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Article
A systematic review
of dropout from organized
sport among children
and youth
Jeff Crane
University of Victoria, Canada
Viviene Temple
University of Victoria, Canada
Abstract
Leisure constraints theory was used as a framework to systematically review factors associated
with dropout of organized sport among children and adolescents. Keyword searches for the
population, context and construct of interest (i.e. dropout) identified articles from the entire
contents of the following databases: Academic Search Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and
SPORTDiscus. The initial search yielded 557 studies, and 43 met the selection criteria. Most
studies focused solely on adolescents, and 89% of participants were male. Most studies were cross-
sectional using quantitative approaches. Almost 30 different sports were included in the reviewed
studies; however, the most represented sports were soccer, swimming, gymnastics and basketball.
Findings from this review indicated that intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints are more fre-
quently associated with dropping out of sport than structural constraints. Although many discrete
factors associated with dropout were identified, five major areas emerged: lack of enjoyment, per-
ceptions of competence, social pressures, competing priorities and physical factors (maturation
and injuries). Rarely were the interrelationships between factors or the underlying dimensions
of factors examined. Future research would benefit from mixed-methods and prospective
approaches. These approaches would allow children and youth to explain how their experience
of sport shaped their motives to dropout and allow researchers to probe the extent to which
affordances and motives for participation aligned with athletes’ reasons for dropping out.
Keywords
Dropout, children, youth, adolescence, organized sport
Corresponding author:
Jeff Crane, School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3015 STN CSC
Victoria, British Columbia V8 W 3P1, Canada.
Email: jeffrcra@uvic.ca
European Physical Education Review
2015, Vol. 21(1) 114–131
ªThe Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1356336X14555294
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Introduction
Sport, defined as a subset of physical activity that is structured, goal-oriented, competitive and
contest-based (McPherson et al., 1989), has demonstrated physical, psychological and social ben-
efits among children and youth (Bailey, 2006; Fox et al., 2010; Krustrup et al., 2010). Early and
continued participation in sport is associated with increases in cardiovascular and musculoskeletal
fitness (Krustrup et al., 2010; Vandendriessche et al., 2012), enhanced motor coordination (Van-
dendriessche et al., 2012), higher levels of physical activity (Debate et al., 2009; Sirard et al., 2006;
Taliaferro et al., 2010) and less time spent watching television (Sirard et al., 2006), lower body
mass indices and percentage body fat (Vandendriessche et al., 2012), and reduced health problems
(Vandendriessche et al., 2012). For example, Krustrup and colleagues’ prospective two-year multi-
centre study of regular participation in small-sided games of football (soccer) resulted in signif-
icant improvements in exercise endurance, coordination and maximal oxygen uptake among
children and youth. In addition, these small-sided games were at least as effective in improving
health-related fitness parameters as a standard exercise programme among obese children
(Krustrup et al., 2010).
Sport also plays a role in the development of psychological and social well-being, as well as
the promotion of positive health behaviours among children and youth (Annesi et al., 2007; Gore
et al., 2001). Cross-sectional studies show that participation in sport is associated with more pos-
itive perceptions of competence (McCarthy et al., 2008); higher self-esteem (Findlay and Coplan,
2008; Marsh and Kleitman, 2003); more positive mood states, emotional control and social
adequacy (Griffiths et al., 2010; Marsh and Kleitman, 2003); and enhanced social functioning
(Griffiths et al., 2010; Snyder et al., 2010). These results are supported by findings from a
quasi-experimental study examining the influence of a developmental sport programme on girls’
psychosocial development (Debate et al., 2009). DeBate and colleagues’ 12-week programme
incorporated running and curricula designed to promote positive emotional, social, mental and
physical development. This programme produced positive changes in both self-esteem and overall
body size satisfaction among 8–15 year old girls.
Sport participation is also associated with reduced psychological and social difficulties,
including the experience of anxiety (Smith et al., 2007), shyness (Findlay and Coplan, 2008),
depressed mood (Gore et al., 2001) and hyperactivity (Griffiths et al., 2010). In an extensive study
(n> 70,000) examining the relationships among sport participation and health risk behaviours of
American high school students, Taliaferro et al. (2010) demonstrated that those who participated in
sport were more likely to consume fruit and vegetables and to use condoms than non-participants,
and they were less likely to smoke. Among female athletes, the likelihood of reporting sexual
intercourse-related health risks in the last three months was lower compared to female non-
athletes. However, it should also be noted that Taliaferro and colleagues found that male athletes
were more likely to engage in vomiting or taking laxatives or pills to lose weight, get into a fight at
school, and use alcohol and binge drink. This latter finding is supported by a recent study showing
that Canadian adolescents participating in weekly out-of-school sport were more likely to have
tried alcohol than adolescents who participated in weekly non-sports activities out-of-school
(Gue`vremont et al., 2014).
The benefits of sport described in the preceding paragraphs are not synonymous with the
reasons that children and youth have for participating in sport. Consistently, children and youth
from different cultures (Longhurst and Spink, 1987; Sit, 1998; Yan and McCullagh, 2004), with
and without special needs (Sit, 1998) and both males and females (Sirard et al., 2006; Stern et al.,
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1990) report that intrinsic motivators influence their desire to participate in sport the most. ‘Fun’ is
the most commonly reported intrinsic motivator for sport participation among children and youth
(Gould et al., 1985; Sirard et al., 2006; Sit, 1998; Stern et al., 1990; Wankel and Kreisel, 1985;
Whitehead and Biddle, 2008; Yan and McCullagh, 2004). In a season-long examination of fun
among 7–15 year old children playing sport, Wankel and Sefton (1989) found that fun was a pos-
itive mood state related to personal achievement and children’s perceptions that their skills were
matched against realistic challenges. This is consistent with broader research showing that the
challenge and excitement of competing and opportunities to test their skills are important intrinsic
motivators, particularly for boys (Gould et al., 1985; Sirard et al., 2006; Wankel and Kreisel, 1985;
Yan and McCullagh, 2004). Being with and making new friends (Gould et al., 1985; Sirard et al.,
2006; Stern et al., 1990; Wankel and Kreisel, 1985; Whitehead and Biddle, 2008) and being part of
a team (Gould et al., 1985; Sirard et al., 2006; Stern et al., 1990; Wankel and Kreisel, 1985) are
important motivating factors in and of themselves, but are also part of why children and youth per-
ceive sport to be fun (Whitehead and Biddle, 2008). Children and youth also report that they par-
ticipate in sport because they want to improve their skills and learn new skills (Gould et al., 1985;
Longhurst and Spink, 1987; Stern et al., 1990; Wankel and Kreisel, 1985; Yan and McCullagh,
2004) and because they want opportunities to play/exercise/get into shape (Gould et al., 1985;
Longhurst and Spink, 1987; Sirard et al., 2006; Sit, 1998; Stern et al., 1990; Yan and McCullagh,
2004). Extrinsic factors such as achievement status, winning, pleasing coaches or others are gen-
erally less important motivations for participation in sport among children and youth (Gould et al.,
1985; Wankel and Kreisel, 1985).
Given the popularity of sport and the benefits that may be derived from sport, it is perhaps
surprising that more than 35%of children and adolescents drop out of sport annually in North
America (Patriksson, 1988). A portion of this dropout may reflect sampling of sports (Cote et al.,
2009; Strachan et al., 2009), where children and youth are trying out or transferring between
different sports. For example, Butcher et al. (2002) found that 55%of grades 7 and 8 students who
had withdrawn from sport (n¼555) competed in another sport in the same or subsequent years.
However, some of the dropout from sport may reflect dissatisfaction or negative experiences.
Anderson’s (2013) treatise on traditional competitive youth sport reminds us that sport can
reproduce and perpetuate patriarchy and masculine hierarchies, foster over-adherence to authority
and the acceptance of violence and injury as commonplace; and produce a sense of ‘them and us’,
where opposing teams are adversaries and those who do not fit the mould are outsiders or excluded.
At an individual level, competition in sport has been shown to produce anxiety and fear of failure
as well as to reduce children’s enjoyment of sport and their self-confidence (Choi et al., 2014).
Evidence of low levels of physical activity (Colley et al., 2011), declining participation in
physical activity from childhood to adolescence (Riddoch et al., 2004), reduced participation in
regular sport among youth (Berger et al., 2008) and the potential for adverse outcomes associated
with participation suggest a need to examine the reasons for these discouraging trends. The aim of
this review is to examine factors associated with dropout of sport among children and adolescents.
Method
Theoretical framework
Leisure constraints theory (Crawford and Godbey, 1987; Crawford et al., 1991; Jackson et al.,
1993) was used as a guiding theoretical framework for this review. This theory had particular
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utility for framing this review since human behaviour is complex and is influenced by immediate and
more distal environments as well as an individual’s personal characteristics, motivations and pre-
ferences. Leisure constraints theory allowed us to include reasons for dropout that were perceived or
experienced as well as factors that were more proximal or distal to the individual. This theory
allowed us to organize, synthesize and make meaning of a broad literature on dropout from sport.
Leisure constraints are factors that inhibit or prohibit participation in leisure activities (Jackson,
1997), and three types of constraints are typically examined in leisure constraints research: intra-
personal, interpersonal and structural constraints (Crawford and Godbey, 1987; Ommundsen and
Vaglum, 1997). Intrapersonal constraints are internal states and attributes that are important in
forming the desire to participate in or have a preference for a particular activity. Intrapersonal
constraints include attitudes about the suitability of an activity, anxiety and perceptions of ability.
Interpersonal constraints are social factors that affect leisure preferences resulting from interactions
with others. Examples include not having anyone to participate with, and having friends or family
members who dissuade participation. Structural constraints are external factors that interfere or
disrupt the connection between preferences and participation such as insufficient funds to participate,
a lack of time or transportation and inadequate facilities. Evidence suggests that successful nego-
tiation of intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural constraints is needed to enable individuals to
participate in leisure activities such as sports (Ommundsen and Vaglum, 1997).
Data sources
Keyword searches identified articles from the entire contents of the following databases: Academic
Search Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and SPORTDiscus, until 31 December 2012.
Keywords for the population, context and construct of interest (i.e. dropout) were identified using
Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) from the National Library of Medicine controlled vocabulary
thesaurus (US National Library of Medicine, 2012). The population keywords were: ‘child/chil-
dren’, ‘minor’, ‘adolescent/adolescence’, ‘teen/teenager’ and ‘youth’. The context keywords were:
‘sport’, ‘organized sport’ and ‘recreation’; and keywords associated with the construct of interest
were: ‘dropout’, ‘attrition’ and ‘disengagement’. English language published journal studies or
those that were published ahead of print were considered for this review.
Inclusion/exclusion criteria
A study was included in this review if it met the following criteria: (a) the research was empirical
(qualitative or quantitative evidence); (b) the focus was on children and/or youth aged between 5
and 19 years; (c) dropout or intention to drop out was assessed; and (d) the context was sport. Sport
was defined as a structured, goal-oriented, competitive and contest-based form of physical activity
(McPherson et al., 1989). The initial search yielded 557 potential studies. A total of 514 studies
were excluded for the following reasons: 90 were duplicates, 156 were not written in English and
268 did not meet the population criteria and/or the context was not organized sport. Ultimately, 43
studies were included in this review.
Data extraction and synthesis
A data extraction form was used to obtain: (a) general information: study title, authors, journal title
and publication date; (b) specific study characteristics: recruitment procedures, participant
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characteristics (age, sex and sport played), study design, variables examined, validity and relia-
bility of measures and methods of analysis; and (c) the definition of ‘dropout’ used. The proportion
of studies exhibiting key characteristics (publication year, world region, participant age and
gender, and sports examined) was calculated.
Consistent with leisure constraints theory (Crawford and Godbey, 1987), variables in each study
associated with dropout from sport were categorized as an intrapersonal, interpersonal or structural
constraint. Variables were considered to have a consistent association with the construct of interest
(i.e. dropout) if it was identified in three or more studies.
Assessment of study quality
Study quality was assessed by the first author using a scale adapted from the Strengthening the
Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Initiative statement (Von Elma
et al., 2007). Each criterion was score dichotomously: 1 if the element was present in the inves-
tigation and 0 if it was absent or inadequately addressed. The seven assessment criteria were:
Was a rationale for the research provided?
Did the article adequately describe the eligibility of the participants?
Were the sources and methods of selection of participants clearly stated?
Were the assessment instruments valid and reliable? In the case of qualitative studies, was
the data collection approach appropriate for the research in question?
Were appropriate analysis techniques applied?
Were key findings consistent with study objectives?
Was the term ‘dropout’ clearly defined?
Studies were considered to be of high quality if they met six or seven of these criteria and of
medium quality if they met three to five of the criteria. Studies would have been excluded from
subsequent analysis if they were considered to be of low quality (i.e. scored 2 on the aforemen-
tioned criteria); however no studies scored two or less. Of the 43 studies included in this review, 24
were rated as high quality and 19 were rated as medium quality (see Table 1). The most common
study design limitations were a lack of detail about participant recruitment and selection as well as
incomplete operational definitions of dropout. The 48%of studies that defined dropout operation-
ally typically did so by monitoring whether children and adolescents registered for the subsequent
season. Overall, study measurement tools used (e.g. questionnaires) were generally valid and reli-
able and the analyses were appropriate.
Results
Overview of the studies
Table 2 provides a synthesis of the 43 studies included in this review. Most of the studies were
undertaken in Europe (n¼23) and North America (n¼17); and overwhelmingly the participants
were male (89%). Studies that included both genders were also biased toward male participation
(59%male). Most of the studies focused solely on adolescents (n¼24), with fewer including both
adolescents and children (n¼13); and children were the sole participants in only one study.
Parents and coaches were the informants (participants) for five of the studies.
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Table 1. Constraint categories identified and elements of quality present in studies included in this review.
Constraint type Quality elements
No. Authors Str Inte Intra RA PE PS VR AA KF DD Tot
1 Armentrout and Kamphoff (2011) x x x 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 4
2 Boiche and Sarrazin (2009) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 6
3 Boothby et al. (1981) x x x 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 4
4 Brown (1985) x 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 6
5 Burton and Martens (1986) x 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 6
6 Butcher et al. (2002) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
7 Calvo et al. (2010) x x 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 5
8 Cervello et al. (2007) x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
9 Delorme et al. (2010a) x 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 5
10 Delorme et al. (2010b) x 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 5
11 Delorme et al. (2011) x x 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 6
12 Dunn (1983) x x 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 6
13 DuRant et al. (1991) x 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 5
14 Feltz and Petlichkoff (1983) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
15 Ferreira and Armstrong (2002) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
16 Figueiredo et al. (2009) x x 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 4
17 Fraser-Thomas et al. (2008a) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
18 Fraser-Thomas et al. (2008b) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
19 Gould et al. (1982) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
20 Guillet et al. (2006) x x 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 5
21 Guzman and Kingston (2012) 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 5
22 Hellandsig (1998) x 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 6
23 Joesaar and Hein (2011) x x 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 5
24 Johns et al. (1990) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
25 Kirshnit et al. (1989) x 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 6
26 Klint and Weiss (1986) x x x 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 5
27 Kolt and Kirkby (1996) x x 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 5
28 Koukouris (2005) x x 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 4
29 Molinero et al. (2006) x x x 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 6
30 Mudrak (2010) x x x 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 4
31 Nache et al. (2005) x 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 5
32 Ommundsen and Vaglum (1997) x 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 6
33 Patriksson (1988) x x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
34 Robinson and Carron (1982) x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
35 Ryska and Hohensee (2002) x x 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 5
36 Salguero et al. (2003) x x 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 6
37 Shakib (2003) x 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 4
38 Sirard et al. (2006) x x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
39 Sisjord (1995) x x x 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 4
40 Skard and Vaglum (1989) x x 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 6
41 Trentin and Viviani (2002) x x 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 4
42 VanYperen (1997) x 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 6
43 Wall and Cote (2007) x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
Total number
of studies
15 28 39 42 22 38 32 42 42 20
Note: Str, Structural constraint; Inte, Interpersonal constraint; Intra, Intrapersonal constraint; RA, rationale defined; PE,
participant eligibility described; PS, participant selection described; VR, validity and reliability described; AA, appropriate
analysis; KF, key findings consistent with objectives; DD, dropout clearly defined; Tot, total quality score.
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Table 2 also demonstrates that 67%(n¼28) of the studies examined dropout from a single
sport. Of those single-sport studies, four sports (soccer, swimming, gymnastics and basketball)
dominated the published literature, accounting for 22 of the 28 single sport studies. However, var-
ious sports were included in the multi-sport studies, including: judo, karate, tennis, volleyball,
baseball, softball, track and field, golf, cheerleading, rowing, kayaking, cross-country running,
boxing, alpine skiing, taekwondo, rugby, cycling, table tennis, badminton, soccer, swimming,
gymnastics, basketball and ice hockey.
All 43 of the studies were descriptive and for the most part cross-sectional. The majority of the
studies used quantitative approaches (65.9%), typically examining correlates of dropout. Some
Table 2. Descriptive breakdown of studies related to dropout.
No. of studies (%) No. of subjects (%)
Year of publication
<1980 0 (0.0%)
1981–1990 12 (29.3%)
1991–2000 7 (17.1%)
>2000 24 (53.6%)
Publication world region
Europe 23 (53.6%)
North America 17 (39.0%)
Australia 3 (7.4%)
Total number of participants 467,996 (100%)
<500 participants 9 (20.0%)
>500 participants 25 (56.0%)
>1000 participants 9 (24.0%)
Participant role in relation to sport
Child participant 1 (2.5%) 360 (<1%)
Adolescent participant 24 (53.6%) 6570 (1.4%)
Child and adolescent participant 13 (31.7%) 460609 (98%)
Parent(s) of participant 4 (9.7%) 348 (<1%)
Parent(s)/coach(es) 1 (2.5%) 109 (<1%)
Gender of study participants
Male only 416,509 (89.0%)
Female only 51,487 (11.0%)
Sports reported
Multi sport 15 (31.8%)
Single sport 28 (68.2%)
Single sport sub-divisions 28
Soccer 9 (32.0%)
Swimming 5 (17.0%)
Gymnastics 5 (17.0%)
Basketball 3 (11.0%)
Ice hockey 2 (7.0%)
Handball 1 (4.0%)
Australian rules football 1 (4.0%)
American football 1 (4.0%)
Wrestling 1 (4.0%)
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studies administered a questionnaire at the beginning of, or during, a season and examined subse-
quent dropout (n¼12); and a slightly larger proportion of studies identified children/youth who
had withdrawn from a sport and asked them to retrospectively reflect on determinants of dropout
(n¼16). Fewer studies used mixed-methods or qualitative approaches. The mixed-methods stud-
ies (n¼8) involved some combination of questionnaire, interview and/or physiological or skill
test. Most of the questionnaires focused on psychological constructs associated with participation
in sport, including 14 studies that examined child and adolescent athletes’ perceptions of sport
competence. Although perceptions of competence were often examined, only two studies mea-
sured sport skills. Five of the six qualitative studies were semi-structured interviews that gave par-
ticipants the opportunity to reflect on reasons for dropout. These interviews were conducted after
the participant had discontinued their sport; however, the length of time between dropping out and
the follow-up interviews was only stipulated in two studies (one and three years after
discontinuation).
The leisure constraints model
All three components of the leisure constraints model (Crawford and Godbey, 1987) were rep-
resented in the included studies (see Table 1). Intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints were
identified in most of the studies (n¼38 and n¼28, respectively) whereas structural constraints
were reported less often (n¼15).
Intrapersonal constraints. Five intrapersonal constraints were identified (see Table 3). A lack of
enjoyment and low perceptions of physical competence were most frequently identified. A ‘lack of
enjoyment’ included constructs such as ‘not having fun’ and ‘being bored’. The children’s/youth’s
perception of their lack of physical competence was identified as an important correlate of dropout
in 14 studies. Intrinsic pressures (e.g. stress) and perceptions of negative team dynamics (per-
ceptions of coach and teammates) were also identified by participants. Finally, two factors asso-
ciated with maturation were notable in the findings, specifically: (a) disadvantage associated with
chronological age grouping in sport or the ‘relative age effect’; and (b) the individual becoming too
old or big to participate.
Interpersonal constraints. Four interpersonal constraints emerged as factors related to dropout. The
most frequently reported interpersonal constraint was ‘pressure’. Unlike the pressures mentioned
in the intrapersonal constraints section, these pressures were from others, notably coaches, peers
and family members. ‘Having other things to do’ and ‘other social priorities’ were also frequently
cited. What those other things/priorities were was rarely elucidated. However, four studies did
report that children/adolescents withdrew from one sport to pursue another (see Table 3).
Structural constraints. The most frequently reported structural constraint was ‘time’ (see Table 3).
Time was represented variously in these studies, including time for travel, the length of training
and competing demands for time (e.g. education and employment). Injuries were the second most
frequently reported structural constraint, particularly in the sport of gymnastics. Five of the six
studies reporting injuries as a reason for dropout focused on gymnastics. Less frequently reported
structural constraints were cost (i.e. travel and registration) and problems related to the organi-
zation (i.e. poor facilities and overall structure of club).
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Discussion
Leisure constraints theory suggests that successful negotiation of intrapersonal, interpersonal and
structural constraints is necessary for participation in leisure pursuits (including sport). Typically,
an individual who participates in an activity will assess his or her experiences and then make a
decision about future participation. This study examined the constraints encountered by children
and youth who had participated in a sport, but had subsequently dropped out. Intrapersonal and
Table 3. Factors associated with dropout by constraint type and data source.
Number of studies
Factors Total Qualitative Quantitative Studies (as reported in Table 1*)
Intrapersonal
constraints
38 6 32
Lack of
enjoyment
17 2 15 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 1216, 19, 21, 25, 26, 27, 33, 36, 38, 39, 43
Perceptions of
physical
competence
14 1 13 2, 5, 8, 12, 14, 19, 22, 23, 25, 29, 30, 31, 36, 40
Intrinsic
pressures
(e.g. stress)
8 2 6 5, 7, 17, 18, 20, 35, 42, 43
Maturation 6 2 4 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 28
Perceptions
(negative
feelings
towards team
or coach)
5 0 5 11, 29, 34, 38, 41
Interpersonal
constraints
28 5 23
Pressure (family,
coach, peers)
10 4 6 5, 6, 15, 17, 18, 20, 28, 30, 34, 37
Other social
priorities
8 2 6 2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 33, 38, 40
Having other
things to do
9 0 9 1, 6, 14, 19, 26, 27, 29, 30, 36
Pursuit of
alternative
sport
4 0 4 2, 16, 19, 27
Structural
constraints
15 5 10
Time 9 1 8 1, 13, 15, 16, 26, 28, 29, 33, 38
Injuries 6 1 5 5, 13, 24, 26, 28, 33
Cost 3 1 2 1, 15, 30
Inadequate
facilities
3 2 1 1,3,15
*
Numbers relate to the list of references cited in Table 1.
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interpersonal constraints were more frequently associated with dropout than structural constraints.
Although many discrete factors associated with dropout were identified, five major areas emerged:
enjoyment, perceptions of competence, social pressures, competing priorities and physical factors.
The two most dominant factors related to dropout were participants’ perceptions of their
physical or sport competence and their enjoyment of sport. These intrapersonal factors were
associated with dropout in 26 separate studies; and in five of those studies both perceptions of
competence and enjoyment were concurrently related to dropout. This finding is consistent with
several models that explain children’s choices andmotivationinrelationtosportsuchasHarter’s
model of competence motivation (Harter, 1978, 1981) and the sport commitment model (Scanlan
et al., 1993). Enjoyment, an omnibus term for positive affective responses such as fun and
pleasure (Scanlan et al., 1993; Weiss and Williams, 2004), has been previously associated with
motivation to participate in sport (McCarthy and Jones, 2007) and the desire and resolve to
continue participation (Scanlan et al., 1993; Weiss and Ferrer-Caja, 2002). In the present study,
children and youth reported that they had dropped out when their sport was no longer fun. How-
ever, very few of the quantitative studies unpacked what contributed to this lack of enjoyment/
fun. When the meaning of ‘fun’ was commented on, cited reasons were: not enough playing time
or opportunities, dissatisfaction with the coach and too much training time. Several authors dis-
cussed the importance of identifying what non-enjoyment represents. Given the prevalence and
importance of ‘lack of enjoyment’ as a factor related to dropout and how few studies unpacked
the underlying dimensions of this lack of enjoyment, future research of dropout may be well
served by using approaches that provide youth with opportunities to explain why their sport was
not (or is no longer) enjoyable.
The second most frequently cited factor related to the decision to drop out of sport was per-
ceptions of competence. Feelings associated with a lack of competence were expressed in a variety
of ways among studies in this review, including ‘not being good enough’, ‘not as good as I wanted
to be’ and ‘lack of skill improvement’. In Boiche and Sarrazin’s (2009) study, adolescent athletes
clearly demonstrated that perceptions of competence were significantly higher among 261 current
vs. 106 dropout athletes. Their results further demonstrated that adolescents’ perceptions of
competence predicted the extent to which they valued sport. The influence of perceptions of
competence on dropout also seemed to be mediated by actual competence. Although actual
competence was not often measured, Ommundsen and Vaglum’s (1997) study of dropout among
223 adolescent soccer players revealed that the combined effect of low perceptions of competence
and lower sport skill measures on dropout was higher than for either of these factors independently.
As children tend to gravitate toward areas where they perceive they are competent and away from
areas where they feel unsuccessful (Weiss and Williams, 2004) it is unsurprising that dropout from
sport is associated with lower perceptions of competence.
Both perceptions of competence and enjoyment were related to dropout in five studies. This is
consistent with previous research demonstrating that enjoyment of sport, and children and youth’s
perceptions of athletic competence are related (Cairney et al., 2012; McCarthy and Jones, 2007;
Ommundsen and Vaglum, 1991). McCarthy and Jones’ findings from focus group interviews with
7- to 12-year-old sport participants suggest that positive perceptions of physical competence are a
source of sport enjoyment and, conversely, perceptions of a lack of physical competence are an
antecedent of ‘non-enjoyment’. These thoughts are consistent with Harter’s model of competence
motivation (Harter, 1978, 1981). Harter’s theory posits that individuals are motivated to be com-
petent in multiple domains such as sport, and that mastery and successes at tasks that are optimally
challenging lead to enhanced perceptions of competence and positive affect (enjoyment).
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Pressures from family, coaches or friends were identified as interpersonal constraints in this
study. Fraser-Thomas et al. (2008a, 2008b) concluded that adolescents feel pressure to satisfy the
needs of both family and friends. Adolescents reported pressures to attend parties and other social
gatherings of that nature while still meeting the needs of the sport (i.e. training and competition).
Dropout was also associated with adolescents’ feelings that parents interfered too often by doing
things like videotaping and critiquing performances, offering rewards for performance and by pla-
cing them in too many camps. Fraser-Thomas et al. (2008b) reported that adolescents felt pressure
to succeed from their parents. Consistent with previous research (Hecimovich, 2004), this pressure
was attributed to the parents wanting to give their child opportunities that they did not have. Some
degree of sport-related stress or pressure may be healthy and can elicit a positive effect on training
and overall performance (Patel et al., 2010). However, the findings of this review indicate that chil-
dren and adolescents can feel these pressures to such an extent that it contributes to sport attrition.
The negative influence of pressure to conform to gender stereotypes was also evident in this
review. This was particularly evident among adolescent females (Guillet et al., 2006; Shakib,
2003). Girls revealed that they felt pressure to be feminine and if they perceived that the sport
prevented them from being feminine they were more likely to dropout. These findings are sup-
ported by Guillet et al., who found that females who scored high on a femininity scale were more
likely to drop out of more ‘masculine’ sports. There were relatively few studies on females in this
review, and more research is needed to examine gender-specific constraints influencing dropout
from organized sport.
Individuals who participate in organized sport are more likely to have higher levels of physical
activity than those who do not (Pfeiffer et al., 2006; Tammelin et al., 2003), and these levels tend to
decline from childhood to adolescence (Belanger et al., 2009; Nader et al., 2008). Findings of this
review suggest at least part of the reason for this decline in physical activity is that adolescents
have priorities other than sport. ‘Having other things to do’, ‘other social priorities’ and ‘pursuit of
another sport’ were identified as interpersonal constraints in this review. Although the majority of
studies did not explore what these other priorities were, Molinero et al. (2006) suggested that it is
often difficult to balance school, work, friends and sport during adolescence. It should be noted that
four studies reported that children and adolescents withdrew from one sport to pursue another, a
common occurrence in the sampling years (Butcher et al., 2002). These findings also illustrate that
additional investigation of children’s versus adolescents’ reasons for dropout are needed. Only one
study specifically examined dropout among children although it is highly likely that the inter-
personal (e.g. relationships with peers) and structural (e.g. parents being needed to transport
younger children) constraints experienced at different stages of development will be dissimilar.
Additionally, only 9%of participants in this review were female. This may be attributed to the
lower overall levels of female participation in physical activity during adolescence compared to
males (Sallis et al., 2000). More studies are needed to examine dropout from sport among females
to determine whether there are unique factors associated with dropout for females and to poten-
tially tailor approaches to reduce dropout.
Finally, two physical factors were associated with dropout: injuries and maturation. Injuries
were associated with dropout in six studies, and the leading cause of dropout in two of those
studies. Twenty-five percent of high school students in the DuRant et al. (1991) study reported that
injuries influenced their decision to drop out, and Johns et al. (1990) found that 40%of female
competitive gymnasts dropped out because of injuries. Notably, all of the studies that specifically
focused on gymnastics (n¼5) identified injuries as a factor associated with dropout. The majority
of participants in these studies were at a competitive or elite level. There was little explanation of
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the type or severity of the injuries; and limited information about how injuries led to dropout. Kou-
kouris (2005), however, reported that elite gymnasts with injuries requiring medical treatment (e.g.
surgery) lost interest in their sport because coaches and administrators showed indifference toward
them when they were injured. As sport is the leading cause of injury among children and ado-
lescents (Bienfeld et al., 1996; Keats et al., 2012; King et al., 1998) further exploration of the
relationship between injuries and disengagement from sport seems warranted. Future research
would benefit from examining the interrelationships between different types of injury-related
constraints and dropout. For example, a participant’s motivation to rehabilitate an injury prop-
erly (intrapersonal constraints) may be influenced by the coach’s attitude toward injured athletes
(interpersonal constraint) and whether the club or organization has sound injury management
practices and return-to-play guidelines (e.g. Purcell, 2012) in place (structural constraints).
Koukouris also found that physical maturation of gymnasts led to dropout. As one gymnast said,
‘It’s very difficult to be tall in gymnastics and train for the top when you’ve got 15-year-old female
gymnasts who are tiny’ (Koukouris, 2005: 46). This phenomenon of ‘growing out’ of a sport was
not reflected in the other studies where ‘maturation’ was a factor associated with dropout. Rather,
five of the six studies where maturation was a factor suggested dropout was related to the relative
age effect (RAE). RAE is the bias or advantage arising from being born early in a relevant selection
period (Delorme et al., 2010a, 2010b, 2011). As many sports have a two-year age-group window, a
player may be 23 months older than the players whom he or she is competing against. These dif-
ferences in age are associated with both physical (Malina, 1994) and psychological differences
(Bisanz et al., 1995). Of the five RAE studies in this review, three used key demographic informa-
tion (including date of birth) from sport federation records to examine which child and adolescent
athletes did and did not return in subsequent seasons. The results revealed that those born later in
the competitive season were less likely to return. Further, Figueiredo et al. (2009) found that youth
soccer players who progressed to an elite level in a two-year period were chronologically and ske-
letally older, were larger in body size and scored higher in all tests than those who stayed at the
same level or dropped out in the same time period. The present study supports that RAE contri-
butes to dropout; however, more research is needed among those who drop out to understand the
physical, social and psychological aspects of their experience of competing against their chrono-
logically older peers.
Although this review was limited to one organizing framework (i.e. leisure constraints theory),
all of the variables identified in the included papers were able to be categorized as an intrapersonal,
interpersonal or structural constraint. This appears to reflect the nature of the influences explored
in the literature to date, which largely focused on the individual or factors proximal to the indi-
vidual. Virtually no attention has been given to broader societal contexts such as socioeconomic
status, policies governing sporting organizations or the interactions between these broad envi-
ronmental factors and the individual. Notwithstanding these limitations of the available literature,
all three components of the leisure constraints model were associated with dropout from sport
among children and adolescents in this review. However, intrapersonal constraints were by far the
most prevalent group of factors, having been identified in almost 90%of the studies. Two of these
factors, lack of enjoyment and perceptions of physical competence, were identified in more than
half of all studies. Rarely were enjoyment or perceptions of competence unpacked in terms of why
children and adolescents were no longer enjoying sport or what sources of information were used
to form these perceptions. It would be beneficial to explore these constructs in more depth while
concomitantly monitoring dropout using longitudinal research designs. Research that has exam-
ined the complexity of constructs such as enjoyment may provide considerable insight into child/
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adolescent attrition from sport. For example, McCarthy and Jones (2007) reported nine separate
themes related to the ‘non-enjoyment’ of sport when they examined the general dimension of
enjoyment. Themes identified by McCarthy and Jones included over-involved parents, overtrain-
ing, injuries and lack of competence. Many of these variables were identified in this review, but
their relationship to enjoyment was not explicit. Conversely, studies that reported that a lack of
enjoyment was related to dropout, did not often explore what the participants meant by this. It was
also unclear why children and adolescents were choosing alternative activities or how the experi-
ence of injury or relative physical or psychological immaturity led to dropout. Additionally, it was
often not possible to identify whether athletes had dropped out of a sport altogether or moved on to
an alternative sport or activity. Where possible, future research would benefit from combining
Ommundsen and Vaglum’s (1991, 1997) comprehensive definition of dropout (which asked
whether players were still a member of a club, still playing matches and still training, as well as
whether they had ceased playing) with a question about whether players had changed to another
sport (e.g. Skard and Vaglum, 1989). This combination would provide a more complete picture
of players’ organized sport engagement status. Finally, the vast majority of studies included in the
review were from countries in North America, Europe and Australia that could be characterized as
high income. This limits the generalizability of the findings as well as our understanding of dropout
from sport among children and adolescents in many regions of the world and in lower income
countries.
Leisure constraints are factors that inhibit or prohibit participation in leisure activities,
including sport. Successful negotiation of intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural constraints is
needed to enable participation (Godbey et al., 2010). Intrapersonal constraints tend to be most
powerful (Crawford et al., 1991) because, ‘ ...without overcoming them, the desire or preference
for a leisure activity will not even come into being or will disappear or diminish if it exists’
(Godbey et al., 2010: 110). The findings of this review indicate that overcoming intrapersonal
constraints are not only important for facilitating participation, as suggested by Godbey et al., but
this type of constraint is also very important in terms of dropout. Sporting organizations may be
able to prevent undue dropout by giving some priority to identifying and intervening with the
intrapersonal constraints experienced by both child and adolescent athletes. The interplay between
constraints influencing dropout was not often explored, nor was there elucidation about how the
athletes’ experience of sport contributed to constraint formation. Future research would benefit
from mixed-methods and prospective approaches that explore the multidimensional nature of drop-
out. These approaches would allow children and adolescents to explain how their experience of
sport shaped their motives to drop out, and allow researchers to probe the extent to which affor-
dances and motives for participation aligned with athletes’ reasons for dropping out.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit
sectors.
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Author biographies
Jeff Crane is a PhD student in the School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education at the
University of Victoria, BC, Canada.
Viviene Temple is a Professor in the School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education at the
University of Victoria, BC, Canada.
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