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Understanding Inequality: The Intersection of Race/Ethnicity, Class, and Gender
... A partial answer to that question lies within the theory of intersectionality (Archer and Francis 2006;Arrighi 2001;Crenshaw 1991;Khattab 2009;Lewis 2004;Reay et al. 2007). According to this theory, an individual's experience within a given racial or ethnic identity (e.g. ...
... For example, the social value attached to an individual belonging to the White category is very much associated with his or her class as well as with religious background and migration status. White working class people, or migrants from Eastern Europe for the sake of argument, can face various exclusionary practices similar to BME groups (Archer and Francis 2006;Arrighi 2001;Khattab 2009;Reay et al. 2007). Another example refers to White-British Muslim women, who at times face hostility from non-Muslims because of wearing the hijab (Franks 2000). ...
This paper explores the situation of new groups of immigrants by focusing on various categories within the heterogeneous group of individuals which comprise the White population. We combine information on country of origin, ethnicity and religion derived from the UK Labour Force Survey (LFS) to subdivide the White-British, White-Irish and White-Other categories into nine groups, each of which comprises at least 0.1% of the LFS sample. The analyses contrast the recent labour market experiences of eight of these with those of the Christian White-British majority (who form 73.6% of the LFS sample studied). We then investigate labour market outcomes such as over-qualification, unemployment, longer-term unemployment, discouraged worker effects, part-time working and forced part-time work. The participation of the Christian Eastern European group is markedly different to the other categories in terms of likelihood of working part-time either through choice or because they were unable to find full-time work, and they are less likely to become discouraged workers. We suggest that this is because their motivation in migrating to the UK is work related and they are unlikely to remain if the desired employment is unavailable.
... In this context, Muslim women occupy multiple positions and identities that are complex and multi-directional. The visible identity for some, especially when wearing the veil or hijab, as well as other markers such as colour and dress code, play an important part in the construction of 'otherness' (Brah and Phoenix, 2013;Brown, 2006) and reflect the intersectionality and shifting nature of race and ethnic boundaries (Archer and Francis, 2006;Arrighi, 2001;Crenshaw, 1991;Lewis, 2004;Reay et al., 2007). This suggests that the experience of an individual within a given racial or ethnic identity (e.g. ...
... This means that Black-Muslim women were the only group to suffer a significant pay penalty. The likely explanation for their pay penalty is their skin colour (blackness) rather than their religious affiliation, showing how the influence of some intersections are never static and are always 'in process' (Arrighi, 2001;Crenshaw, 1991) and it is contingent upon the particular circumstances of the group and the specific aspect of the labour market. ...
This article aims to explain the labour market penalties among Muslim women in Britain. It draws on theories of intersectionality and colour/cultural racism to argue that the labour market experience of British-Muslim women is multiply determined via criteria of ascription such as ethnicity, migration status, race and religion rather than criteria of achievement. The study uses data from the Labour Force Survey (2002–2013) with a large sample (N=245,391) of women aged 19–65 years. The overarching finding suggests that most Muslim women, regardless of their multiple ascriptive identities, generation and levels of qualifications, still face significant penalties compared with their White-British Christian counterparts. The penalties for some groups, such as Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Black-Muslim women, are harsher than for Indian and White-Muslim women, demonstrating how different social markers and multiple identities have contingent relationships to multiple determinants and outcomes.
... Medical appointment scheduling is but one instance of use cases with the preceding structure, yet on its own constitutes a serious ethical problem. Historically, lowincome patients are disproportionately more likely to show up late or miss medical appointments and being low-income disproportionately correlates in the USA with being Black (Akee et al., 2019;Arrighi, 2001;Bialik, 2018;Creamer, 2020;Hoover & Yaya, 2010;Kaplan-Lewis & Percac-Lima, 2013;Kochhar & Fry, 2014;LeClere & Soobader, 2000;Pollack et al., 2013;Shimotsu et al., 2016). Thus, Black patients in the USA have been disproportionately more likely to arrive late or to miss medical appointments than patients not identified as Black, henceforth "non-Black" following the data we study. ...
An Artificial Intelligence algorithm trained on data that reflect racial biases may yield racially biased outputs, even if the algorithm on its own is unbiased. For example, algorithms used to schedule medical appointments in the USA predict that Black patients are at a higher risk of no-show than non-Black patients, though technically accurate given existing data that prediction results in Black patients being overwhelmingly scheduled in appointment slots that cause longer wait times than non-Black patients. This perpetuates racial inequity, in this case lesser access to medical care. This gives rise to one type of Accuracy-Fairness trade-off: preserve the efficiency offered by using AI to schedule appointments or discard that efficiency in order to avoid perpetuating ethno-racial disparities. Similar trade-offs arise in a range of AI applications including others in medicine, as well as in education, judicial systems, and public security, among others. This article presents a framework for addressing such trade-offs where Machine Learning and Optimization components of the algorithm are decoupled. Applied to medical appointment scheduling, our framework articulates four approaches intervening in different ways on different components of the algorithm. Each yields specific results, in one case preserving accuracy comparable to the current state-of-the-art while eliminating the disparity.
... Others indicated that white HCAs were listened to more than Black and Brown nurses. 20 Nurses and midwives also described not being supported when they needed help, making it next to impossible for them always to do their jobs safely, leading to fear of reprisals. ...
Black, Brown and migrant health workers make a critical contribution to the NHS and social care. The current coronavirus outbreak has laid bare structural inequalities and disproportionately affected racialised minorities, including health care workers. This study collected stories of the working lives of Black and Brown staff and asked them to reflect on their experiences and advocate the changes they would like to see. It confirms previous studies that identify the entrenched nature of racism in health care systems, structures, processes and the writing of history. It depicts a bleak picture indicating it is damaging for staff, patients, and society with worsening incidences of harassment.
The study highlights how systemic cultures of racism contributed to the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on racialised minority health workers.
... This review article aims to provide evidence on the treatment, experiences, and outcomes of ethnic minority workers in health and social care in the UK, particularly on low-paid jobs within these sectors. Ethnicity is not fixed or easily measured, and it differs from, but overlaps with race, nationality, religion, and migration status (Arrighi, 2001;Khattab and Hussein, 2018). Other social markers and experiences might further identify a minority group such as white Muslim women, white traveller communities, or white European migrants (through language and accent). ...
There are long-standing concerns of inequalities in the workplace among minority ethnic (ME) workers in the UK health and social care (H&SC) sectors. ME workers contribute significantly to H&SC delivery. However, there is considerable evidence of substantial negative experiences among this group across various workplace indicators and outcomes, including (mis)treatment. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated these inequalities with higher infection rates and related deaths among ME health and care workers. A rapid review methodology was employed to examine the work experiences and outcomes of ME workers in H&SC in the UK, focusing on low paid workers. The review identified fifty-one relevant outputs, detailing the nature and extent of inequalities across recruitment, career progression and treatment at work, including bullying and harassment. The findings highlight the impact of the intersectionality of gender, race and migration status concerning the ways inequalities are manifested and operated through individual perceptions and institutional and structural racism.
... Furthermore, this finding confirms the conclusions reached by Model and Lin (2002) that there is a penalty associated with being non-Christian, as do the significant penalties experienced by No Religion White-British group compared to the Christian White-British. What matters is possibly not skin colour per se but the perceived culture-as argued by Fox et al. (2012) in relation to Romanian migrants in the UK and other studies linking Whiteness and class (Archer and Francis 2006;Arrighi 2001;Reay et al. 2007). Furthermore, it is possible that those women who subscribed to the Christian category attend churches and services more often than others, which provides them with more diversed social networks that can help them find better employment opportunities. ...
The literature on British Muslim women’s labour market experience suffers from four lacunae: the inadequate analysis of the multi-layered facets of their identities and the disadvantages they face; the narrow range of labour market outcomes studied (primarily labour market participation and unemployment); a lack of recent studies on the integration of Muslim women, educated in the UK and with English as their first language, into the labour market; and the absence of material on several sub-groups due to the lack of data, notably Arab, Christian Indian and White-British Muslim women. Using a large sample of data from the 2011 British census, the analyses presented here suggest that most non-White women face significant labour market penalties, with religion having a greater impact on labour market outcomes than race/ethnicity; Muslim women were the most disadvantaged, compared to other religious minorities, more so in relation to unemployment levels, part-time jobs and out of employment history, than in relation to occupational class and over-qualification. The results also suggest that the penalties facing Muslim women shaped by their ethnicity; not all Muslim women were similarly disadvantaged. A full text can be accessed here: http://rdcu.be/Izyh
... In more authoritarian states, dominant groups tend to maintain and police racial boundaries through social closures and use of force. Concepts of outsiders and insiders, otherness, phenotypes, racism, discrimination, ideology are associated with the notion of race and the use of different categorical distinctions (Arrighi 2007;Cerulo 1997). ...
While the concept and measurement of race has been a longstanding focus of social science research, capturing its significance requires a broader notion than utilizing only racial group categories. More recently, race has been treated as both a “characteristic” and a set of experiences that affect a multitude of life conditions and outcomes. This discussion and analysis moves away from treating race as only a categorical and static characteristic to a multi-dimensional concept that is dynamic, relational, and represents the intersection of individual, ecological, and structural components. By exploring the data collection of the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research and studies that include race as a variable, we were able to trace how race has been used by social scientists over the past 60 years. Using an extensive coding protocol, we have attained key characteristics of the principal investigator(s) (PI), funders, scope of the overall study, and the use of different measures of race. As a result, this “meta-analysis” of social science surveys enabled this researcher to examine how these studies use a wide scope of racial “variables,” and the way in which PI characteristics affected the inclusion of race-related items. In addition, bivariate analysis is presented to examine social scientists’ tendencies in investigating race and inclusion of qualitative examples of item wordings and response categories. This overview of social science studies is placed in the context of conceptual and measurement issues surrounding the use and meaning of race. Hopefully this can serve to advance the discussion and strategic approaches in doing research about race and what should be incorporated in studying race as a lived experience.
... Symbolic boundaries turn into social boundaries with, for instance, economic effects. Poverty among ethnic minorities may be viewed as a sign of incomplete or failed integration, and points at the intersection between class and ethnicity (Bobowik, Basabe, & Páez 2014;Wu, Shimmele, & Ho 2012;Arrighi 2007). Balibar (1991) has argued that class is more relevant for who is perceived as an immigrant than race or ethnicity. ...
Integration as a concept is becoming ever more contested. Simultaneously, there is an increasing focus on the role of the receiving society for achieving a higher degree of integration of immigrants. This paper explores whether the policy aim of viewing integration as a “two-way process” is being translated into practice, based on 21 interviews with integration stakeholders in Barcelona and Stockholm. The conclusion is that though there is awareness among key actors as policy-makers, NGOs and municipal services, in practice integration processes are hampered both by structural factors as unemployment and labor market discrimination, and a lack of everyday inter-ethnic contacts on equal terms.
... lationship between work and macrosocial issues external to the institution of work. Feminist and Neo-Marxian theorists have pointed to the ways in which gender structures and patriarchy shape labor processes (Cockburn, 2009;Staples and Staples, 2001). Others have focused on the ways in which economic inequalities intersect with gender inequalities (Arrighi. 2007;Mies, 1986). Researchers, including lifecourse theorists, have long examined the relationship between work and racial inequality (Massey, 1993;Schill and Wachter, 1995;Western, 2006). So a great deal of sociological research has been engaged in that does not treat work as an isolated realm independent from other segments of the social wo ...
... Overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in records of unemployment and poverty may be viewed as a sign of incomplete or failed integration, and points at the intersection between class and race/ethnicity (Arrighi, 2007). ...
Half-year report for the ongoing research project "Immigrants’ Perceptions on Integration in Two Institutional Frameworks, Sweden and Spain", funded by Anna Ahlströms och Ellen Tersérus stiftelse, Stockholm University, and with Zenia Hellgren as project coordinator and post-doctoral researcher.
... Poverty among ethnic minorities may be viewed as a sign of incomplete or failed integration, and points at the intersection between class and ethnicity (Arrighi, 2007). Balibar (1991) has argued that class is more relevant for who is perceived as an immigrant than race or ethnicity. ...
Integration as concept is becoming contested. Simultaneously, there is an increasing focus on the role of the receiving society for achieving a higher degree of integration of immigrants. This paper investigates whether the policy aim of viewing integration as a "two-way process" is being translated into practice, based on 15 interviews with integration stakeholders in Barcelona and Stockholm.
The conclusion is that though there is awareness among key actors as policy-makers, NGOs and municipal services, in practice integration processes are hampered both by structural factors as unemployment and labor market discrimination, and a lack of everyday inter-ethnic contacts on equal
terms.
... If I as player enjoy A, and A implies B, why am I uncomfortable with B? Ghettopoly (Chang 2003) is a game which touches a taboo topic in American culture. The game is a reskinned Monopoly (Barbara 2007) based on the parodied experience of American ghettos. Railroads and community chests become gun shops and liquor stores. ...
Consider that uncomfortable moment in life when people discover a playful experience ceases to be worth playing. Just as an arm is broken on the playground, or a relationship can no longer be mended, there are explicit moments when art transgresses some unforeseen territory leaving us with fear of its potential. This paper explores the potential of taboo game design.
... In this way, VAWA and VTVPA have not escaped the historic discriminatory character of the immigration system in the United States (Haney López, 1996;Glenn, 2002;Luibhéid, 2002;Ngai, 2004) or the inequalities of US society, which continues to privilege male, heterosexual, White, Protestant, middle-to upper-class citizens (Arrighi, 2007). Implicit in the formalities of VAWA and VTVPA, gender, sexual, racial, ethnic, and class parameters have framed battered immigrants' agency. ...
Agency has traditionally been equated with resistance and assumed to be universal. More recently, black and postcolonial feminist theories have emphasized contextualizing and differentiating agency with the end goal of uncovering the complex dynamics of oppression and subordination, particularly in matters related to violence against women. In this vein, I share the cases of fifteen Latina immigrant survivors of domestic violence in their search for nonviolence, autonomy, and citizenship at a US legal nonprofit organization in Texas. I show how both legislation and nonprofit organizations created to assist battered immigrants formally and informally frame survivors' agency, which is not only structurally and situationally constrained, but often compliant and unintended. By looking at the nuances of agency in this context, I reveal the ways in which some women are able to negotiate these constraints and complete their citizenship application process successfully, while others, often the most destitute ones, tend to be weeded out of this process.
Voici un livre qui touche à un tabou : la violence faite aux femmes et cela même au nom de vénérables institutions religieuses. L'auteur montre une insidieuse tactique de déstabilisation, car quand les femmes sont opprimées, toute l'humanité souffre. En tant que chef ecclésiastique, l'auteur désire ramener les gens à la vérité et à la volonté d'un dieu de paix. Malheureusement, même la Bible peut être utilisée comme alibi pour soutenir des structures qui nuisent à autrui, où les valeurs traditionnelles de patriarcat renforcent la subordination des femmes, dans "la masculinité négative". Au lieu d'abolir des valeurs traditionnelles et d’occulter certains passages bibliques problématiques, les prémisses d'une masculinité positive sont définies par le message biblique dans sa totalité et son unité.
Purpose
The concept of inequality refers to being treated unfairly in society and its impact on mental illness has been explored primarily using a quantitative research approach. Patients’ lived experiences of inequalities prior to their admission to a secure care setting need to be addressed with a higher priority as they can serve to improve our understanding of the factors underlying the development of mental illness at a personal level. The aim of this study is to explore participant’s views on whether for them the experience of inequality is associated with the development of mental illness.
Design/methodology/approach
A qualitative study, using a thematic analytical approach, was carried out to explore patients’ lived experiences of inequalities. A total of 11 participants, who were receiving treatment in a UK secure mental health hospital, were recruited into this study. The concept of inequality was explored using semi-structured interviews.
Findings
Data showed that patients had experienced a variety of inequalities which had negative impact on their mental health. Four main themes were identified from thematic textual analysis – abuse and its impact, a lack of support, the issue of labelling and the importance of understanding.
Practical implications
Data showed that patients had experienced a variety of inequalities which had negative impact on their mental health. Four main themes were identified from thematic textual analysis – abuse and its impact, a lack of support, the issue of labelling and the importance of understanding.
Originality/value
This is the first study, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, to consider intersectionality and admission to mental health units by interviewing patients in secure mental health setting.
Although the era of Palestinian migration to France is relatively recent, and began in the 1970s, Palestinians have significantly integrated into French society. The social, economic, and political situations in their homeland have played an essential role in Palestinian migration from that homeland or, in some cases, from the refugee camps of Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon. Palestinian migrants/refugees have integrated into French society despite their economic classes or categories. As this paper analyses, students and businessmen were the types of Palestinian migrants with the highest level of integration in French society. They are the two main categories making up the Palestinian community in France. Marriage also plays a significant role as a crucial integration mechanism for both women and men. Despite the fact that the French Jacobin system obliges all migrants/refugees to assimilate into French society, this has not affected the understanding of original Palestinian identity. These migrants/refugees still introduce themselves as Palestinians.
The field of Child and Youth Care continues to expand and the foundational theories that have been central to the development of the field continue to de adapted. However, the increasing diversity of Canada's populations requires the inclusion of multiple theoretical frameworks that can address the needs of the children, youth and families that we encounter. This paper examines the ways in which anti-oppression and anti-racism perspectives can be included as an aspect of CYC thought and practice, with particular relevance to service provision for African Canadian families.
Most developed nations measure the performance of teachers in audit evaluations of school productivity. Accountability metrics such as "teacher effectiveness" and "teacher quality" dominate evaluations of student outcomes and shape education policy. The Metrics of Teacher Effectiveness and Teacher Quality Research explores how these metrics distort analyses of student achievement, sideline broader contextual and systemic influences on learning, reinforce input-output analysis of schooling, and skew the educational debate. Focusing on recent phases of school education policy reform, this book utilizes qualitative data from classroom teacher participants to examine how and why issues of teacher effectiveness and teacher quality figure so prominently in policy reform and why pressing matters of social class, school funding, and broader contextual influences are downplayed. The authors use this information to suggest how teachers can develop their role as pedagogic experts in a highly scrutinized environment. This book will be of great interest to education academics and postgraduate students specializing in teacher performance, accountability and governance.
Gender, Violence and Attitudes explores the history of gender-based violence in early modern Europe, particularly intimate-partner violence and sexual violence. It also investigates the legacy of gender-based violence through the Enlightenment to the present day and offers a historical background to highly topical human rights issues. Please see: http://www.lidman.fi/pastpresentviolence.html
Although the individual subjects of gender and the history of violence are not new topics, the gendering of violence has received little examination. Within this book, the history of attitudes and practices related to gender and power are analysed, and the nature of violence, justice and societal considerations of gender are explored as cultural constructs: they have the capacity to change over time, although there also is a tendency for continuity. The study is based on a wide range of sources including marriage guides, poems, plays, legal texts and court records exploring deep-rooted violence phenomena in Sweden (including historical Finland), the German territories, England and, to some extent, France.
Offering a detailed analysis of gender and the culture of violence, Gender, Violence and Attitudes is essential reading for students and general readers who wish to understand the history of violence and its continual association with gender from early modern Europe to the present day.
Research exists on how a corporation communicates during a crisis, the impact on its reputation, and how well it weathers that crisis. However, crisis communication research tends to view a company’s communication efforts from the standpoint of success or failure; looking at the communication critically to determine if the company’s power influences or silences potentially alternative voices and viewpoints is not currently part of the discussion. This article argues that critical discourse analysis techniques be added to the framework of crisis communication theory in an effort to ensure that the corporation’s message or position of power does not unfairly marginalize or altogether silence alternative discourses.
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