.8% (n = 53) were in the Proficiency phase, and 31.4% (n = 70) were in the Generalization phase. Less than 1% (n = 1) was in the hypothetical phase of inaccurate and fast, and the rarity of this occurrence was predicted by the LH. These data support the LH as a conceptual framework to drive diagnostic assessment, and the importance of examining accuracy data when designing reading fluency interventions.
Over the past decade, fluent reading has come to be seen as a central component of skilled reading and a driving force in the literacy curriculum. However, much of this focus has centered on a relatively narrow definition of reading fluency, one that emphasizes automatic word recognition. This article attempts to expand this understanding by synthesizing sev- eral key aspects of research on reading fluency, including theoretical perspectives surrounding automaticity and prosody. It examines four major definitions of reading fluency and their relationship to accuracy, automaticity, and prosody. A proposed definition is presented. Finally, the implications of these definitions for current assessment and instruction are considered along with suggestions for reenvisioning fluency’s role within literacy curriculum.
The authors review theory and research relating to fluency instruction and development. They surveyed the range of definitions for fluency, primary features of fluent reading, and studies that have attempted to improve the fluency of struggling readers. They found that (a) fluency instruction is generally effective, although it is unclear whether this is because of specific instructional features or because it involves children in reading increased amounts of text; (b) assisted approaches seem to be more effective than unassisted approaches; (c) repetitive approaches do not seem to hold a clear advantage over nonrepetitive approaches; and (d) effective fluency instruction moves beyond automatic word recognition to include rhythm and expression, or what linguists refer to as the prosodic features of language.
The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of text difficulty on the oral reading prosody of young children. Fluency in reading is ideally determined by measuring rate, accuracy, and prosodic qualities in the oral reading of children. Spectrographic measurements of four prosodic variables—sentence‐final F0 change, intonation contour, intrasentential pausing, and ungrammatical pausing—were carried out on the oral readings of second‐grade students (N = 90) of an easy and a difficult text. Standardized measures of reading fluency (i.e., measuring only rate and accuracy) and reading comprehension were also given. Text difficulty had an impact on children's oral reading on three of the four prosody variables, and fluent children read more expressively than less fluent children. Prosody measured from the more difficult text was found to be more closely related to other aspects of fluency than prosody measured from the easy text. Additionally, prosody measured from the difficult text served as an independent predictor of comprehension skills once rate and accuracy were controlled for, whereas prosody from the easy text did not. It is proposed that good reading prosody is used by children to assist in comprehending the more difficult text.
[Note: Rebekah Benjamin discusses the research presented in this article in a podcast from the “Voice of Literacy”: http:www.voiceofliteracy.orgposts41784 .]
إن الغرض من هذه الدراسة هو بحث تأثير صعوبة النص على عَروض القراءة الشفوية لدى القراء الصغار. مثاليا، يمكن تحديد السلاسة في القراءة بقياس معدل السرعة والدقة وجودة العروض في القراءة الشفوية عند الأطفال. لقد أجريت القياسات التصويربة والضوئية لأربعة متغيرات عروضية‐ تغيير نهاية الجملة ومحيط التنغيم والتوقف داخل الجملة والتوقف الخاطئ نحويا‐ على القراءات الشفوية لطلاب الصف الثاني لنص سهل وآخر صعب. و قُدمت أيضا مقاييس موحدة للقراءة السلسة ( أي قياس معدل السرعة والدقة فقط ) وفهم القراءة. كان لصعوبة النص تأثير على القراءة الشفوية لدى الأطفال في ثلاثة من المتغيرات العروضية الأربعة، كما أن الأطفال الذين يجيدون القراءة هم أحسن تعبيرا من الذين لا يجيدون القراءة. بيّنت العروض المقاسة على نص صعب أنها أوثق صلة بجوانب أخرى من السلاسة من تلك المقاسة على نص سهل. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، فإن العروض المقاسة على النص الصعب هي بمثابة منبّىء مستقل لمهارات الفهم بمجرد ضبط معدل السرعة والدقة في حين أن العروض المطبقة على النص السهل لا يمكن استخدامها كمنبىء مستقل. ويُقترح أن يستخدم الأطفال عروض القراءة الجيدة لمساعدتهم في فهم النصوص الصعبة.
[Podcast: http:www.voiceofliteracy.orgposts41784 .]
本研究旨在考查文本的艰深度对幼童朗读节律之影响。评量儿童朗读流畅度的理想方法是量度他们的朗读速度、准确度及节律素质。90名小学二年级学生接受一深一浅的文本朗读测试。研究者以语音的声谱图量度四个节律变数：句尾基本音频变化、语调轮廓、句子内之停顿及不合语法之停顿。受测试者亦接受标准化阅读流畅度（只量度速度与准确度）及阅读理解测试。文本的艰深度能影响儿童的朗读表现，尤其在四个节律变数之中的三个上；而在表情达意方面，流畅朗读者则比非流畅朗读者较为优胜。阅读流畅度的其他素质与从朗读艰深文本所量得的节律素质，比与从朗读浅易文本所量得的节律素质，有较为密切的相关。此外，当研究者在控制了阅读流畅度与准确度的情况下作分析时，其结果显示，从朗读艰深文本所量得之节律素质，可以成为一个预测阅读理解能力的独立因子，而从朗读浅易文本所量得之节律素质则不可以。本研究提出，儿童运用朗读的良好节律素质来帮助他们理解较艰深之文本。
[Podcast: http:www.voiceofliteracy.orgposts41784 .]
Cette étude avait pour but d'examiner l'impact de la difficulté du texte sur la prosodie de la lecture orale chez de jeunes lecteurs. Idéalement, on définit la fluidité de la lecture en mesurant la vitesse, l'exactitude et les qualités prosodiques de la lecture orale des enfants. Les mesures spectographiques de quatre variables prosodiques—changement de la fréquence fondamentale de fin (Fo) de phrase, contour intonatif, pause intra‐phrase, et pause non‐grammaticale—ont été effectuées sur des lectures orales d'élèves de seconde année (N = 90) sur un texte facile et un texte difficile. On a aussi effectué les mesures standard de fluidité de lecture (c'est‐à‐dire mesures uniquement de la vitesse et de l'exactitude) et de compréhension de la lecture. La difficulté du texte a eu un impact sur la lecture orale des enfants dans trois des quatre variables prosodiques, et les enfants qui lisent couramment ont lu de façon plus expressive que les enfants qui lisent moins couramment. Nous avons trouvé que quand on mesure la prosodie à partir du texte le plus difficile, celle‐ci est plus étroitement liée aux autres aspects de la fluidité que quand on la mesure à partir du texte facile. En outre, la prosodie mesurée à partir du texte difficile permet de prédire de façon indépendante les compétences de compréhension, après que la vitesse et la précision aient été contrôlées, ce que ne permet pas la prosodie avec le texte facile. Selon nous, une bonne prosodie en lecture constitue une aide pour les enfants afin de comprendre un texte plus difficile.
[Podcast: http:www.voiceofliteracy.orgposts41784 .]
Как зависит просодия чтения вслух у маленьких детей от сложности текста? В идеале, беглость чтения определяется скоростью, точностью и качеством просодии. В рамках исследования, которое проводилось на группе второклассников (N = 90), читавших тексты разной трудности, были осуществлены спектрографические замеры четырех просодических переменных: интонационное оформление конца предложения, контур интонации, паузы между предложениями и неграмматические паузы внутри предложений. Одновременно проводились стандартные замеры беглости (т.е., измерялась только скорость и точность), а также проверялось понимание прочитанного. Сложность текста оказала воздействие на три из четырех переменных, а дети с более высокой скоростью чтения читали более выразительно, чем их более медлительные в чтении сверстники. Просодия при чтении более трудного текста оказалась теснее связана с иными аспектами беглости, нежели при чтении легкого текста. Кроме того, стало понятно, что по качеству просодии при чтении трудного текста – при достаточной скорости и точности – можно заранее предсказать, каковы будут навыки понимания. Для легкого текста такой зависимости нет. Авторы делают вывод, что дети используют хорошую просодию для более глубокого понимания сложных текстов.
[Podcast: http:www.voiceofliteracy.orgposts41784 .]
Este estudio examina el impacto de la dificultad del texto en la prosodia de la lectura oral de los niños jóvenes. La fluidez en la lectura oral se determina, en el mejor de los casos, midiendo la velocidad, la precisión y las cualidades prosódicas de la lectura. Medidas espectroscópicas de cuatro variables prosódicas—el cambio F 0 al final de la oración, el contorno de la entonación, las pausas dentro de las oraciones, y las pausas no gramaticales—se hicieron de la lectura oral de estudiantes de segundo grado (N = 90) de un texto difícil y de un texto fácil. También se hicieron medidas estandardizadas de la fluidez en la lectura (o sea, se midieron únicamente la velocidad y la precisión) y de la comprensión de la lectura. La dificultad del texto afectó tres de las cuatro variables prosódicas de la lectura oral de los niños, y se encontró que los niños con fluidez leyeron con más expresión que los niños con poca fluidez. También se encontró que la prosodia medida de los textos más difíciles tenía más relación con otros aspectos de la fluidez que la prosodia medida de los textos fáciles. Además, la prosodia medida de los textos difíciles sirve como un indicio independiente para pronosticar las destrezas de comprensión una vez que la velocidad y la precisión han sido controladas, mientras que la prosodia de los textos fáciles no sirve de tal forma. Se propone que los niños con buena prosodia al leer la usan para entender mejor los textos difíciles.
[Podcast: http:www.voiceofliteracy.orgposts41784 .]
In this study, we examined the beliefs of preservice teachers following their viewing of one of two videotaped presentations on curriculum-based measurement (CBM). In one presentation, statistical information that supported CBM's validity and utility was provided. In the second presentation, anecdotal "first-person" accounts supporting CBM's utility and validity were provided by a teacher who supposedly used CBM in her classroom. Following the videotape, participants responded to a questionnaire addressing their beliefs about CBM's utility and validity. Questions fell into five categories and were asked from three different orientations. Results revealed no effects for presentation format (statistical or anecdotal), but an interaction between category and question orientation was noted. In general, participants' beliefs were more positive about the utility of CBM than about its validity. This difference was most pronounced for student-oriented questions. Across all question types, participants rated as least positive their beliefs about the validity of the number of words read in 1 minute as an indicator of reading comprehension. Implications for practice are discussed.
The study was designed to investigate the effect of two repeated reading procedures on second-grade transitional readers' (Chall, 1983) oral reading performance with practiced and unpracticed passages. Seventeen transitional readers were selected on the basis of average or better decoding ability but below-average reading rate and were assigned to one of two types of repeated reading training, using either a read-along procedure or independent practice. Results showed that transitional readers' rate, accuracy, comprehension, and prosodic reading (reading in meaningful phrases) were significantly improved by repeated reading practice regardless of the training procedure employed. Gains in repeated reading of practiced passages transferred to unpracticed, similar passages; however, practice on a single passage was not as effective as practice on a series of passages. Prosodic reading was most facilitated by the read-along procedure. /// [French] Cette recherche veut étudier l'effet produit par deux procédés de lecture répétée sur les performances d'élèves de deuxième année ayant atteint un niveau de lecture dit transitionnel (lequel se réfère à la capacité de découpage des syllabes) lorsqu'ils doivent lire à haute voix certains passages déjà lus et certains inconnus. On a sélectionné 17 de ces lecteurs démontrant une habileté au décodage moyenne ou supérieure, mais une vitesse de lecture sous la moyenne. Ils ont été soumis à l'un des deux types d'apprentissage de la lecture répétée, soit un procédé de lire avec le voix d'un lecteur met en bande, soit la pratique individuelle. La vitesse de lecture, l'exactitude, la compréhension et l'intonation (à la lecture de phrases significatives) ont été grandement améliorées grâce à l'exercice de lecture répétée, peu importe le procédé utilisé. On a observé le transfert du progrès réalisé par la lecture répétée lors de passages connus sur des passages semblables mais inconnus. Toutefois, l'exercice avec un seul passage ne s'est pas révélé aussi efficace que l'exercice avec une série de passages. Le procédé de lecture en groupe permettait de lire avec une meilleure intonation. /// [Spanish] El estudio fue diseñado para investigar el efecto que dos procedimientos de lectura repetida tienen en la abilidad de lectura con pasajes practicados y no practicados en lectores transicionales de segundo año. Se seleccionaron 17 estudiantes transicionales en base de su habilidad superior o promedio para decodificar material combinada esta con una velocidad de lectura por debajo del promedio, y fueron asignados a uno de dos tipos de entrenamiento de lectura repetida, utilizando un procedimiento de lectura simultánea con la voz de un lector registrada en cinta, o práctica independiente. La velocidad de lectura, la exactitud, comprensión, y lectura prosódica (lectura en frases con significado) de los lectores transicionales mejoraron significativamente debido a la práctica de la lectura repetida independientemente del procedimiento de entrenamiento empleado. Las mejoras en la lectura repetida de pasajes practicados fue transferida a pasajes similares no practicados; con todo, la práctica de un solo pasaje no fue tan efectiva como la práctica de un serie de pasajes. La lectura simultánea con otro lector fue el procedimiento que más facilitó la lectura prosódica. /// [German] Diese studie wurde entworfen, um den Einfluß von zwei Wiederholungslesen-Vorgängen bei mündlichem Vorlesen von geübten und ungeübten Abschnitten bei Uebergangslesern im zweiten Schuljahr zu erforschen. Siebzehn Uebergangsleser wurden ausgewählt aufgrund von Durchschnitts- oder besserer Entzifferungsfähigkeit, jedoch aufgrund weniger als durchschnittlicher Lesefähigkeit, und diese wurden einer von den beiden Typen von Wiederholungslesen-Klassen zugeteilt, wobei entweder eine Zusammen-Lesen-Prozedur oder aber unabhängiges Lesen durchgeführt wurden. Die Leseschnelle, die Genauigkeit, das Verständnis und Silbenlesen (Lesen in logischen Sätzen) von Uebergangslesern wurde wesentlich verbessert durch wiederholtes Lesen, gleich welche Uebungsmethode benutzt wurde. Fortschritte in wiederholtem Lesen von geübten Abschnitten wurden auf ungeübte Abschnitte übertragen; allerdings war das Ueben eines einzelnen Abschnittes nicht so wirkungsvoll wie das Ueben einer Serie von Abschnitten. Silbenlesen wurde am meisten gefördert durch das Miteinander-Lesen.