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Burned to be wild: Herbert Stoddard and the Roots of Ecological Conservation in the Southern Longleaf Pine Forest
Abstract
This essay examines the work of wildlife biologist Herbert Stoddard, who came to the longleaf pine-grassland forests of south
Georgia in 1924 to study the bobwhite quail, and stayed to develop a method of land management that stressed ecological habitat
over the dominant production-oriented model. Stoddard's major early accomplishments were threefold: He helped to create the
new profession of wildlife management, he fought for the reintroduction of fire in the longleaf-grassland system, and he was
among the first to advocate for ecological diversity in cultural landscapes. His work offers new insight on how conservation
played out regionally, suggesting that we rethink the local elements of national conservation policy.
... In 1939, Aldo Leopold traveled to the southeast US as a consultant for the Soil Conservation Service to visit Herbert Stoddard, his friend and colleague who was studying declining bobwhite quail populations in the Red Hills region of South Georgia and north Florida. Stoddard was among the first to advocate for the importance of fire in longleaf pine managementdirectly challenging forestry dogma at the time that fire should be suppressed at all costs (Way, 2006). Upon returning from that trip Leopold wrote "the common assumption is that Stoddard sacrifices forestry and erosion control to game. ...
... Large fire years used to calculate rotation were derived from fire years first filtered for fires occurring on ≥25% of samples by site, then filtered for fires that were synchronous across multiple sites within an ecological landscape. (Way, 2006). In the GLR, understanding forest disturbance processes has so far largely been an afterthought and, when tied to silviculture, primarily through the lens of succession and simple seral stages (Franklin and Johnson, 2012;Meunier et al., 2019a). ...
... and Rupr.) [24,27,28]. However, there is a strip through central South Carolina (SC) where wiregrass is not present and little bluestem is the primary bunchgrass species [27][28][29][30]. This area, running from the northwestern corner of SC to the coast from 35 • N to 33 • N latitudes, has been dubbed the "Wiregrass Gap" [22,27,28]. ...
Prairie and savanna ecosystems have declined dramatically worldwide. In the Southeastern United States, longleaf pine savannas have been reduced to less than 3% of their pre-European range. Restoring longleaf pine across the area has become a regional goal. Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash) is critical to carrying the ecologically important fire through this ecosystem in some longleaf pine savannas. Little bluestem has a range that spans most of north America and is thought to display ecotypic variation. As a part of a longleaf pine restoration project in Camden, SC, we investigated whether the seed source of little bluestem and the site preparation techniques impacted the survival and growth of broadcasted seeds. In the field and greenhouse, we compared locally and commercially sourced seeds and field site preparation techniques including discing, raking, or no treatment. At the end of the growing season, there were significantly more plants grown from seeds collected locally compared to plants from seeds available commercially. Plants grown from locally collected seeds also invested more heavily in roots than plants grown from commercial seeds. Site preparation techniques did not appear to significantly impact plant survival. Collecting seed locally will help to ensure long-term restoration success by establishing populations of plants that are adapted to the local environmental conditions.
... ''Such burning as proves desirable,'' wrote Stoddard (1931:412), ''should preferably be carried on during the dampness of the night and against the wind if there is any blowing.'' Today we know that Stoddard wrote this anemic burning prescription under duress from the U.S. Forest Service and the American Forestry Association (Way 2006). These organizations were dogmatically opposed to burning for any purpose in the 1920s. ...
... Contrary to many forest types, in P. palustris stands, spatial patterns have long been recognized and even successfully incorporated into management (i.e., the Stoddard-Neel method; Jack et al., 2006;Neel et al., 2010). However, the existing silvicultural approach has been criticized because it does not translate well into quantifiable treatment guidelines and has been difficult to teach to timber markers (Way, 2006;O'Hara, 2014). A variety of methods exist to translate natural stand-level spatial variability of structure into tree-marking guidelines, and the individuals, clumps, and openings (ICO) approach is one such method. ...
Question
Stand structural complexity is increasingly valued by forest managers to promote resilience, and quantitative spatial data from reference stands can help achieve these goals. We questioned how stand structural elements were spatially distributed across a Pinus palustris woodland. Specifically, we sought to quantify patterns of individual trees, tree clumps, openings, and canopy disturbance and examine spatial relationships between P . palustris saplings and P . palustris and Quercus spp. trees.
Location
Fall Line Hills, Alabama, USA (32°56′12′′ N, 87°25′37′′ W).
Methods
We recorded tree species, diameter, age, and location of all trees, and reconstructed canopy disturbance events across a 1‐ha site in a P . palustris woodland. We used global point pattern analysis ( g(r) function) and a local spatial classification method (individuals, clumps, and openings) to examine the distribution of stand structural elements and canopy disturbance.
Results
Trees were generally clustered by taxa and diameter. Pinus palustris saplings exhibited no spatial relationship with P . palustris trees, but were clustered around Quercus trees at variable distances. Approximately half of the trees in the stand occurred in large clumps, and ca. 10% of trees occurred as individuals that did not touch crowns with neighbors. For three of the five disturbance periods, canopy disturbances were clustered in space at various distances.
Conclusions
Spatial randomness and clustering of structural elements and canopy disturbance events were evident across the reference site. The spatial patterns of stand structure quantified here, in conjunction with data from other georeferenced studies, can be used to develop silvicultural guidelines to enhance structural complexity and promote resilience.
... Longleaf pine ecosystems have evolved with frequent fire (every 1-3 years; Christensen, 1981); when fire is suppressed for as little as 4 years, the ecosystem loses biodiversity and its structure and function are altered (Way, 2006). Both sites are on a 2-year burn cycle and are burned in odd years during the winter when many understory plants are dormant. ...
Hurricanes affect the structure and function of forests by removing leaf area, reducing biomass, and causing plant mortality. Quantifying the effects of hurricanes on the phenological processes of forests can help to develop a better understanding of the responses of these systems to natural disasters. On October 10, 2018 Hurricane Michael made landfall in the northern Gulf of Mexico causing extensive damage to forests within its path. Using a phenology model, we evaluated the short-term response and recovery of phenological processes of two subtropical forests that were affected by the storm. Our results suggest that the hurricane accelerated senescence in autumn following the storm, leading to a shorter growing season. The response was dependent on the structure of the forest prior to the storm and the degree of damage; the forest with a taller canopy had greater damage, and the recovery period was prolonged compared to the forest with a shorter canopy. In the summer of the first year following the hurricane, ecosystem physiological function began to return to pre-hurricane levels which corresponded to a recovery in growing season length. The functional diversity in the understory may have aided recovery of post-hurricane spring phenology. While summer phenology was synchronized with the rate of vegetation coverage and mainly driven by increase in canopy leaf area, these forests have not completely recovered during the study. As extreme weather events and disasters induced by global climate change may become more frequent, our research can provide a reference for post-disaster forest management practices which can be adapted to local conditions and contribute to restoration efforts.
... The influence of fire on turkeys has been of interest since the 1930s. Herbert Stoddard wrote frequently on using fire to manage northern bobwhite (Way, 2008), and Stoddard's career spanned a period when the U.S. Forest Service was promoting and practicing complete fire suppression (Way, 2006). Stoddard viewed the use of prescribed fire as essential to maintain productive habitats for game by promoting early successional plant communities conducive for foraging, nesting, and brooding (Stoddard, 1935(Stoddard, , 1963. ...
The pine-grassland ecosystems once prevalent in the Southeastern United States were dependent on frequent fire events to maintain plant communities and avoid succession to hardwood and shrub-dominant communities. The use of prescribed fire has replaced naturally occurring fires produced from lightning strikes to maintain remaining pine-grassland systems, and to expand and promote restoration into reclaimed areas. Currently, prescribed fire is a widely accepted management tool promoted by both state and federal wildlife and land-management agencies, and is assumed to be beneficial for both game and non-game species. However, a comprehensive set of guidelines related to use of prescribed fire for promotion of wildlife is lacking for most species, including species whose dependence on fire is presumed to be critical. We reviewed available literature on prescribed fire and its influence on wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in the Southeastern distribution of its range. We reviewed extant literature relative to historical use of prescribed fire for upland gamebird management, and focused on documented effects of fire on life-history characteristics of wild turkeys, including habitat selection, demography, and movement. The literature supported preferential use of areas burned in the previous 3 years, with avoidance of areas lacking a recent fire history. Fire return intervals between 2 and 3 years were generally supported in the literature as optimal to reduce woody shrub encroachment and maintain an herbaceous understory. However, areas infrequently burned, such as mature hardwood forests, provide important habitat during fall and winter, and provide important roosting sites. Contrary to misperceptions among the public, growing-season fire appears to pose little direct risk to wild turkey nests and poults, but research on this topic is limited and only recently initiated. We lack a collective knowledge of the most appropriate spatial scale and extent of prescribed fires for wild turkeys, and a single set of values for these metrics that can be applied throughout the Southeastern U.S. is likely to be unrealistic given variations in local plant communities and landscape composition. Non-target species should be carefully considered before implementing prescribed fire regimes targeted specifically towards wild turkeys, as such fire regimes may not be optimal for other species.
... As a consequence, forest managers are increasingly recognizing the value of disturbance-based land management techniques such as prescribed burning (Long 2009). Although prescribed burning efforts in the Southeastern US pioneered this growing trend in land management (Stoddard 1935;Way 2006), unauthorized fire remains remarkably understudied as a distinct disturbance regime (Prestemon and Butry 2010). This paper reexamines unauthorized fire-setting in the Southeastern US state of Georgia from a historical ecology perspective that aims to contribute to historically informed, disturbance-based land management (Braje and Rick 2013;Swetnam et al. 1999). ...
Forest managers are increasingly recognizing the value of disturbance-based land management techniques such as prescribed burning. Unauthorized, “arson” fires are common in the southeastern United States where a legacy of agrarian cultural heritage persists amidst an increasingly forest-dominated landscape. This paper reexamines unauthorized fire-setting in the state of Georgia, USA from a historical ecology perspective that aims to contribute to historically informed, disturbance-based land management. A space–time permutation analysis is employed to discriminate systematic, management-oriented unauthorized fires from more arbitrary or socially deviant fire-setting behaviors. This paper argues that statistically significant space–time clusters of unauthorized fire occurrence represent informal management regimes linked to the legacy of traditional land management practices. Recent scholarship has pointed out that traditional management has actively promoted sustainable resource use and, in some cases, enhanced biodiversity often through the use of fire. Despite broad-scale displacement of traditional management during the 20th century, informal management practices may locally circumvent more formal and regionally dominant management regimes. Space–time permutation analysis identified 29 statistically significant fire regimes for the state of Georgia. The identified regimes are classified by region and land cover type and their implications for historically informed disturbance-based resource management are discussed.
... These sites have previously been described by Mitchell et al. (1999). Longleaf pine ecosystems have evolved with very high fire frequency (every 1-3 years; Christensen 1981), when fire is suppressed for as little as 4 years the ecosystem loses biodiversity and its structure and function are altered (Way 2006). For this reason our study does not include a ''control site'' where fire is excluded. ...
Frequency and intensity of fire determines the structure and regulates the function of savanna ecosystems worldwide, yet our understanding of prescribed fire impacts on carbon in these systems is rudimentary. We combined eddy covariance (EC) techniques and fuel consumption plots to examine the short-term response of longleaf pine forest carbon dynamics to one prescribed fire at the ends of an edaphic gradient (mesic and xeric sites). We also introduce novel (to the EC research community) statistical time-series approaches to quantify the drivers of carbon dynamics in these systems. We determined that our mesic site was a moderate sink of carbon (−157.7 ± 25.1 g C m−2 year−1), while the xeric site was carbon neutral (5.9 ± 32.8 g C m−2 year−1) during the study. The fire released 408 and 153 g C m−2 year−1 for the mesic and xeric sites, respectively. When loss associated with fire was combined with net ecosystem exchange rates, both sites became moderate carbon sources for the year. Analyses of assimilation and respiration parameters (e.g., maximum photosynthesis, quantum efficiency, and daytime ecosystem respiration) showed a positive trend over time pre-fire and a negative trend over time post-fire for maximum ecosystem CO2 uptake rates, and the opposite relationship for daytime ecosystem respiration rates. Within 30 days following fire, ecosystem physiological activity was statistically similar to pre-fire and appeared to be driven by the pine canopy. Our results suggest that prescribed fire (low intensity, high frequency) maintains the existing structure and function (in this case, carbon flux rates) because longleaf pine ecosystems have evolved with fire. This study, 1 year in length, provides a foundational understanding of the complex interaction between fire and carbon dynamics for longleaf pine ecosystems. Moreover, it provides a case study for applying time series analysis methods to EC data where there are complex relationships between ecosystem physiological activity and environmental drivers. However, to elicit a broader understanding of the complex interaction occurring between fire and carbon dynamics long- term studies are needed.
... Longleaf pine ecosystems have one of the highest rates of fire frequency in the USA [31] and the world [32], and high biodiversity contributes to their unique structure and function [33]. Longleaf ecosystems cannot exist without fire and when fire is suppressed for as little as 4 years the ecosystem loses biodiversity, structure and function [34]. For this reason our study does not include a ''control site'' where fire is excluded. ...
Background/Question/Methods
The frequency and magnitude of fire determines structure and regulates function of savanna ecosystems worldwide, yet our understanding of prescribed fire impacts on carbon dynamics in these systems is rudimentary and becomes more uncertain with changing soil water availability. While we understand that fires occur cyclically and return at frequencies based on fire regime, the impact that fire has on carbon dynamics has often been viewed as a single event. We combined prescribed fire, eddy covariance (EC) techniques and fuel consumption plots over an ongoing study which currently includes 6 years of EC measurements and 3 dormant season burn cycles to examine the cyclic response of fire on longleaf pine forest carbon dynamics along an edaphic gradient (mesic, intermediate and xeric sites), in southwestern Georgia, USA. We estimated linear and nonlinear models, as well as used time series methods new to the EC community, to quantify drivers of carbon dynamics in these systems while addressing the questions: 1) How does fire influence net ecosystem exchange (NEE), gross ecosystem exchange (GEE), and ecosystem respiration (Reco), and how long do these variables take to recover post-fire? 2) Do environmental conditions or prescribed fire have a greater influence on these ecosystems’ carbon dynamics?
Results/Conclusions
We determined from this study that our mesic site was a moderate sink of carbon, while the intermediate and xeric sites were carbon neutral during the course of this study. When loss associated with fire was combined with NEE rates, all sites became moderate carbon sources in the years that included a burn (2009, 2011 and 2013). Analyses of assimilation and respiration parameters (e.g., maximum photosynthesis, quantum efficiency, and daytime ecosystem respiration) showed a positive trend pre-fire and a negative trend post-fire for maximum ecosystem CO2 uptake rates, and the opposite relationship for daytime ecosystem respiration rates. Within 30 to 60 days following fire, ecosystem physiological activity was statistically similar to pre-fire and appeared to be driven by the pine canopy. Our results suggest that prescribed fire (low intensity, high frequency) does not re-set this ecosystem through its removal of litter and understory, but rather maintains the existing structure and function (in this case, carbon flux rates) because longleaf pine ecosystems have evolved with fire. While losses due to fire affected carbon balances on short time scales (instantaneous to a few months), environmental variation over the study was more important in determining the carbon dynamics of the longleaf pine ecosystem.
... Longleaf pine ecosystems have one of the highest rates of fire frequency in the USA [31] and the world [32], and high biodiversity contributes to their unique structure and function [33]. Longleaf ecosystems cannot exist without fire and when fire is suppressed for as little as 4 years the ecosystem loses biodiversity, structure and function [34]. For this reason our study does not include a ''control site'' where fire is excluded. ...
Background/Question/Methods
Current general circulation models (GCMs) predict increased periods of prolonged drought in the Southeastern United States, and the average area burned annually in some forests may double by the year 2050. These predictions are largely associated with catastrophic wildfires in forests with long fire return intervals. These disturbances cause major changes in ecosystem carbon dynamics and forest structure, and recovery can take hundreds of years. Longleaf pine forests in the southeastern United States experience frequent, low intensity fires that sustain woodland forest structure and the highest levels of biodiversity recorded in North America. To date, only a limited number of studies have focused on prescribed fire's role in ecosystem carbon dynamics. We used the eddy covariance method along an edaphic moisture gradient in longleaf pine forests at the Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center in Newton, Georgia to investigate how interactions between soil water availability and fire affect net ecosystem exchange (NEE). We hypothesized that soil water availability would play a larger role than fire in regulating ecosystem carbon dynamics. Observations began in the summer of 2008, and in the winter of 2009, prescribed fires were conducted on each site.
Results/Conclusions Results from the first year show that the mesic site was a carbon sink (NEE = -142.16 g C m-2yr-1), and the xeric site was a slight carbon source (NEE = 13.82 g C m-2 yr-1). We attribute this to larger total leaf area index (LAI) and a faster rate of recovery from disturbance at the mesic site. NEE was reduced at both sites during January 2009 (the month of the fires), but recovered quickly by February 2009 due to a change in the diurnal source and sink relationships. These decreases in NEE appear to have been driven more by water availability associated with drought when the fires were conducted, than with the direct loss of photosynthetic capacityassociated with the burn. The quick recoveries of typical NEE rates at both sites are associated with the high evolutionary adaptation of these plant communities to low intensity fire. These findings also suggest the need to characterize the fire-adapted ecosystem process rates as a function of a broad range of abiotic controls across fine temporal scales and larger regional scales. Future analyses will focus on the seasonal and inter-annual variability of climate and soil water availability on ecosystem carbon dynamics.
... These sites have previously been described by Mitchell et al. (1999). Longleaf pine ecosystems have evolved with very high fire frequency (every 1-3 years; Christensen 1981), when fire is suppressed for as little as 4 years the ecosystem loses biodiversity and its structure and function are altered (Way 2006). For this reason our study does not include a ''control site'' where fire is excluded. ...
Frequency and intensity of fire determines the structure and regulates the function of savanna ecosystems worldwide, yet our understanding of prescribed fire impacts on carbon in these systems is rudimentary. We combined eddy covariance (EC) techniques and fuel consumption plots to examine the short-term response of longleaf pine forest carbon dynamics to one prescribed fire at the ends of an edaphic gradient (mesic and xeric sites). We also introduce novel (to the EC research community) statistical time-series approaches to quantify the drivers of carbon dynamics in these systems. We determined that our mesic site was a moderate sink of carbon (-157.7 ± 25.1 g C m-2 y-1), while the xeric site was carbon neutral (5.9 ± 32.8 g C m-2 y-1) during the study. The fire released 408 and 153 g C m-2 y-1 for the mesic and xeric sites, respectively. When loss associated with fire was combined with net ecosystem exchange (NEE) rates, both sites became moderate carbon sources for the year. Analyses of assimilation and respiration parameters (e.g., maximum photosynthesis, quantum efficiency, and daytime ecosystem respiration) showed a positive trend over time pre-fire and a negative trend over time post-fire for maximum ecosystem CO2 uptake rates, and the opposite relationship for daytime ecosystem respiration rates. Within 30 days following fire, ecosystem physiological activity was statistically similar to pre-fire and appeared to be driven by the pine canopy. Our results suggest that prescribed fire (low intensity, high frequency) maintains the existing structure and function (in this case, carbon flux rates) because longleaf pine ecosystems have evolved with fire. This study, one year in length, provides a foundational understanding of the complex interaction between fire and carbon dynamics for longleaf pine ecosystems. Moreover, it provides a case study for applying time series analysis methods to EC data where there are complex relationships between ecosystem physiological activity and environmental drivers. However, to elicit a broader understanding of the complex interaction occurring between fire and carbon dynamics long- term studies are needed.
... Longleaf pine ecosystems have one of the highest rates of fire frequency in the USA [31] and the world [32], and high biodiversity contributes to their unique structure and function [33]. Longleaf ecosystems cannot exist without fire and when fire is suppressed for as little as 4 years the ecosystem loses biodiversity, structure and function [34]. For this reason our study does not include a ''control site'' where fire is excluded. ...
Fire regulates the structure and function of savanna ecosystems, yet we lack understanding of how cyclic fire affects savanna carbon dynamics. Furthermore, it is largely unknown how predicted changes in climate may impact the interaction between fire and carbon cycling in these ecosystems. This study utilizes a novel combination of prescribed fire, eddy covariance (EC) and statistical techniques to investigate carbon dynamics in frequently burned longleaf pine savannas along a gradient of soil moisture availability (mesic, intermediate and xeric). This research approach allowed us to investigate the complex interactions between carbon exchange and cyclic fire along the ecological amplitude of longleaf pine. Over three years of EC measurement of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) show that the mesic site was a net carbon sink (NEE = -2.48 tonnes C ha(-1)), while intermediate and xeric sites were net carbon sources (NEE = 1.57 and 1.46 tonnes C ha(-1), respectively), but when carbon losses due to fuel consumption were taken into account, all three sites were carbon sources (10.78, 7.95 and 9.69 tonnes C ha(-1) at the mesic, intermediate and xeric sites, respectively). Nonetheless, rates of NEE returned to pre-fire levels 1-2 months following fire. Consumption of leaf area by prescribed fire was associated with reduction in NEE post-fire, and the system quickly recovered its carbon uptake capacity 30-60 days post fire. While losses due to fire affected carbon balances on short time scales (instantaneous to a few months), drought conditions over the final two years of the study were a more important driver of net carbon loss on yearly to multi-year time scales. However, longer-term observations over greater environmental variability and additional fire cycles would help to more precisely examine interactions between fire and climate and make future predictions about carbon dynamics in these systems.
Despite mounting critiques, extinction continues to be framed as a unidirectional problem where humans, through acts of negligence and intent, lead nonhuman species to their demise. In addition to universalizing the actors and processes involved, unidirectional approaches overlook the ways nonhuman beings participate in the extinction of others and the ways extinction continues to impact multispecies communities long after the violent event or the death of an endling. With its focus on how nonhuman animals experience and navigate violence, the field of critical animal studies can illustrate how nonhuman animals contribute to extinction events and how extinction unfolds across distinct groups over extended temporal periods. Placing critical animal studies in conversation with species loss, this article takes up the longleaf pine forests of the US South, an ecological community that was once among the largest in the world and is now among the most endangered. I consider how late-nineteenth and earlytwentieth century naval stores and logging operations used animal labour and the logics of animality to extract longleaf pine and its products. Animal-dependent industries like turpentining and logging, I argue, were part of what John Levi Barnard calls an ‘extinctionproducing economy’. Looking at the labour of oxen, mules, and horses, together with the Black and immigrant labourers tasked with providing their care, I ask how animals and their human caretakers become caught up in the wider deaths of others. Acknowledging that the absences resulting from species loss extend beyond the historical events and timeframes that produced them, I then examine how subsequent generations of humans and nonhumans have inherited the loss of longleaf forests. Turning to Janisse Ray’s memoirs Ecology of a Cracker Childhood and Wild Card Quilt: The Ecology of Home, I consider her family’s involvement in eradicating longleaf forests and how this loss continues to be experienced.
This chapter examines the environmental region as a middle level of knowledge production between local and universal, focusing on the US Department of Agriculture’s Office of Dryland Agriculture in the early twentieth century, under E. C. Chilcott. The office supported branch field stations dispersed across the Great Plains—a region experiencing a tremendous influx of farming immigrants during this period—and these stations undertook coordinated agronomic experiments and measurements of ecological variables throughout the region. Such a regionalized ecological approach to agricultural research was not only similar in many respects to research in the emerging field of ecology but also produced knowledge claims contrasting markedly with the contemporaneous “scientific soil culture” movement led by promoters such as Hardy Webster Campbell. At the same time, the practice of agricultural research involving systematic coordination of research design and uniform collection of ecological variables generated some tensions between federal and state scientists.
In 1935 naturalist James T. Tanner was a twenty-one-year-old graduate student when he saw his first ivory-billed woodpecker, one of America rarest birds, in a remote swamp in northern Louisiana. At the time he was part of an ambitious expedition traveling across the country to record and photograph as many avian species as possible, a trip organized by Dr. Arthur Allen, founder of the famed Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Two years later Tanner hit the road again, this time by himself and in search of only one species that ever-elusive ivory-bill. Sponsored by Cornell and the Audubon Society, Jim Tanner work would result in some of the most extensive field research of the magnificent woodpecker ever conducted. Drawing on Tanner personal journals and written with the cooperation of his widow, Nancy, Ghost Birds recounts, in fascinating detail, the scientist dogged quest for the ivory-bill as he chased down leads in eight southern states. With Stephen Lyn Bales as our guide, we experience the same awe and excitement that Tanner felt when he returned to the Louisiana wetland he had visited earlier and was able to observe and document several of the ghost birds including a nestling that he handled, banded, and photographed at close range. Investigating the ivory-bill was particularly urgent because it was a fast-vanishing species, the victim of indiscriminant specimen hunting and widespread logging that was destroying its habitat. As sightings became rarer and rarer in the decades following Tanner remarkable research, the bird was feared to have become extinct. Since 2005, reports of sightings in Arkansas and Florida made headlines and have given new hope to ornithologists and bird lovers, although extensive subsequent investigations have yet to produce definitive confirmation. Before he died in 1991, Jim Tanner himself had come to believe that the majestic woodpeckers were probably gone forever, but he remained hopeful that someone would prove him wrong. This book fully captures Tanner determined spirit as he tracked down what was then, as now, one of ornithology true Holy Grails. © 2010 by The University of Tennessee Press. All rights reserved.
In early January 1937, James T. Tanner loaded up his car and headed south. Over the next three years the twenty-two-year-old Cornell graduate student would spend nearly twenty-one months in the field, logging more than forty thousand miles on his 1931 Model A Ford and covering untold additional terrain by train, foot, boat, and horse.1 The goal of this long, arduous journey was to learn more about the elusive ivory-billed woodpecker, known to science as Campephilus principalis, but known variously to locals across its range as the "ivory-bill," the "kent," the "king of the woodpeckers," and the "Lord God bird." With its striking coloration, curious call, and wingspan of approximately thirty inches, it was not only the largest woodpecker in the United States but also one of the most impressive of its kind anywhere in the world. This aweinspiring bird had once graced the moist bottomlands and swampy forests across the Southeast. But as its habitat increasingly fell victim to agricultural development and logging in the years surrounding the American Civil War, its range had been dramatically reduced and its numbers dangerously thinned.2 Although occasional claims of sightings continued at a handful of locations, by the time Tanner departed from Ithaca, it was clearly teetering on the brink of extinction. He hoped to discover exactly how many ivory-bills remained, to identify the specific sites they still inhabited, and to document their life history, behavior, and ecology. Ultimately Tanner and his sponsor, the National Association of Audubon Societies, hoped his research would lead to policies that would rescue the beleaguered species.
Hunters have been a fundamental component of northern bobwhite quail conservation for most of the past century. Bobwhite quail hunters funded the first modern comprehensive life history study of a wild vertebrate in the 1920s to understand causes responsible for population declines. This investigation identified a causal link between frequent applications of prescribed fire and persistence of bobwhite quail populations in the Southeastern United States, and provided the foundation for contemporary fire ecology science. Since then, hunters in the Southeastern and Midwestern United States have funded numerous other bobwhite quail research and conservation efforts. Research and conservation efforts funded by quail hunters in Texas continue to be especially notable. Non-governmental organizations, and academia, as well as state and federal wildlife agencies have been the conduits for efforts to sustain bobwhite quail populations because predominant land uses no longer support bobwhite quail.
This volume of essays on the history of the field sciences-the (partial) record of an informal conference in May 2007-affords an occasion to reflect on the changes that have occurred in this subject since Science in the Field, the 1996 volume of Osiris edited by Henrika Kuklick and myself.1 Have our predictions been born out; and what new turns has the history of field science taken in the intervening ten-plus years? And where does it seem to be heading in the next ten or so?.
Over the last century, natural resource management on forest lands has shifted from a singular focus on resource extraction to many foci, such as recreation, tourism, conservation, view-scapes, cultural and spiritual values, sustainability, and other values. As a result, the information needs of land managers must now include social and cultural values. In addition, the public's interest in having greater participation in land management decisions and in generating scientific knowledge has never been greater. The generation of scientific knowledge which is expressed primarily through conventional means - such as peer-reviewed publications targeting academics and technology transfer (e.g., patents, licenses, agreements) primarily for government and industry - does not always satisfy the needs of resource managers and public. In recent decades, there has been rapid growth of methods to help bridge this gap by better connecting new knowledge and knowledge generation with public needs. The U.S. Forest Service is making science delivery as important goal as science creation, including structural institutional changes at the interface among researchers, resource managers, and the public, allocating an appropriate portion of project funding specifically for delivery. The Forest Service is considering increasing its use of citizen science and participatory research - which brings resource managers, decision makers, and the public into the research process to varying extents - as part of the agency's science delivery efforts. Here we explore citizen science and participatory research as possible vehicles to augment existing science delivery efforts from the perspective of a federal land management agency. We found that these mechanisms facilitate public involvement in fundamentally different ways. Depending on the type of research and desired use of research outcomes, either citizen science or participatory research could enhance the use of science in some natural resource management discussions, possibly leading to supportable solutions. Published by Elsevier B.V.
The subject of this paper is a pioneering field study of bobwhite quail by the trapper-turned-ecologist Paul Errington and the environmentalist Aldo Leopold. Their project is significant in several ways. It produced an influential environmental view of predation and contributed to Leopold's celebrated environmental ethic of “land health.” It also exemplifies a generic type of intensive or “residential” field practice, which involves knowing a research locale as intimately its human or animal residents know it, but also as generally as do cosmopolitan scientists. Finally, this essay argues that Errington's ecology and Leopold's ethic were shaped by their own residential trajectories, from the rural Midwest of their youths, through wilder environments of the Southwest and Canadian North, and back again. Place shapes field science: not just the place where research is carried on, but the places where investigators have been in their mobile careers.
Over the last century, natural resource management on forest lands has shifted from a singular focus on resource extraction to many foci, such as recreation, tourism, conservation, view-scapes, cultural and spiritual values, sustainability, and other values. As a result, the information needs of land managers must now include social and cultural values. In addition, the public's interest in having greater participation in land management decisions and in generating scientific knowledge has never been greater. The generation of scientific knowledge which is expressed primarily through conventional means – such as peer-reviewed publications targeting academics and technology transfer (e.g., patents, licenses, agreements) primarily for government and industry – does not always satisfy the needs of resource managers and public. In recent decades, there has been rapid growth of methods to help bridge this gap by better connecting new knowledge and knowledge generation with public needs. The U.S. Forest Service is making science delivery as important goal as science creation, including structural institutional changes at the interface among researchers, resource managers, and the public, allocating an appropriate portion of project funding specifically for delivery. The Forest Service is considering increasing its use of citizen science and participatory research – which brings resource managers, decision makers, and the public into the research process to varying extents – as part of the agency's science delivery efforts. Here we explore citizen science and participatory research as possible vehicles to augment existing science delivery efforts from the perspective of a federal land management agency. We found that these mechanisms facilitate public involvement in fundamentally different ways. Depending on the type of research and desired use of research outcomes, either citizen science or participatory research could enhance the use of science in some natural resource management discussions, possibly leading to supportable solutions.
The cotton boll weevil's threat to the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta at the start of the twentieth century reveals how the region's
elite landowners used racism and social power to maintain control over a vast agro-environment in the face of a potentially
devastating natural threat. The insect pest put their cotton kingdom in peril, and planters responded by approaching this
beetle not as a natural disaster, but as a human one. Their preparations for the weevil's arrival show that they understood
their control over the environment as rooted in their “natural” place atop a social order and labor system based on white
supremacy and access to scientific expertise. Planters hoped to protect their place in this order, and thereby defend their
cotton from the weevil, by managing knowledge about the insect as a means of controlling farm workers. Building on recent
work in southern environmental history, this article uncovers the ways white landowners' ideologies about race and labor shaped
their approach to the agro-environment and its pests.
This article details the complex natural and cultural history of red wolf (Canis rufus) restoration in the American South. The decisions and methods utilized in the red wolf’s recovery after 1960 were unprecedented and creative but not geographically limited. The federal red wolf recovery experiment highlights the debate over what constitutes a species in a dynamic world, and the practical challenges and unexpected results in endangered species management in peopled landscapes. This wildlife restoration story illustrates not only the “hands-on” management role humans played, and continue to play, but also reveals cultural assumptions about what constitutes a “wild” wolf and about the necessity of wilderness. The red wolf recovery project provides constructive lessons for future species restoration involving flora and fauna on public and private land, and demonstrates human and animal engagement in the making of nature and culture.
Biological field stations proliferated in the Rocky Mountains region of the western United States during the early decades of the twentieth century. This essay examines these Rocky Mountain field stations as hybrid lab-field sites from the perspective of the field side of the dichotomy: as field sites with raised walls rather than as laboratories whose walls with the natural world have been lowered. Not only were these field stations transformed to be more like laboratories, but they were also embedded within the particular regional environmental and institutional context of the Rocky Mountains. Using the University of Colorado's Mountain Laboratory at Tolland and other contemporaneous sites as examples, this essay analyzes key features of these sites, including their location within transportation networks, buildings, equipment, personnel, scheduling, recreational and social activities, and other material and social practices on the ground. Considering both the distinctive and shared characteristics of the Rocky Mountain field stations in comparison to other types of field stations provides a more complete picture of the diversity and range of lab-field hybrid sites in the biological sciences in the early twentieth-century United States.
The year 2005 marked the centennial of the founding of the United States Forest Service (USFS). Samuel P. Hays uses this occasion to present a cogent history of the role of American society in shaping the policies and actions of this agency. From its establishment in 1905 under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture, timber and grazing management dominated the agency's agenda. Due to high consumer demand for wood products and meat from livestock, the USFS built a formidable system of forest managers, training procedures, and tree science programs to specifically address these needs. This strong internal organization bolstered the agency during the tumultuous years in the final one-third of the century—when citizens and scientists were openly critical of USFS policies—yet it restricted the agency's vision and adaptability on environmental issues. A dearth of ecological capabilities tormented the USFS in 1960 when the Multiple-Use and Sustained-Yield Act set new statutes for the preservation of wildlife, recreation, watershed, and aesthetic resources. This was followed by the National Forest Management Act of 1976, which established standards for the oversight of forest ecosystems. The USFS was ill equipped to handle the myriad administrative and technological complexities that these mandates required. In The American People and the National Forests, Hays chronicles three distinct periods in USFS history, provides a summarizing âlegacyâ for each, and outlines the public and private interests, administrators, and laws that guided the agency's course and set its priorities. He demonstrates how these legacies affected successive eras, how they continue to influence USFS policy in the twenty-first century, and why USFS policies should matter to all of us.
Aldo Leopold's classic work A Sand County Almanac is widely regarded as one of the most influential conservation books of all time. In it, Leopold sets forth an eloquent plea for the development of a "land ethic" -- a belief that humans have a duty to interact with the soils, waters, plants, and animals that collectively comprise "the land" in ways that ensure their well-being and survival.For the Health of the Land, a new collection of rare and previously unpublished essays by Leopold, builds on that vision of ethical land use and develops the concept of "land health" and the practical measures landowners can take to sustain it. The writings are vintage Leopold -- clear, sensible, and provocative, sometimes humorous, often lyrical, and always inspiring. Joining them together are a wisdom and a passion that transcend the time and place of the author's life.The book offers a series of forty short pieces, arranged in seasonal "almanac" form, along with longer essays, arranged chronologically, which show the development of Leopold's approach to managing private lands for conservation ends. The final essay is a never before published work, left in pencil draft at his death, which proposes the concept of land health as an organizing principle for conservation. Also featured is an introduction by noted Leopold scholars J. Baird Callicott and Eric T. Freyfogle that provides a brief biography of Leopold and places the essays in the context of his life and work, and an afterword by conservation biologist Stanley A. Temple that comments on Leopold's ideas from the perspective of modern wildlife management.The book's conservation message and practical ideas are as relevant today as they were when first written over fifty years ago. For the Health of the Land represents a stunning new addition to the literary legacy of Aldo Leopold.
Much of American soil has been poorly treated since European settlement. Many early settlers brought poor agricultural practices with them: the Scots, for example, were known for their crude agriculture as late as 1780. The cheap and unlimited land promoted a widespread attitude that land could be used, exhausted, or destroyed as the case may be, and then abandoned for new land. Such a system existed well into the 20th century, at least in much of the southeast, and the depredations on the landscape are still visible today.-from Author
List of Illustrations List of Tables Preface Introduction: The Hidden History of American Conservation PART ONE: Forest: The Adirondacks 1. The Re-creation of Nature 2. Public Property and Private Parks 3. Working-Class Wilderness PART TWO: Mountain: Yellowstone 4. Nature and Nation 5. Fort Yellowstone 6. Modes of Poaching and Production PART THREE Desert: The Grand Canyon 7. The Havasupai Problem 8. Farewell Song Epilogue: Landscapes of Memory and Myth Chronology of American Conservation Notes Bibliography Index
Foreword: Why Worry about Roads, by William CrononAcknowledgmentsThe Problem with WildernessKnowing nature through Leisure: Outdoor Recreation during the Interwar YearsA Blank Spot on the Map: Aldo LeopoldAdvertising the Wilde: Robert Sterling YardWilderness as Regional Plan: Benton MacKayeThe Freedom of the Wilderness: Bob MarshallEpilogue: A Living WildernessNotesSourcesIndex
Health. to Aldo Leopold it was the most vital function of living organisms. Land, like the human body, Leopold argued, was subject to disturbances that resulted in sickness and possessed a physiological capacity for self-renewal once disturbed. The allusions to land health in A Sand County Almanac, a text heralded for laying the foundations of biocentrism, are striking. How are we to make sense of this seemingly incongruous mixture of medicine - the most anthropocentric of scientific arts - with conservation - the province and values of which Leopold hoped to ground largely in nonhuman nature? Why, if health was so central to Leopold's conservation thought and practice, has it not been a subject more central to environmental history? This essay offers a pr eliminary historiographic survey of landscape and disease in American environmental history. It is a search for past places where health dwelled prominently in the landscape and shaped human-environment interactions. Whether through intimate bodily experience of illness and place, or through abstracted scientific knowledge of ecological communities, conceptions of health have been integral to environmental experience and understanding. As Leopold recognized, health is a relational concept. Health acquires meaning only by virtue of the relationships between and among living organisms - be they the cells of the human body or the species of a biotic community - and their environments. Knowledge, too, is a relational concept. It is the product of a network of material, social, and symbolic relations between and among human and non-human actors. In cutting across the categories of human and non-human, health offers a useful means for rethinking nature and how we come to know the natural world.
In his twelve years as the nation's chief forester, Pinchot transformed a sleepy office of ten that controlled no forests of its own, into the U.S. Forest Service with a staff of over 2,500. Many of these foresters were professionally trained - a disproportionate number at the Yale School of Forestry. The Forest Service actively managed an empire of reserves which, by the time Pinchot was forced out of office in 1910, consisted of approximately 200 million acres. Pinchot also promoted the concept of conservation as Teddy Roosevelt's de facto adviser on this policy area and through numerous presidential commissions. Before examining Pinchot's use of personal and financial ties, his metamorphosis from novice forester to American expert, and his turn toward market models in order to demonstrate that forestry paid, it is useful to examine Gifford Pinchot's personal motivations and how he reconciled these with the demands of career, religion, and class. Pinchot's personal resolution, it turned out, resonated with millions of Americans precisely because it resolved some of the tensions between consumption and utility (categorized later by scholars as preservation and conservation). Pinchot was no theorist. More than anything else, he was a guy who wanted to get out into the woods. But there was no escaping the upper-class background, religious upbringing and parental demands that enveloped him. It was out of these influences that Pinchot forged a career in forestry. Nor did there seem to be any way to manage a forest successfully save through the federal government. The solutions that Pinchot crafted to these pressures ultimately did help him get out into the woods, at least when he was not behind his federal desk.
For nineteenth-century Americans, human bodies were not independent of the natural environment but continually permeated and changed by it. Consequently, the colonization of western lands raised anew critical questions about the nature of racialized bodies, North American environments, and the relation between the two. Certain environments threatened particular kinds of bodies, even while the labor of bodies could, in turn, alter those same environments. The relationship between bodies and landscapes was reciprocal and dynamic. The challenge lay in harmonizing the two, for environmental changes would be registered, for better or for worse, in the health of local people.
First describes the South Atlantic landscape, then outlines the impact of Old World explorers, human habitation, forestry and agriculture on these ecosystems. This assessment of ecological changes stresses the significance of Native Indians and African slaves in addition to the white settlers, and pays particular attention to regional variations, explaining how local geography and settlement patterns influenced the environment. Although the focus is on the English South, the book also shows how economic and ecological developments in Europe, the Caribbean, and elsewhere frequently dictated how South Atlantic colonists used their land. -after Author
Professor Chapman has long studied the influence of fire on the reproduction of longleaf pine. In this article he distinguishes between (1) burning preceding seeding and subsequent complete or periodic protection and (2) complete protection before and after seeding. His experiments convince him that the ground must be freed of competing material prior to seed fall by means of fire but that annual burning subsequent to seeding is highly detrimental. His experiments on intermittent burning and protection at two- to three-year intervals after seeding and prior to the start of height growth are not completed, but they indicate some value in bringing about conditions favorable to healthy height growth.
Environmental history in and of the American South has developed in a different direction than the field in general in the U.S., which has been shaped by its origins in the history of the American West. The history of humans and the environment in the South has been much more driven by the history of agriculture than by frontier or wilderness interactions, as well as by the history of the relationship between white and black Americans and their respective uses of the land in the region. It also has more in common with environmental history outside the U.S. than with the field as it at first developed in the U.S.
ABSTRACT The loss and abandonment of agricultural land in thirty-one states of the eastern United States has been more widespread than is commonly recognized. Changes in the acreage of cleared farm land provide a better indication of farm land loss and abandonment than changes in the total acreage of farm land, because of geographical and historical variations in the acreage of farm woodland. Eight areas in the East experienced especially heavy losses of cleared farm land between 1910 and 1959. No single statistical indicator provides a satisfactory explanation of the complex geographical patterns of loss and abandonment. Although urban expansion is a major cause for the permanent loss of cleared farm land, and despite its importance on the fringes of metropolitan areas, it is but one of many factors which influence loss and abandonment. Strip mining and the loss of a locally dominant crop have been important factors in certain areas. The Soil Bank program has had its greatest impact upon land of intermediate quality. Land acquisition by forest industry companies has borne little relationship to the loss and abandonment of farm land. In the East as a whole it appears that physical hindrances to effective agriculture have been the most important factor influencing the loss and abandonment of cleared farm land.
When the cotton boll weevil crossed the Mexican border into Texas around 1892 andbegan a slow march across the Cotton Belt, many predicted that the pest would destroythe plantation South, whose economy and society rested on the production of cotton.As the pest began devouring the staple and moving through the region, land owners,tenants, politicians, and extension agents continued to paint the pest as a direct threatto their livelihoods. Despite the fear that gripped the South, by the time the weevil madeits way to the Atlantic Ocean, the pest had made no major, lasting effect on theeconomic, social, or environmental structures of the region. This dissertation examineshow individuals and communities in Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, andGeorgia reacted to the arrival of the pest, and how in each place forces acted to use theboll weevil to advance their own purposes. Instead of blaming antiquated creditsystems, Jim Crow racial codes, and poor agricultural practices, contemporaries andscholars alike used the boll weevil as a material scapegoat for enduring poverty in therural South, as well as changes to the land and society that had little to do with the pest's arrival. Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Georgia, 2004. Directed by James C. Cobb. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 379-411). Electronic reproduction. s
Thesis (Ph. D. in History)--Vanderbilt University, 2002. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 225-245).
By the 1880s hay fever (also called June Cold, Rose Cold, hay asthma, hay cold, or autumnal catarrh) had become the pride of America's leisure class. In mid-August each year, thousands of sufferers fled to the White Mountains of New Hampshire, to the Adirondacks in upper New York State, to the shores of the Great Lakes, or to the Colorado plateau, hoping to escape the dreaded seasonal symptoms of watery eyes, flowing nose, sneezing fits, and attacks of asthma, which many regarded as the price of urban wealth and education. Through a focus on the White Mountains as America's most fashionable hay fever resort in the late nineteenth century, this essay explores the embodied local geography of hay fever as a disease. The sufferers found in the White Mountains physical relief, but also a place whose history affirmed their social identity and shaped their relationship to the natural environment. And, they, in turn, became active agents in shaping the geography of place: in the very material relationships of daily life, in the social contours of the region, and in the symbolic space that nature inhabited. In the consumption of nature for health and pleasure, this article suggests, lies an important, yet relatively unexplored, source for understanding changing perceptions of environment and place and the impact of health on the local and regional transformation of the North American landscape.
Committee of the Quail Study Fund For Southern Georgia and Northern Florida
- Herbert Stoddard
Herbert Stoddard, "Report on Cooperative Quail Investigation: 1925-1926" (Committee
of the Quail Study Fund For Southern Georgia and Northern Florida; U.S. Biological
Survey), 56.
The River of the Mother of God and Other Essays by
- Aldo Leopold
- Paul S Sutter
Aldo Leopold, The River of the Mother of God and Other Essays by Aldo
Leopold, Susan L. Flader and J. Baird Callicott, eds., (Madison: University of Wisconsin,
1991); and Paul S. Sutter, Driven Wild: How the Fight Against Automobiles Launched
the Modern Wilderness Movement (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002).
American Environmental History: The Development of a New Historical Field
- Karl Jacoby
There is too much scholarship on the West to cite here. For an older overview, see
Richard White, "American Environmental History: The Development of a New
Historical Field," Pacific Historical Review (August, 1985): 297-335; on the Northeast,
see Richard Judd, Common Lands, Common People: The Origins of Conservation in
Northern New England (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997); and Karl Jacoby,
Crimes Against Nature: Squatters, Poachers, Thieves, and the Hidden History of
American Conservation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). On the South,
see Albert E. Cowdrey, This Land, This South: An Environmental History (Lexington:
University of Kentucky Press, 1983);
- Jack Temple Kirby
Jack Temple Kirby, Poquosin: A Study of Rural
Landscape and Society (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1995);
Re-Greening the South and Southernizing the Rest
quote on 147; "Re-Greening the South and Southernizing the Rest," Journal of the Early
Republic, 24 (Summer, 2004): 242-251; "Southern Environmental History," in A
Companion to The American South, ed. John Boles (Blackwell Publishers, 2002), 409-23; and the Prologue to 'What Nature Suffers to Groe,' 1-20.
Looking For Longleaf: The Fall and Rise of an American Forest
- Lawrence S Early
Lawrence S. Early,
Looking For Longleaf: The Fall and Rise of an American Forest (Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press, 2004);
For a brilliant set of reflections on the longleaf forest, see all of Janisse Ray's writings, especially Ecology of a Cracker Childhood
- W G Wahlenberg
- Longleaf Pine
W. G. Wahlenberg, Longleaf Pine: Its Use, Ecology,
Regeneration, Protection, Growth, and Management (Washington D. C.: U.S. Forest
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1946). For a brilliant set of reflections on the
longleaf forest, see all of Janisse Ray's writings, especially Ecology of a Cracker
Childhood (Minneapolis: Milkweed Press, 1999).
William Warren Rogers and Clifton Paisley have written most extensively about the region
- Grady Thomas
- Georgia In
- Leon In Florida
- Georgia Thomasville
- Florida Tallahassee
The Red Hills region makes up portions of four counties: Thomas and Grady in Georgia,
and Jefferson and Leon in Florida. Thomasville, Georgia, and Tallahassee, Florida, are
the urban centers. William Warren Rogers and Clifton Paisley have written most
extensively about the region. See William Warren Rogers, Thomas County 1865-1900
(Tallahassee: Florida State University Press, 1973);
Transition to the Twentieth Century
- Rogers William Warren
William Warren Rogers, Transition
to the Twentieth Century: Thomas County, Georgia, 1900-1920 (Tallahassee: Sentry
Press, 2002);
Creating an Old South: Middle Florida's Plantation Frontier Before the Civil War
- Clifton Paisley
Clifton Paisley, From Cotton to Quail: An Agricultural Chronicle of Leon
County, Florida, 1860-1967 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1968); and Clifton
Paisley, The Red Hills of Florida: 1528-1865 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press,
1989); also see Edward E. Baptist, Creating an Old South: Middle Florida's Plantation
Frontier Before the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).
A Comprehensive Study of a Portion of the Red Hills Region of Georgia
- Steve Gatewood
Steve Gatewood et al., A Comprehensive Study of a Portion of the Red Hills Region of
Georgia (Thomasville: The Thomas College Press, 1994).
For full treatment of the White Mountains, see Mitman
- Mitman
Mitman, "In Search of Health," 198. For full treatment of the White Mountains, see
Mitman, "Hay Fever Holiday."
For a nuanced view of how personal connections led to the formation of the conservation state, see Brian Balogh
- See Samuel
- P Hays
- Robert Wiebe
See Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive
Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959); and
Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967). For a
nuanced view of how personal connections led to the formation of the conservation
state, see Brian Balogh, "Scientific Forestry and the Roots of the Modern American
State: Gifford Pinchot's Path to Progressive Reform," Environmental History 7 (April
2002): 198-225.
Baldwin was married to Lillian Converse Hanna, sister of Mark and Howard Hanna, and was well-connected to the quail preserve set
- Barrow
Baldwin was married to Lillian Converse Hanna, sister of Mark and Howard Hanna,
and was well-connected to the quail preserve set. On the advent of bird-banding, see
Mark V. Barrow, Jr., A Passion for Birds: American Ornithology After Audubon
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
Bird Banding in Milwaukee and Vicinity
- Herbert Stoddard
Herbert Stoddard, "Bird Banding in Milwaukee and Vicinity," in Yearbook of the Public
Museum of the City of Milwaukee, vol. 3, 1923: 117.
When the Forest Service was still debating the role of fire, Schiff had already detailed the early struggles over fire within its ranks, and gave much attention to the fire debates that originated in the longleaf forests
- J Stephen
- Pyne
This essay owes a great deal to the path-breaking scholarship on fire by Ashley Schiff
and Stephen J. Pyne. When the Forest Service was still debating the role of fire, Schiff
had already detailed the early struggles over fire within its ranks, and gave much
attention to the fire debates that originated in the longleaf forests. See his Fire and
Water: Scientific Heresy in the Forest Service (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1962). Pyne's work is crucial to anyone wanting to understand both the cultural and
physical aspects of fire. A good place to start is Fire in America: A Cultural History of
Wildland and Rural Fire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982).
The Bobwhite Quail: Its Habits, Preservation and Increase
- Herbert L Stoddard
Herbert L. Stoddard, The Bobwhite Quail: Its Habits, Preservation and Increase. (New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1931), 401.
41. Ibid., 403.