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Greek Aims in Fortification
... Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν κάποιες παλαιότερες, αλλά διεξοδικές, μελέτες των οχυρώσεων αρχαίων ελληνικών πόλεων, όπως των Winter (1971) και Lawrence (1979), αλλά και μερικές νεότερες, όπως η προσφάτως δημοσιευμένη του , που αφορά βέβαια κυρίως τις ελληνικές οχυρώσεις της αρχαϊκής εποχής. Ιδιαίτερα βοηθητικά ήταν τα πρακτικά του διεθνούς συνεδρίου για τις οχυρώσεις, δημοσιευμένα το 1986 από τους Leriche P. -Treziny H. με τίτλο La fortification dans l'Histoire du monde Grec. ...
... Αυτό γινόταν για στρατηγικούς λόγους, κυρίως για να υπάρχει πλήρης εποπτεία της πόλης, των λιμανιών και της γύρω περιοχής και για να μην δίνεται η ευκαιρία στους εχθρούς να καταλάβουν καίρια σημεία, απ' όπου θα μπορούσαν να επιτεθούν ή να ελέγχουν την πόλη (Lawrence 1979: 117. Bakhuizen et al 1992: 140-1. ...
Η παρούσα εργασία έχει ως αντικείμενο μελέτης την αρχαία - κλασική, ως επί το πλείστον - οχύρωση δύο σημαντικών ελληνικών πόλεων, που δημιουργήθηκαν την εποχή του Β΄ αποικισμού των Ελλήνων σε δύο διαφορετικές παράκτιες περιοχές της αρχαίας Θράκης. Και οι δύο θέσεις κατοικούνταν από αυτόχθονες πληθυσμούς, άκμασαν κυρίως την κλασική εποχή και έπαιξαν η καθεμία ξεχωριστά, με τη δική της πορεία, σημαντικό ρόλο στην εξέλιξη της ιστορίας της περιοχής. Η Ζώνη της Αιγαιακής Θράκης και η Μεσημβρία της Θράκης του Εύξεινου Πόντου είναι οι δύο αυτές σημαντικές πόλεις, που, παρά τις διαφορές τους, διατηρούν κοινά τα χαρακτηριστικά της αρχαίας ελληνικής πόλης, όπως αυτά διαμορφώθηκαν στον αρχαίο ελληνικό κόσμο της αρχαϊκής και κλασικής περιόδου, ξεκινώντας ως αποικίες που γρήγορα ανεξαρτητοποιήθηκαν από τη μητρόπολη και αποτέλεσαν οικονομικά και πολιτιστικά ελληνοθρακικά κέντρα.
... The Egyptian defensive system before 19 th century was composed of; the gates, towers and some defensive palisades by definition are parts of enceintes or enclosure. But after that the historians of the Western military refers to the fortification consist of defensive palisades, ramparts, walls as curtains which were fronted by moats or ditches [13]. The curtains act as extensions of the shield and protecting the defenders against the weapons of them attackers [14]. ...
... The very important part of these fortifications is the external projections of a barrier and star forts (c) [15] with the bastions; it is large enough to hold large number of defenders and weapons. Their purpose as mentioned; is to inflict flanking fire on any attackers closely approaching the curtains and adjacent bastions [13,16], fig. (1). ...
... Examples include the ninth-century BCE enclosure at Tel Yizre''el in northern Israel (Ussishkin and Woodhead 1994), the Iron II fortress at Qadesh Barne'a (Cohen 1983) and the ninth-seventh centuries BCE fortress at 'En Hazeva in the Negev (Cohen 1993:593-594). By contrast, there is no evidence prior to the Hellenistic period for square or rectangular complexes with casemate walls and corner towers in Greece or Asia Minor where irregularly shaped fortresses were built at sites exploiting natural irregularlyshaped cliffs and defenses (Lawrence 1979;Adam 1982). The earliest example of a rectangular fort (though with a solid wall) from the Greek world is the late fourth-century BCE rectangular fort at Theangela, Caria (Lawrence 1979:138, 179, Figs. ...
... Examples include the ninth-century BCE enclosure at Tel Yizre''el in northern Israel (Ussishkin and Woodhead 1994), the Iron II fortress at Qadesh Barne'a (Cohen 1983) and the ninth-seventh centuries BCE fortress at 'En Hazeva in the Negev (Cohen 1993:593-594). By contrast, there is no evidence prior to the Hellenistic period for square or rectangular complexes with casemate walls and corner towers in Greece or Asia Minor where irregularly shaped fortresses were built at sites exploiting natural irregularlyshaped cliffs and defenses (Lawrence 1979;Adam 1982). The earliest example of a rectangular fort (though with a solid wall) from the Greek world is the late fourth-century BCE rectangular fort at Theangela, Caria (Lawrence 1979:138, 179, Figs. ...
... Examples include the ninth-century BCE enclosure at Tel Yizre''el in northern Israel (Ussishkin and Woodhead 1994), the Iron II fortress at Qadesh Barne'a (Cohen 1983) and the ninth-seventh centuries BCE fortress at 'En Hazeva in the Negev (Cohen 1993:593-594). By contrast, there is no evidence prior to the Hellenistic period for square or rectangular complexes with casemate walls and corner towers in Greece or Asia Minor where irregularly shaped fortresses were built at sites exploiting natural irregularlyshaped cliffs and defenses (Lawrence 1979;Adam 1982). The earliest example of a rectangular fort (though with a solid wall) from the Greek world is the late fourth-century BCE rectangular fort at Theangela, Caria (Lawrence 1979:138, 179, Figs. ...
... Msu6 was in fact made with the same types of clay materials removed during the excavation of the structure. The reuse of these materials is well-recorded elsewhere during the construction of negative protohistoric structures (González and Medina, 2002;Lawrence, 1979;Lorrio et al., 2011). Another more coarser clay coating (Msu7) was then placed over the first. ...
The Fortress of Vilars d’Arbeca (775–300 cal BC) is a reference site for the transition from the Early Iron Age to
the Iberian period in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula. It’s noteworthy, however, that zones to the exterior
of these fortified settlements have rarely been the object of thorough analyses as archaeology has normally
focused on their interiors. This study presents a series of micromorphological analyses to determine the nature of
the infill of Reservoir BS-1625, an elongated structure along the site’s exterior initially identified as a defensive
ditch during fieldwork of 2017 (Alonso et al., 2020). This approach allowed defining the processes of formation
and function of its infill and how the structure served the fortress. The analyses broke down the infill’s sequence
into seven microfacies types, each defined along the lines of its spatial and stratigraphic context. The different
findings reveal that BS-1625 served to store rainwater channelled from the interior of the fortification. The
evidence clearly demonstrates that the structure thus played a dual role as ditch and reservoir before subsequently
serving as a space to produce raw earth for construction. Vilars d’Arbeca is the first site from this
timeframe in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula with a feature of this type. This perspective on the uses and
transformation of ditches, reservoirs and spaces along the exterior of the fortified settlement of Vilars d’Arbeca
thus sheds new light on aspects of the site’s daily life.
... Heracleia, Demetrias y Paestum: Poternas de forma en L o defendidas con antemurales (Winter 1971). Side: Planta general de la ciudad (McNicoll 1997) y de la sofisticada puerta de patio (Lawrence 1979). ...
Introducción Entradas, puertas y poternas están estrechamente ligadas con los sistemas defensivos que protegían las ciudades en la antigüedad. En especial se pueden relacionar con las murallas, pues entradas, puertas y poternas se insieren en ellas convirtiéndose en uno de sus principales componentes. En el presente artículo queremos ofrecer una visión general sobre los sistemas de accesos documentados en los recintos fortificados erigidos en el mundo mediterráneo. Dicho estudio quiere ofrecer a los especialistas en el campo de la protohistoria un marco donde comparar los sistemas de acceso de sus yacimientos arqueológicos con los ejemplos que ofrecen mundos tan diferentes como el oriental, el griego o el púnico, a los cuales en reiteradas ocasiones se les hace responsables de la Tout au long de la Méditerranée, entrées portes et poternes sont un composant indispensable dans le tracé d'un système défensif urbain. Dans cet article nous donner une attention spéciale aux systèmes d'accès documentés dans les établissements orientale, grecque et punique de la Méditerranée. Cette étude veut fournir aux chercheurs qui travaillent dans le domaine de la protohistoire de la Méditerranée occidentale une bref résumé sur les types de portes construites par les appelé colonisateurs. Le but que nous recherchons est que ceux professionnels peuvent comparer les systèmes d'accès documentés dans ses sites archéologiques avec ceux-là trouvés dans les différentes régions de la Méditerranée, pour observer si a vraiment existé une influence sur eux, une adaptation des modèles méditerranéens ou simplement une évolution indépen-dante étrangère à dites influence. Mots clé: portes, architecture, défense, Mediterranée, Orient, Occident. influencia sobre la arquitectura militar protohistórica del Mediterráneo central y occidental. En primer lugar prestaremos atención a la defi-nición, ubicación y función de las entradas, puertas y poternas en el conjunto de un sistema defensivo. Seguidamente, iniciamos nuestro estudio buscando el origen de este tipo de estructuras en el ámbito del Mediterráneo oriental, donde los conceptos, sobre todo defensivos, de los sistemas de acceso toman forma durante la Edad del Bronce, marcando de forma decisiva la posterior evolución de los mismos. Proseguiremos nuestro estudio tratando el pro-blemático tema de las puertas urbanas en Fenicia durante la Edad del Hierro, momento en que se inicia el proceso de colonización hacia Occidente, de ahí la importancia de recrear el aspecto de las mismas. Por su parte, las puertas erigidas en Grecia son de un A lo largo y ancho del Mediterráneo, entradas, puertas y poter-nas son un componente indispensable en el trazado de un sistema defensivo urbano. En el presente artículo prestaremos especial aten-ción a los sistemas de acceso documentados en los asentamientos orientales, griegos y púnicos del Mediterráneo. Este estudio quiere proporcionar a los investigadores que trabajan en el campo de la protohistoria mediterránea occidental una breve síntesis sobre los tipos de puertas construidas por los llamados colonizadores. El fin que perseguimos es que estos profesionales puedan comparar los sistemas de accesos documentados en sus yacimientos con aquellos hallados en diferentes regiones del Mediterráneo, para observar si existió verdaderamente una influencia sobre los mismos, una adap-tación de los modelos mediterráneos o simplemente una evolución independiente ajena a dichas influencias.
... È stato osservato in passato come sia possibile stabilire uno stretto legame tra il progresso nelle tecniche difensive delle città greche ed il perfezionamento della poliorcetica, e questo non solo in rapporto alla condotta in guerra, ma anche alla difesa dello stato e del territorio, con l'installazione di posti militari di guardia e di controllo. (Winter 1971;Garlan 1972;Lawrence 1979;Greco, Torelli 1983, 290-292;Ober 1987). Secondo Y. Garlan, un momento di rottura nella tattica difensiva tradizionale si ebbe con Pericle: lo stratega ordinò agli Ateniesi di abbandonare la terra e rifugiarsi nella città protetta dalle Lunghe Mura, che comunicavano anche con la costa, confidando nella forza marittima del porto e nella possibilità che riuscissero a sopravvivere anche lontani dalla campagna (Garlan 1972, 119). ...
... The earliest known example of this type of waterway is a defensive ditch in Vroulia, at the southern tip of Rhodes, datable to the mid-seventh century BCE. 26 Also in the seventh century BCE, Corinthian colonists separated Leucadia (the island of modern Leukas, or Levkás) from the Acarnanian coast of Greece by digging a navigable canal across the isthmus joining the peninsula to the terra ferma. 27 By the time of the Peloponnesian War, the canal had filled in with deposits of silt, forcing ships to be dragged across the isthmus. ...
From the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries, military engineers in the Mediterranean devised a new strategy for defending a city built on a peninsular site: a navigable canal was excavated through the neck of the landmass, severing the city from the coast and isolating it within the sea. In Building with Water: The Rise of the Island-City in the Early Modern Mediterranean, Elizabeth Kassler-Taub traces the development and dissemination of this overlooked urban type. She details how the “island-city” first emerged in the Adriatic and Ionian territories of the Venetian stato da mar and later swept across Spanish and Portuguese outposts in the western Mediterranean basin, where it was absorbed into a shared Iberian vernacular. By reconstructing the circulation of the island-city through this sprawling network of colonial frontiers, Kassler-Taub argues, we can chart an alternative path of architectural influence in the region, one that shifts our attention beyond the Italian and Spanish mainlands.
... 68. For the necessity of masons and/or their crews to be mobile between several places of employment so as to earn a living, see the discussion in Lawrence 1979, p. 234. 69. ...
... Certains tracés perpendiculaires à la pente sont considérés comme des « anomalies » 55 qui font « douter de la possibilité effective de les défendre » 56 , dans la mesure où « le rempart, au lieu de suivre les courbes de niveau, s'en détache bien souvent pour traverser un vallon, 46 Garlan, 1974, p . 342 ;Lawrence, 1979, p . 345 . ...
Il est couramment admis dans l’historiographie récente que les remparts laténiens tardifs avaient pour l’essentiel une fonction de prestige ou d’ostentation, et que leur valeur défensive était faible. Les arguments portés à l’appui de cette interprétation ne résistent pas à l’examen. Non seulement les enceintes gauloises, y compris les plus grandes, pouvaient être défendues, mais encore elles répondaient parfaitement aux impératifs des tactiques d’attaque et de défense des places en usage dans le monde celtique ainsi qu’aux moyens techniques dont les Gaulois disposaient. Le rempart n’est pas le symbole désincarné de la ville gauloise. Il est le nouveau visage qu’elle prend à la fin du IIe siècle, dans une conjoncture politique et militaire qui frappe d’obsolescence le modèle de l’agglomération ouverte, jusqu’alors dominant.
Cercetările arheologice au stabilit existenţa diferitor urme de ardere în vestigiile structurilor defensive din spaţiul dintre Prut și Nistru, datate în epoca fierului. Acestea sunt reprezentate de fragmente de lemn carbonizat, lut ars, sol și pietre vitrificate, provenind din rămășiţele zidurilor de tip carcasă de lemn cu emplecton, atestate atât la fortificaţiile culturii Saharna (sec. XI/XIX a. Chr.), cât și la cele ale culturii getice (sec. VI-III a. Chr.). După investigarea dovezilor distrugerii prin foc ale elementelor defensive ale cetăţilor, s-a constatat variabilitatea amplasării aglomerărilor de arsuri în raport cu elevaţia originală a zidurilor și a gradului de conservare in situ a materialului carbonizat. Astfel, informaţia arheologică păstrată vine să elucideze modul în care și-au găsit sfârșitul cetăţile din epoca fierului din spaţiul pruto-nistrean.
English: Past archaeological research has demonstrated the existence of burnt traces inside the remains of Iron Age defensive structures in the area between the Prut and Dniester rivers. They are represented by charcoal fragments, burnt clay, vitrified soil and stones, which originated from the wreckage of timber-framed wall and fill ramparts documented both in the Saharna culture fortifications (11th/10th-9th centuries BC), as well as in those attributed to the Getic culture (6th-3rd centuries BC). Investigating the evidence of the hillforts’ defensive elements’ destruction by fire led to the realization that the location of charred agglomerations relative to the walls’ original elevation varies from case to case, along with the in situ preservation degree of the carbonized material. As such, the collected archaeological information helps to clarify the way in which the Iron Age hillforts of the PrutDniester area met their end.
Konsulivske belongs to the group of Late Scythian hillforts located in the lower Dnipro area. Since 2015, a Ukrainian–Polish archaeological team has been carrying out the investigation of the site. The article presents the results of these studies focused on fortifications of the citadel and the main line of defence.
В статье рассматриваются архитектурные комплексы греческих поселений дальней хоры Херсонеса Таврического, включающие в себя такие структурные элементы, как башни. В отечественной и зарубежной историографии существуют различные точки зрения на назначение башенных комплексов. Роль башен в той или иной поселенческой структуре определяется исходя из окружающего археологического контекста - в одних случаях башни имеют исключительно хозяйственное или жилое назначение, в других - являются оборонительными сооружениями. Вопрос о таком разграничении является дискуссионным и по сей день. Решением этой проблемы может послужить комплексный военно-архитектурный анализ с привлечением письменных источников - наставлений античных архитекторов, которые так или иначе находили отражение в действительности. По результатам проведенного исследования можно заключить, что на поселениях дальней хоры Херсонеса встречаются устойчивые типы башен, схожие в своих внешних параметрах и строительных техниках, но имеющие при этом различное назначение.
The article examines the architectural complexes of the Greek settlements of the distant chora of the Chersonesos, including such structural elements as towers. In Russian and foreign historiography, there are different points of view on the purpose of the tower complexes. The role of towers in a particular settlement structure is determined by the surrounding archaeological context - in some cases, the towers are exclusively for economic or residential purposes, in others - for deffence. The question of such a distinction is debatable to this day. In addition, the problem is the incompleteness of the sources, which manifests itself in the unsatisfactory preservation of building remains, which complicates the drawing of conclusions about the purpose of the tower complexes. The solution to this problem can be achieved by comprehensive military-architectural analysis with the involvement of written sources - the instructions of ancient architects, which were reflected in reality. According to the results of this research it can be concluded that in the settlements of the distant chora of Chersonesos, there are stable types of towers, similar in their external parameters and construction techniques, but having a different purpose.
A menudo, los llamados recintos de fosos neolíticos y calcolíticos de la península ibérica (IV-III milenios a. C.) han sido interpretados como fortificaciones. Sin embargo, escasean los estudios específicos sobre el particular. En este trabajo, se intenta contribuir al debate a través de analogías con fortificaciones históricas y prehistóricas bien conocidas. Se efectúa el análisis detallado, desde una perspectiva poliorcética, de dos recintos fosados calcolíticos: Xancra (Cuba, Beja, Portugal) y El Casetón de la Era (Villalba de los Alcores, Valladolid, España). Los resultados del estudio sugieren que las líneas concéntricas de fosos que conforman dichos sitios muestran ciertas optimizaciones orientadas a la defensa. No obstante, al mismo tiempo, como fortificaciones ambos exhiben numerosas características no canónicas. En la discusión se plantean dos posibles explicaciones. Según la primera, la ineficiencia de su diseño se debe a la ignorancia por parte de sus constructores de algunos de los principios más elementales de la poliorcética. Según la segunda, la elección de su lugar de emplazamiento, así como su diseño arquitectónico, se llevaron a cabo con otros propósitos además del puramente militar, o por encima de este.
Eski Smyrna, Tunç Çağı’nın sonunda Kıta Yunanistan’dan Batı Anadolu’ya ulaşan topluluklarla hızlı bir değişim sürecine girmiştir. Kentte MÖ 11. yüzyılda başlayan bu değişim kendisini MÖ 10. yüzyılın içlerinde kuvvetli bir şekilde hissettirmeye başlar. Kazı çalışmalarında ele geçen ithal seramiklerle Eski Smyrna’nın MÖ 9. yüzyılda limanını etkin bir biçimde kullanmaya başladığı anlaşılmaktadır. Bu tarihten itibaren, doğusunda verimli Hermos Vadisi, batısında ise Ege Havzası’na açılan bir limana sahip olan yerleşim hiç şüphesiz çevresindeki rakiplerinin de ilgisini çekmeye başlamış olmalıdır. Eski Smyrna’yı rakiplerine karşı güçlü kılacak olan ilk hamle ise yaklaşık MÖ 850 tarihinde, kenti çevreleyen kerpiç savunma duvarının inşasının başlaması olmuştur. Hellen savunma yapılarının en erken örneklerinden biri olan kentin bu ilk sur yapısı kentte yerleşimin sona erdiği Klasik Dönem’in sonuna kadar dört ana evreyle gelişimini sürdürmüştür.
Eski Smyrna’da 1948-51 yıllarında başlayan sistemli arkeolojik araştırmalarla kentin savunma duvarları kapsamlı bir çalışmaya konu edilmiş ancak araştırma sonuçları, geride cevaplanması gereken yeni sorular bırakmıştır. 2016 yılında kentin savunma sistemlerinin yeniden araştırılmasına başlanmış, özellikle savunma duvarlarında yürütülen eski araştırmalardaki tarihleme ile alakalı veri eksikliğinin giderilmesi ve mevcut verilerin stratigrafiyle birlikte yenilenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu çalışma, Eski Smyrna savunma yapıları hakkında yürütülen araştırmaların sonuçlarını yorumlamayı ve savunma duvarları hakkındaki verileri güncellemeyi amaçlamaktadır.
Since antiquity, attack and defense were frequent phenomena in human lives and the urban complexes. For this reason, the discovery of a defensive solution against any kind of attack was of an imperative necessity. In order to ensure the feeling of safety, people constructed fortifications, which protected their lives and their properties as well. Using as a reference point a small town, which was established near Nestos river (north Aegean), the preserved remains of a severe fortification that ringed this town will be examined. Initially, a brief mention to the town itself is presented in an attempt to clear out the historical context of it, the matter of its naming, the determination of its metropolis and many other topics concerning this town. The small town, which was possibly an emporion, stands today near Pontolivado village, in Kavala prefecture, at the northeast of Greece. This site is related to an archaeologically promising area, since the interesting findings from that place are constantly unveiling the past of the town that had been covered by the oblivion of the time.
This paper presents the preliminary results from the 2022 fieldwork of the Palamas Archaeological Project, an ongoing Greek–Swedish collaboration in the region of Karditsa, Thessaly. Working over the course of two separate field seasons, the project team conducted aerial, architectural, fieldwalking, and geophysical surveys at a number of sites within the survey area, including at the important multi-phase fortified settlements at Metamorfosi and Vlochos. Limited excavations were also conducted at the latter site, producing new evidence for the Hellenistic and Early Byzantine phases of the ancient city, including a probable cemetery. The work continues to add to the knowledge of the archaeology of the region, highlighting the long and dynamic history of human habitation in western Thessaly.
In the early 4th Century BC, the systematical constructions of ‘Geländemauer’ city walls began in Karia under the Hekatomnid rule. Henceforth, ‘Geländemauer’ city walls became the most advanced and sophisticated fortification system in Western Anatolia, both in tactical and topographical points, until the end of the 3rd century BC. On this type of city wall, defined by scholars as “Geländemauer” circuits, the traces of walls follow the high ridges and summits of the lands, aiming to gain the topography’s natural defense advantage. Therefore, the city walls built according to the “Geländemauer” planning model surround larger areas than those required for civic buildings. These fortifications’ topographical layout, tactical design, and construction method demonstrate the concept of advanced territorial defense. At the same time, the tradition of rural “Lelegian” residential architecture and stonework, entirely existing in the Halikarnassos Peninsula before the Hekatomnid rule in Karia, gave shape to the rustic appeal and economic character of the Hekatomnid ‘emplekton’ technique which would be adopted to requirements of the
art of the ‘poliorketic’ siege warfare in Hellenistic period. In many cases, the initial construction of “Geländemauer” city walls was also carried out using various masonry techniques based on distinct variants of ‘emplekton’ (ashlar, trapezoidal, polygonal, pseudo-polygonal) while considering the different topographical conditions, except for later repair. On the other hand, the architectural
characteristics of ‘Geländemauer’ in the region emerged as the consequence of the fact that Hekatomnids had supported the urbanization process and had undertaken the reconstructions of the prominent sanctuaries of the Karian League while installing an extent fortification network for defending the territory of the Karian Satrapy. In this regard, the Hekatomnid building program in military architecture has distinct characteristics that had a long-term influence on the design
of Hellenistic fortifications. Maussollos’ settlement policy based on urbanization by ‘synoecism’ that radically transformed the rural residential organization in Karia essentially determined the development of ‘Geländemauer’ in the region. Since the end of the 4th century BC, adopting a similar settlement policy to the synoecism of Maussollos, many of the Macedonian leaders (Eupolemos, Pleistarkhos, Demetrios Poliorketes, Lysimakhos) principally fortified their ‘metropoleis’ with ‘Geländemauer’ city walls. Accordingly, as appeared in the City of Herakleia ad
Latmum (Pleistarkheia), reestablished by Pleistarkhos at the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 3rd century BC, this fortification technique was promoted by being modified to the advanced siege warfare engineering (poliorketic). It could be reasonably said that both cities carry the architectural memory of ‘Geländemauer’ in Karia. Considering the transference of the architectural technique of Hekatomnid ‘emplekton’ in the city walls of Halikarnassos to the Early Hellenistic fortification
of Herakleia ad Latmum, in this respect, Halikarnassos and Herakleia ad Latmum are significant cities of which the city walls could be taken as descriptive patterns to define the architectural and topographic details of ‘Geländemauer’; at the same time, it is also essential to emphasize the fact that these ancient Karian cities experienced similar settlement processes depending on ‘synoecism’
and in this manner, they were fortified with similar ‘Geländemauer’ city walls. Fortification building projects planned for the defense of Halikarnassos in the second quarter of the 4th Century BC and Herakleia ad Latmum at the end of the 4th – early 3rd century BC contributed to the continuity of ‘Geländemauer’ in Karia. Therefore, it should be considered that Karia is among the places where
the architectural improvements in the design of ‘Geländemauer’ city walls could uninterruptedly be pursued during the period from Maussollos’ rule to the end of the 3rd – the beginning of the 2nd century BC when Philippos V. and Antiokhos III attempted to invade this region. Ancient cities fortified with “Geländemauer” are mostly the centers of the political confederations called “koina” (e.g., Messene), or administrative centers of a kingdom or a regional political power (e.g., Syracuse in Sicily, Samos in Ionia, Halikarnassos, Herakleia ad Latmum in Karia, Demetrias in
Thessalia, Antiokheia in Kilikia). Studying the evolution of “Geländemauer” city walls in Karia to classify the ancient defense systems according to their architectural techniques, topographical designs, and chronological phases will undoubtedly contribute to the knowledge about urbanization and resettlement patterns in the region during the Classical and Hellenistic periods.
Les fortifications extra-urbaines de Myra, dont la plupart datent de la période hellénistique, comptent parmi les mieux conservées de Lycie. Leur étude topographique et architecturale nous invite à reconsidérer le débat sur la fonctionnalité de ce type de construction. Nous pensons que nombre d’entre elles étaient organisées en réseau et faisaient partie d’un système de défense élargi à l’échelle du territoire de la cité, voire de la région, placée dans la sphère d’influence de plusieurs pouvoirs dominants ; cela n’exclut pas que certains fortins ou tours isolées aient été construits à l’initiative de propriétaires fonciers, pour un usage privé, en vue de surveiller et de protéger les terres agricoles.
Matthew Maher’s monograph on the fortifications of Arkadian city states is (although not mentioned in the book) based on a PhD dissertation at the University of British Columbia (Vancouver) in 2012. It is a very welcome volume, because it supplies the growing interest in both the history and archaeology of Arkadia as a central Greek region and in ancient fortifications in a regional scope. As Maher writes in his introduction, he sees his study in the light of the ‘move away from traditional stereotypical interpretations of a poor and isolated Arkadia towards a view of a moderately prosperous region whose inhabitants generally followed the same patterns of social, political, and cultural development seen elsewhere in ancient Greece’ (p. 1) – a move that only can be appreciated.
In this book, Alessandro Pierattini offers a comprehensive study of the evolution of pre-archaic Greek temple architecture from the eleventh to mid-seventh century BCE. Demystifying the formative stages of Greek architecture, he traces how temples were transformed from unassuming shrines made of perishable materials into large stone and terracotta monuments. Grounded in archaeological evidence, the volume analyzes the design, function, construction, and aesthetic of the Greek temple. While the book's primary focus is architectural, it also draws on non-architectural material culture, ancient cult practice, and social history, which also defined the context that fostered the Greek temple's initial development. In reconstituting this early history, Pierattini also draws attention to new developments as well as legacies from previous eras. Ultimately, he reveals why the temple's pre-Archaic development is not only of interest in itself, but also a key to the origins of the Greek monumental architecture of the Archaic period.
Pamphylia Bölgesi’nin önemli yerleşimlerinden olan ve kentsel gelişimi topografyaya göre yön bulan Sillyon antik kentinin “Su Sistemi” bu makalenin konusunu oluşturmaktadır. Yaşamın ana unsuru olan su, en temel ihtiyaç maddesi olması bakımından, diğer doğal kaynaklardan farklı olarak, ekonomik değerinin dışında, geçmişte ve günümüzde sosyal ve politik amaçlar doğrultusunda kullanılmıştır. Bu düşünceden hareketle, sunulan çalışma kapsamında Arkeoloji ve Hidroloji Mühendisliği disiplinleri çerçevesinde Sillyon antik kentinin su kaynakları ve su yapıları disiplinlerarası bir yaklaşımla araştırılmıştır. Kentte bulunan su yapıları tüm detaylarıyla çalışılmış ve yaklaşık kapasiteleri hesaplanmıştır. Kentin yağış, sıcaklık, nem verileri incelenmiş; havzanın taşkın durumu değerlendirilmiştir. Bu verilerden yararlanarak Sillyon’un urbanistik yapısı ve kent nüfusu hakkında çeşitli öneriler sunulmuştur. Sillyon’da tüm dönemlerde geleneksel hale gelen şehirciliğinde, su yapılarının da süregelen kent geleneği çerçevesinde kullanıldığı; su sisteminin temelinde arazinin morfolojik yapısına uyulduğu ve düzenli bir planlama yerine daha çok fonksiyonel bir sistemin tercih edildiği anlaşılmaktadır. Bununla birlikte Sillyon’da diğer kentlerde pek rastlanılmayan bir uygulama da ön plana çıkmaktadır. Şöyle ki, kentin su ihtiyacının büyük bir kısmı belli kot seviyesinde akan su kaynaklarından sağlanmaktadır. Bu kaynakların Roma Hamamı, Nymphaeum A, Aquaedukt ve Osmanlı Çeşmesi gibi önemli tesislerin konumunu ve hacmini belirlediği anlaşılmaktadır.
Biton’s Construction of Machines of War and Catapults describes six machines by five engineers or inventors; the fourth machine is a rolling elevatable scaling ladder, named sambukē, designed by one Damis of Kolophōn. The first sambukē was invented by Herakleides of Taras, in 214 BCE, for the Roman siege of Syracuse. Biton is often dismissed as incomprehensible or preposterous. I here argue that the account of Damis’ device is largely coherent and shows that Biton understood that Damis had built a machine that embodied Archimedean principles. The machine embodies three such principles: (1) the proportionate balancing of the torques on a lever (from Plane Equilibria, an early work); (2) the concept of specific gravity or density (from Floating Bodies, a late work); and (3) the κοχλίας, i.e., a worm drive (invented ca 240 BCE), with the toothed wheel functioning as the horizontal axis of rotation of the elevated ladder. Moreover, the stone-thrower of Isidoros of Abydos (the second machine in Biton) also embodies the κοχλίας.
This dissertation will examine how effective the transmission of orders was in Ancient Greece in the fifth century BC. We will focus both on short-range tactical means of communication, such as vocal orders, and on wider-ranging strategic methods such as fire-signals. This largely neglected topic falls within the wider purview of ancient military intelligence, which has received some attention over the last decades. Following recent re-examinations of Greek Warfare, we will argue against the prevalent idea that fifth century Greek armies neglected communications. In this we will be following, and furthering, the works of scholars such as Everett Wheeler and Frank Russel, among others. While neither Wheeler nor Russell focus exclusively on the transmission of orders, their respective theories on generalship and intelligence gathering are invaluable to any examination of our own topic. Our main goals concerning tactical communications will be threefold. We will firstly determine whether vocal orders were audible on an ancient battlefield; secondly, we will examine whether Hellenic generals were in a position to issue commands; and thirdly, we will analyse how far Greek armies could be counted upon to follow instructions. As for strategic communications, we will aim to prove that the Greeks were capable of delivering more than rudimentary pre-arranged messages via their fire-signals. We will also examine how crucial strategic communications could be in the planning of a military campaign. This dissertation will thus contribute to the ongoing movement of re-consideration that has gripped ancient Greek military history over the last decades, and hopefully temper seemingly outdated notions concerning Hellenic communications
This article reviews the monuments of ancient fortification, which historically belonged to the remote chora of Chersonesus since the late IV century BC. Among them, the author highlights the urban and rural settlements that featured various defensive structures. This factor is associated with a wide territorial expansion of Chersonesus in the territory North-Western Crimea. The interpretation of some monuments remains controversial due to the absence of meticulous analysis of the functions of certain constructs and planning structures of the fortified settlements. The role of the fortified settlements of the remote chora of Chersonesus in the process of development of vast territories of the North-Western Crimea is also contentious. The key goal of this article consists in the analysis of ancient fortifications from the perspective of the existing archaeological classification and records from the written sources. For correlating the Chersonesus fortifications with the existing sections in archaeological classification, namely with the concept of “fort”, the author applies the analysis of defensive functions, which in turn, are reflected in architectural-planning solutions and provisioned by the ancient architects military tactical techniques, which can be observed in the architectural remnants. Based on the acquired results, the author offers a multifaceted comprehensive approach towards analyzing the architectural constructs, which allows conducting new historical reconstructions of defense system of the chora.
The Vlochos Archaeological Project (2016–2018) was a Greek-Swedish archaeological investigation of the remains of the ancient urban site at Vlochos in western Thessaly, Greece. Employing a wide array of non-invasive methods, the project succeeded in completely mapping the visible remains, which had previously not been systematically investigated. The extensive remains of multi-period urban fortifications, a Classical-Hellenistic city, a Roman town, and a Late Antique fortress were identified, evidence of the long history of habitation on this site. Since comparatively little fieldwork has been conducted in the region, the results significantly increase our knowledge of the history and archaeology of Thessaly.
The fortress at Eleutherai is an iconic example of ancient Greek military architecture. Our knowledge of the site, however, is limited by several problems related to its date, construction, function, and identity. The Mazi Archaeological Project has undertaken a detailed, multicomponent study of the fortress and its surroundings using a combination of intensive field survey, architectural mapping, and photogrammetry. A new architectural plan clarifies construction phases and building techniques, while surface finds and epigraphy inform the history of the occupation of Eleutherai, which is especially tied to Boiotia. In the second part of this article we provide new insights concerning the economics of constructing major fortifications and their role in regional politics.
The article examines the problems in developing approaches for the description and stylistic interpretation of antique masonry, as well as the issues in their stylistic dating. The task of dating construction remains belonging to the 7th century B.C.E. to the turn of the era, has attracted the scholarly attention of the scientific community since the 1940s and has been considered by both foreign and Russian researchers. The article's research object is the construction remains of Greek civil and military architecture in the Mediterranean and the Northern Black Sea regions - territories considered to have been the center and periphery of the Greek Oikumena. The study applied the comparative-typological method, the synchronization of objects in time and space, and dating by analogy. Both in Russian and foreign studies a significant amount of data has been collected for the analysis and construction of appropriate conclusions regarding the distribution and popularity of certain masonry in particular periods of time. However, due to the presence of many factors affecting the ancient construction and stone-carving craft, a number of exceptions due to local natural, economic, raw material, and administrative factors can be distinguished in the observed patterns. Thus, the whole picture of the formation of the construction and stone-carving craft (with the allocation of the corresponding types of masonry in a certain historical period) can be reconstructed only with a comprehensive examination of all of them. As the most interesting objects in this regard, the article cites a number of architectural remains belonging to the monuments of the distant chora of Tauric Chersonesos dating to the second half of the 4th century B.C.E.
Archaic and Classical Harbours of the Greek World explores the archaeology and history of ancient harbours and focuses on the Greek world during the Archaic and Classical eras. Its objective is to establish a consensus on three fundamental questions: What locations were the most propitious for the installation of harbours? What kinds of harbour-works were built and for what purpose? What harbour forms were documented? These subjects have been addressed by evaluating multiple forms of evidence (archaeological, geographical, nautical, textual, iconographic and geological) in the context of the Aegean and Eastern Ionian maritime settings.
[Archaeological notes on the fortification solutions of Early Byzantine forts in Serbia] The article presents some ar- chaeological notes about solutions applied in Early Byzantine fortified settlements (6th cent. – beginning of the 7th cent.) in modern Serbia (Northern Illyricum). After a short history of investigation and interpretation, the main principles of Early Byzantine fortifications located in the Balkans are considered. Most of the ‘Early Byzantine fortifications’ have been shown after excavation to be fortified rural settlements, with possible additional functions like mining, metallurgy, or trade at some of them. The choice of location for building a fortified settlement is analyzed, as well as the ditches, the wall layout, the manner of wall construction, the different forms of gates, towers, etc.
Keywords: Serbia, Illyricum, Early Byzantine period, fortifications, walls, towers, gates
Le présent volume procède d'un colloque organisé à Oxford à l'été 2006. Rassemblant linguistes, archéologues, épigraphistes, numismates et historiens, il fut l'occasion d'échanger des idées sur une période de transition fondamentale dans l'histoire de la Carie : le ive siècle et les deux siècles qui suivirent la conquête d'Alexandre. Cette période fut en effet d'abord marquée par la présence et la visibilité des satrapes, mais aussi ensuite par une intense activité civique et une conscience politique accrue des communautés cariennes. La symbiose entre les îles du Dodécanèse, en particulier Rhodes et Cos, et le littoral carien constitue un autre thème important. Plusieurs communications se rattachent enfin à une orientation de recherche sur les cultures anatoliennes qui est aujourd'hui en plein essor, celle de l'étude des interactions culturelles entre Grecs et Anatoliens depuis la fin de l'âge du Bronze et le début de l'âge du Fer, dont on perçoit encore les échos aux époques plus récentes.
Le présent volume procède d'un colloque organisé à Oxford à l'été 2006. Rassemblant linguistes, archéologues, épigraphistes, numismates et historiens, il fut l'occasion d'échanger des idées sur une période de transition fondamentale dans l'histoire de la Carie : le ive siècle et les deux siècles qui suivirent la conquête d'Alexandre. Cette période fut en effet d'abord marquée par la présence et la visibilité des satrapes, mais aussi ensuite par une intense activité civique et une conscience politique accrue des communautés cariennes. La symbiose entre les îles du Dodécanèse, en particulier Rhodes et Cos, et le littoral carien constitue un autre thème important. Plusieurs communications se rattachent enfin à une orientation de recherche sur les cultures anatoliennes qui est aujourd'hui en plein essor, celle de l'étude des interactions culturelles entre Grecs et Anatoliens depuis la fin de l'âge du Bronze et le début de l'âge du Fer, dont on perçoit encore les échos aux époques plus récentes.
Analizamos el sistema defensivo de Contrebia Carbica mediante la fotografía aérea histórica. Los resultados de este análisis serán la base para reflexionar sobre la aparición en Celtiberia de ciudades con rasgos similares durante el siglo II a.C. Se trata de un fenómeno que relacionamos con la influencia itálica en esta zona, proponiendo la Paz de Graco como detonante de una transformación radical e irreversible de la cultura indígena que acabara transformando su urbanismo, y por tanto su forma de vida, en la segunda mitad del siglo II a.C.
Contrebia Carbica. Study of the defensive system for a reflection on poliorcetic and urbanism of 2nd and 1st centuries BC in Celtiberia
Abstract. This paper provides a study of the defensive system of Contrebia Carbica based on the aerial photography series. The result of this analysis allow us to think about the development of analogous cities during the 2nd century in Celtiberia. It is a fact that we link to he Italic influence in this area. In this way, the Gracchus' peace can be the trigger for a dramatic and irreversible change in the indigenous culture which will transform the urban planning, and thus the way of life, during the second part of the second century B.C.
The region of Cilicia is located in the southern part of Anatolia. The geographical conditions that divided the region of Cilicia into Rough (Cilicia Tracheia) and Plain (Cilicia Pedias) also affected the urbanization in the region. Although there are literary and epigraphical sources regarding the Hellenistic settlements in Plain Cilicia, being important because of controlling the eastern western route, archaeological remains are rarely found, hence discussions on the localization of some Hellenistic Period cities continue. A similar situation can be observed for Rough Cilicia. In this study, the Hellenistic period urbanization activities in Cilicia will be examined in terms of the characteristics of the region and cities in the light of the principles of the Hellenistic kingdoms’ colonization. To this end, first the cities established in the Hellenistic Period in the Cilicia region will be evaluated, and then the Olba Territory, providing important data about the Hellenistic period urbanization in the region because of its relations to rich archaeological remains and the Hellenistic kingdoms, will be discussed in detail.
Questioning the defensive role of the ramparts of Late La Tène oppida is a prevailing tendency in recent Celtic historiography, as it is assumed by most scholars that their function was predominantly symbolic and ostentatious. Lines of reasoning refuting the military functionality of these fortifications, especially the murus gallicus type, are discussed in this paper. Contrary to current interpretations, it appears that the building techniques, morphology and circuit outlines of these structures are perfectly congruent with a well-reasoned plan of defence, adapted to the warfare and siege tactics in use at that time in the Celtic world. From this perspective, their design is in no way less efficient than that of Hellenistic stone-masonry city walls. In the urbanization process that affects the La Tène culture from the 3rd century BC, fortifi cation appears late, a century after the first large proto-urban trading settlements. It is therefore not a fundamental attribute of Celtic urbanism per se and should rather be interpreted as a response to the global threats instigated by the historical conjuncture of 125–100 BC.
This article presents the interim results of the Karakalpak-Australian excavations for the years 2001–2005 at the site of Kazakl'i-yatkan in north-western Uzbekistan. Data is presented on the construction and absolute chronology of the fortifications and an architectural survey of contemporary standing monuments in the region. Kazakl'i- yatkan was a major site in the delta of the Amu-dar'ya and was possibly at one time a regional capital. A series of C14 dates has shown that the site was established around the late third century BC and abandoned probably at some time in the second century AD. The regularity of the fortifications suggests a planned layout, but their efficacy was seriously hampered by inefficient design. The site suffered a major siege in the first century BC, but subsequently recovered and the fortifications were repaired. The identity of the attackers is as yet undetermined.
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