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An assessment of human-elephant conflict in Manas National Park, Assam, India
Abstract
An assessment of human-elephant conflict was carried out in the fringe villages around Manas National Park, Assam during 2005-06. The available forest department conflict records since 1991 onwards were also incorporated during analysis. Conflict was intense in the months of July-August and was mostly concentrated along the forest boundary areas, decreasing with distance from the Park. Crop damage occurred during two seasons; paddy (the major crop) suffered the most due to raiding. Crop maturity and frequency of raiding were positively correlated. Single bull elephants were involved in conflicts more frequently (59%) than female herds (41%), while herds were involved in majority of crop raiding cases. Of the single elephants, 88% were makhnas and 11.9% were tuskers. The average herd size recorded was 8 individuals, with group size ranging up to 16. Mitigation measures presently adopted involve traditional drive-away techniques including making noise by shouting, drum beating, bursting fire crackers and firing gun shots into the air, and using torch light, pelting stones and throwing burning torches. Kunkis have been used in severe cases. Machans are used for guarding the crops. Combinations of methods are most effective. Family herds were easily deflected, while single bulls were difficult to ward off. Affected villagers have suggested methods like regular patrolling (39%) by the Forest Department officials along the Park boundary, erection of a concrete wall (18%) along the Park boundary, electric fencing (13%), simply drive away (13%), culling (11%) and lighting the Park boundary during night hours (6%). Attempts to reduce conflict by changing the traditional cropping pattern by introducing some elephant-repellent alternative cash crops (e.g. lemon and chilli) are under experiment.
... In the vicinity of BNP, the study pinpointed various mitigation strategies adopted by locals to combat HEC. Notably, the majority of these strategies were centred around farm-based active deterrence, mirroring the methods commonly observed across specific regions in Africa and Asia (Nath et al. 2009;Hoare 2015). Echoing findings from other research (Osborn and Parker 2003;Choudhury 2004;Fernando et al. 2005;Sitati et al. 2003;Fig. ...
... The research corroborated the nocturnal nature of crop raiding from diverse studies across Asia which was most probably an active measure to avoid human activity (Sukumar 1990;Mahalakshmi et al. 2018;Naha et al. 2020;Wettasin et al. 2023). Seasonality in the crop raiding behavior by the Asian elephants can be attributed to many possible factors such as the harvesting pattern of the locally grown crops (Nath et al. 2009;Pandey 2017), as well as the breeding season which often coincides with the rainy season during which the bulls engage in risky raiding behaviour to get more nutrient rich food and improve their body's condition (Webber et al. 2011). In our study the peak of crop raiding activities were observed during the monsoon season from June to September which coincides with the period just before harvest of kharif rice in this area when they are matured. ...
... In contrast to observations in studies conducted in Manas NP and Kaziranga NP in the states of Northeastern India, where elephants show crop raiding characteristics at various stages of crop development, most respondents in BNP believed that elephants preferred raiding crops after they had ripened. This finding aligns with several studies indicating that elephants have a preference for ripe crops (Sukumar 1991b;Nath et al. 2009;Gubbi 2012). ...
This study investigates the socio-economic impacts of human-elephant conflict (HEC) in the Betla Range of Palamau Tiger Reserve. The Betla Range, characterized by frequent human-elephant interactions, provides valuable context for exploring these complex conflicts. Aimed at understanding the perception and consequences of HEC on local communities, this research utilizes a semi-structured questionnaire survey among 108 villagers to gather perspectives of the locals on their experiences with HEC and its resolution. In addition, we have also conducted Risk mapping exercises to understand the perceived gravity of HEC as a threat compared to other risks that the locals face. The research highlights frequent encounters with elephants, especially during monsoon rice-farming season, and nocturnal nature of elephant raids, the preference of elephants for ripe crops, and the limited effectiveness of community-based mitigation strategies leading to substantial crop and property damage. The findings revealed a high awareness of government compensation policies among villagers, although a significant majority report received inadequate or no compensation due to the complexity of the process. Risk mapping exercises also showed that animal raids, in particular, crop raiding by elephants was perceived as the greatest risk by the locals.
... Many works have been carried out in Assam to understand the HEC, its pattern, and its influence on human livelihood (Choudhury 2004;Lahkar et al. 2007;Nath et al. 2009Nath et al. , 2012Nath et al. , 2015Chartier et al. 2011;Davies et al. 2011;Das et al. 2012;Wilson et al. 2013;Talukdar et al. 2023). All these works were confined to respective limited areas. ...
... Several studies on HEC-affected areas in the state were carried out in major districts separately (Choudhury 2004;Zimmermann et al. 2009;Nath et al. 2009Nath et al. , 2013Nath et al. , 2015Talukdar and Kalita 2014;Baishya et al. 2021;Borah et al. 2022;Deb et al. 2023; Talukdar et al. Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
... The decline in dense forest in Sonitpur district created many fragmented forest patches that disturbed the movement of elephants; thus, the elephants had to move through agricultural and human settlement areas (Choudhury 2002;Deb et al. 2023). The elephants from the Manas NP and Chirang-Ripu WLS of the Chirang and Baksa districts often raid crops in the southern part of protected areas (Nath et al. 2009(Nath et al. , 2013(Nath et al. , 2015. The elephants also take shelter in the forest patches of tea gardens adjacent to agricultural fields (Nath et al. 2013). ...
In India, human-elephant conflict has been on the rise for the last few decades. The situation is worse in the state of Assam, where 5719 elephants are present, and the density of elephants is greater than that of other areas. Most of the elephant habitats in the state are fragmented or intermingled with human-used lands. As a result, human-elephant conflict (HEC) has been increasing in the state. Each year, an average of 80 elephants and 70 humans die in the state because of HEC. Most of these conflicts occur during the paddy harvesting season. At that time of year, the elephants come out from their habitats and take refuge in forest patches and tea gardens near agricultural fields and raid crops at night. Different methods have been adopted to identify conflict-affected areas, but none of the studies have tried to identify all the HEC-affected areas in the state. Here, we provide a rapid appraisal approach for identifying HEC hotspots in the state by using published news information as the primary source of data. A total of 216 villages were identified as HEC-affected areas in Assam. The identified areas can be used to understand site-specific problems and for HEC mitigation practices, as these areas are currently limited to only a few areas.
... North-Eastern (NE) part of India has approximately 30% of the total elephant population of the country i.e., around 11,000 individuals in discrete population distributions among 14 fragmented habitats (Nath, et al., 2009). Between 1980 and 2003, more than 1,150 human and 370 elephant mortality cases were recorded as an outcome of HEC in this region and Protected Areas in NE India consist approximately just 25% of the elephant habitat (Choudhury, 2004). ...
... MNP within the Chirang Ripu Elephant Reserve in Assam is one of the major strongholds of wild Asian Elephants, with a fluctuating population of approximately 500 individuals (Nath, et al., 2009). ...
... Though conflict incidents were being reported in MNP in the fringe villages, the intensity of occurrence was comparatively lower than the other areas in Assam but the current pace of disturbing factors such as logging, grazing, encroachment and over-exploitation of nontimber forest products (NTFP) could cause a serious crisis for elephants and humans in near future (Nath, et al., 2009). ...
This study aims to document and analyse the conflict causes, patterns, mitigation strategies developed and economic losses resulted from the conflict species and region-wise across the country based on secondary data available.
Conflicts related to Asian Elephant, Sloth Bear, Asiatic Black Bear, Common Leopard, Nilgai and Wild pig were studied across various regions of the country.
Regions of North-eastern India, Karnataka, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu were studied for Human-Elephant Conflict; Gujarat and Maharashtra were studied for Sloth Bear conflict; Jammu & Kashmir region was studied for Asiatic Black Bear conflict; Indian Himalayan Region (Uttarakhand and Northern West Bengal) were studied for Human-Leopard Conflict.
In all the cases major causes for escalation of conflict were the decline in forest cover, habitat degradation and fragmentation and increased human activity inside the forest areas which are contributing to the development of humankind.
Socially and economically weaker sections of the people are the most affected of all due to Human-Wildlife Conflict and taking this into account while developing the conservation strategies highly important for balanced conservation otherwise it adversely impact the lives of these local people.
All the places studied have complex and highly bureaucratic compensation programs which are time taking and almost at all the place the compensation provided is very less than the actual loss according to market costs. If the payments process is simple and quick enough it may reduce the retaliatory killings of wild animals by the local people.
Smaller animals such as primates are causing more loss than these large wild animals but due to their localized catastrophic attacks distorted perceptions are developing among the people. Most of the people didn’t hesitate to eliminate the conflict causing animal. Therefore, it is essential to conduct awareness campaigns and engage them in the decision-making process to develop positive and tolerant attitudes towards wild animals which is evident in the case of common leopards in West Bengal.
Used DPSIR framework to analyse driving forces, pressures, states, impacts and responses of HWC in India. Based on DPSIR analysis, proposed potential species specific human wildlife conflict reduction measures.
... Multiple initiatives for development, such as farming and community expansion, commercial facility, road construction, mining operations, and so on, have significantly altered and changed the natural environment in Bankura and surrounding districts (Nath et al., 2009) [8] . As a result, the landscape gets rapidly transformed which not only create difficulties for the elephants (Das Chatterjee, 2016) [9] but also some native plants and animals become extinct as a result of terrain change, particularly the clearance of forests (O'Malley, 1911) [10] . ...
... Multiple initiatives for development, such as farming and community expansion, commercial facility, road construction, mining operations, and so on, have significantly altered and changed the natural environment in Bankura and surrounding districts (Nath et al., 2009) [8] . As a result, the landscape gets rapidly transformed which not only create difficulties for the elephants (Das Chatterjee, 2016) [9] but also some native plants and animals become extinct as a result of terrain change, particularly the clearance of forests (O'Malley, 1911) [10] . ...
Bankura, a district in the state of West Bengal, India, is home to a significant population of Asian elephants (Chakraborty & Mondal, 2013). Each year, more than 100 elephants move through our study area. However, the incidents of elephant electrocution pose a severe threat to the conservation efforts in the region. Electrocution of elephants is a critical issue faced by the concern forest department and the conservationist’s worldwide (Palei et al., 2014). Despite elephants' remarkable adaptability and intelligence, encounters with electrical infrastructure often led to fatal consequences. This research paper analyzed all the electrocution cases inside the study area from the past 10 year’s data. After analyzing all the data of the past 10 years, we came to these four conclusions, (a) Human Elephant Conflict and Elephant Electrocution are in direct proportion to each other; (b) Elephant Age and Elephant Electrocution are in inverse proportion to one another; (c) Faced with the prospect of crop loss, human mentality towards elephants might become negative; (d) Role of female elephants in a herd is much more important in decision making, especially in the choice of route and search for food, than male elephants.
... Aversive conditioning is commonly used for HWC mitigation, where animals learn to associate unpleasant stimuli with a behaviour and subsequently modify it (Greggor et al., 2014;Snijders et al., 2019). Aversive stimuli used to mitigate HEC include (1) visual stimuli such as bonfires and flashlights (Thaufeek et al., 2014), (2) olfactory stimuli such as chilli smoke (Davies et al., 2011), (3) acoustic stimuli such as shouting, fire crackers and shot guns (Nath et al., 2009;Nyhus et al., 2000), (4) taste stimuli such as growing unpalatable plants (Gross et al., 2017), and (5) tactile stimuli such as pricks from thorny plants (Perera, 2009), the sting of honeybees (Water et al., 2020) or shocks from an electric fence (Liefting et al., 2018). Elephants sometimes habituate to these methods or act aggressively in response to them (Davies et al., 2011;. ...
... Therefore, there is a possibility that responses from wild elephants to the mild stimuli from the dog-training collar unit will be different to those we observed in captive elephants. Wild male elephants in particular are known to show high tolerance to human disturbances (Fernando, 2011;Nath et al., 2009) and could be indifferent to audio and electrical stimuli as shown by less fearful cattle (Verdon et al., 2020). A much stronger stimuli than that tested in this study may be required for wild elephants, which needs to be further explored. ...
Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) are designed to emit audible warning signals followed by electric shocks when animals reach virtual fences (VFs) with the intent that animals will learn to turn away at audio warnings and thereby avoid receiving shocks. AGDs are a potentially useful tool for mitigating human-elephant conflict, but a greater understanding of captive elephant responses to AGDs is required before they might be confidently used on wild elephants. We conducted experiments with eight, female captive Asian elephants using a modified dog-training collar to deliver mild electric shocks (4 kV) of varying strength (pulse frequencies) to determine the ideal location on the neck to deliver the stimuli and the optimum strength of the shock required to generate desired aversive responses. Ten shocks (<1 s duration) of different strengths were delivered during a 10 min session (i.e., one shock per minute) at two positions on one side of the elephant’s neck. Results indicated that elephants were more likely to display desirable aversive behaviours at the upper position tested on the neck (odds ratio=0.47, 95% CI 0.25–0.87, P = 0.018) and at higher stimuli strengths (odds ratio=1.03, 95% CI 1.01–1.04, P ≤ 0.001). A conditioning experiment was then conducted several months later with five of the same elephants. These were individually trained to walk along a ~100 m path to a food reward on three consecutive days, wearing a dummy collar. On the next three days and on one other day few months later, the elephants were fitted with a similar shock collar (positioned at the upper neck location, and with the highest strength tested earlier) to determine if the AGD could prevent the elephants from accessing the food reward. Three VFs were established at ~30 m, ~50 m and ~60 m points along the path. As the elephant approached the food, a mild audio warning, a more aggressive audio warning, and an electric shock was administered at the first, second and third VFs respectively. Warnings and shocks were not delivered if elephants heeded earlier warnings. A maximum of five such trials were attempted. The VFs successfully kept elephants from reaching the food 77.8% of the time, with elephants responding to the audio warnings and avoiding electric stimulation 47.2% of the trials. These findings suggest that AGDs are a promising method to manage elephant movement, but further research is needed to develop a reliable approach for wild elephants.
... The Greater Manas Landscape (26°35'00" N to 26°50' 00" N & 90°45'00" E to 91°15'00" E) lies in the districts of Chirang, Baksa and Udalguri of the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) of Assam and encompasses Manas National Park (950 km 2 ), the First Addition to Manas National Park (350 km 2 ), declared in 2016, and Raimona National Park (422 km 2 ), declared in June 2021 (Choudhury, 2021). Manas National Park is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a Biosphere Reserve, Tiger Reserve and an Important Bird Area (IBA) (Nath et al., 2009) and part of Chirang-Ripu Elephant Reserve. The indigenous population consists of Bodo, Rajbangshi, Nepali, Adivasi and others ). ...
... The indigenous population consists of Bodo, Rajbangshi, Nepali, Adivasi and others ). The area is rich in floral and faunal diversity but due to a socio-political crisis in the late 1980s suffered major vegetation loss (Nath et al., 2009). However, present conservation strategies have been effective in restoring habitat in the region. ...
During an anti-snare walk, a team from the Wildlife Trust of India and Forest Department encountered a melanistic Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta from the First Addition to Manas National Park in Assam, India. This is the second case of melanism recorded in M. mulatta from the Northeastern part of India.
... The community also grows plants that elephants like but rarely eat, such as rice (Oryza sativa), durian (Durio zibethinus) and rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum). [14], [15], found 55 types of elephant feed-in Aceh. [16], in [15], in India's Rajaji National Park it was recorded that elephants consumed 50 types of plants; 74% trees, 14% grass, 8% shrubs and 4% lianas. ...
... [14], [15], found 55 types of elephant feed-in Aceh. [16], in [15], in India's Rajaji National Park it was recorded that elephants consumed 50 types of plants; 74% trees, 14% grass, 8% shrubs and 4% lianas. The edible parts of the plant are mainly branches (78% of the total species), leaves (76%) and tree bark (24%). ...
Elephants are designated as endangered animals because their population in the wild continues to decline. One of the causes of its extinction is the threat of conflict between elephants and humans. The conflict between Sumatran elephants and humans in Aceh continues to increase every year, but there is no resolution to this conflict. This study was aimed to analyse the level of risk of elephant-human conflict in the Mila area and map the conflict areas. The method used was the observation method with the purposive sampling technique. The data was analysed using the disaster risk formula. The results of the analysis of the risk level of elephant-human conflict in Mila District showed that the high-risk level was in Tuha Lala Village (35.24%), Babah Jurong Village (35.22%) and Kumbang Village (35.04%). The level of risk was moderate in Krueng Lala Village (27.64%), Andeue Mosque Village (30.38%) and Dayah Andeue Village (33.38%). Meanwhile, areas with a low-risk level were Kulu Village (21.65%) and Dayah Sinthop Village (20.32%). The mapping of conflict risk areas was coloured red for high risk, yellow for medium risk and green for low risk. The conclusion in this study is that Tula Lala Village, Babah Jurong Village and Kumbang Village are areas with high conflict marked in red. Krueng Lala Village, Andeu Mosque Village and Andeue Dayah Village are areas with moderate conflict which are marked in yellow. Meanwhile, Kulu Village and Dayah Sinthop Village are areas with low conflict marked in green.
... The amount of dung is the accumulation of all dung piles found along the observation transect per km2. The rate of dung production (defecation rate) is how many times an elephant poops per day, which according to Santiapillai and Suprahman (1986) ranges from 16-18 times per day and based on the standards of CITES in Lahkar (2007) is 18.07 per day. ...
... The decomposition rate of dung shows how long (days) the dung piles decomposes, by observing the sample of dung hat have been marked (Lahkar 2007). Dung asunder Rate uses a value of 0.0071 (Rizwar et al 2001). ...
Forest encroachment reduces elephant habitat area while oil palm plantations and industrial plantations reduce and even cut the elephant roaming area . This study aims to estimate the carrying capacity of elephant habitat in Tesso Nilo National Park, Indonesia. Data collection on elephant populations uses direct and indirect surveys. Direct surveys are carried out by direct encounter with the elephants and counting is done at the meeting. The indirect survey was carried out in two ways, namely by counting dung and traces of elephants as well as interviews with mahout and the community. Dung calculation is done by the path method that is on the elephant roaming track. Interviews of mahout and community were conducted to find out the number of elephants passing through residential areas. Based on the results of the study, the capacity of 1 ha of Sumatran elephant feed support was 0.05 Elephants/day for the secondary forest with proper use (P) of 60% with a growth cycle of 60 days. In the area of 1,590.18 ha, the carrying capacity of secondary forest feed can accommodate 83.93 Elephants /day or 84 Elephants/day. One elephant in the secondary forest can be fulfilled their needs with an area of 18.95 ha or means that 1 ha of secondary forest is only able to provide 0.05 Elephants/ day. In shrubs, habitat shows that 1 ha of the shrubs can support 0.21 Elephants /day or with an area of 2,132.90 ha capable of supporting elephants as much as 447.91 Elephants/day or 448 Elephants/day. One elephant can be fulfilled with an area of 4.76 ha of bush per day. This shows that the availability of feed in 1 ha of Tesso Nilo National Park area is insufficient for 1 elephant.
... Farmers guard crops and scare away crop-raiding elephants by yelling, setting off firecrackers or carbide cannons, hitting metal objects, and throwing stones ( Nyhus et al., 2000;Fernando et al., 2005;Gunaryadi et al., 2017). These techniques are effective in keeping elephants away from crops ( Hedges and Gunaryadi, 2010;Davies et al., 2011), but they disrupt psychosocial well- being and livelihood activities of farmers (Tchamba, 1996;Nath et al., 2009;Jadhav and Barua, 2012;Barua et al., 2013). High tech acoustic deterrents remain problematic too. ...
... Examples of successful compensatory programs that increased tolerance toward aggressive wildlife exist elsewhere ( Nyhus et al., 2000;Bruner et al., 2001), yet compensatory programs have not been similarly successful for human-elephant conflict. In elephant range countries, compensatory programs face often severe criticism due to insufficient compensation, logistical challenges, ineffective governance, a lack of transparency, reduced local understanding of program scope, and limitations, and fraudulent claims (Naughton-Treves et al., 2003;Bulte and Rondeau, 2005;Nyhus et al., 2005;Ogra and Badola, 2008;Nath et al., 2009). Building on successful models, and with a knowledge of factors leading to compensation program failures, future compensatory programs should be adapted and strengthened for inclusion in a suite of management tools. ...
Human-elephant conflict is a major conservation concern in elephant range countries. A variety of management strategies have been developed and are practiced at different scales for preventing and mitigating human-elephant conflict. However, human-elephant conflict remains pervasive as the majority of existing prevention strategies are driven by site-specific factors that only offer short-term solutions, while mitigation strategies frequently transfer conflict risk from one place to another. Here, we review current human-elephant conflict management strategies and describe an interdisciplinary conceptual approach to manage species coexistence over the long-term. Our proposed model identifies shared resource use between humans and elephants at different spatial and temporal scales for development of long-term solutions. The model also highlights the importance of including anthropological and geographical knowledge to find sustainable solutions to managing human-elephant conflict.
... Although shot guns are considered unacceptable by all groups, there was high potential for conflict within the farmer-HEC group on this. Such conflict in views could be because some respondents perceive it acceptable as a tool of self-defense or as an acoustic deterrent by firing to the air (Nath et al., 2009), although they are often shot at elephants which cause fatal injuries (de Silva et al., 2013;LaDue, Eranda, et al., 2021;Santiapillai et al., 2010). However, disapproval of killing or harming elephants, suggests reduced support for such methods in managing HEC, which is a positive aspect for the conservation of elephants. ...
Many Asian elephant populations inhabit fragmented human‐dominated landscapes. Human–elephant conflict (HEC) has intensified in such regions, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of people and elephants each year. Controversy between stakeholders then arises as people debate the merits of HEC mitigation approaches, stifling progress. We conducted a survey to evaluate the opinions of experts, farmers and others who have and have not experienced HEC (n = 611), on the causes of HEC, the importance of, conservation of and co‐existence with elephants, and on the acceptability and effectiveness of potential HEC mitigation methods. Analysis of variance and the Potential for Conflict Index showed that all groups agreed with nine of the 10 causes of HEC assessed, on average. All respondent groups had mostly positive attitudes towards the importance and conservation of elephants. However, farmers exposed to HEC disagreed that people should co‐exist with elephants and supported the view that elephants should be removed from human habitats. All groups agreed on the acceptability and effectiveness of electric fencing, early warning systems with infrasonic call detectors, Global Positioning System collars and geophones. However, there was disparity in views between the experts and other stakeholder groups on the acceptability and effectiveness of restricting elephants to protected areas, and translocation of problem elephants to protected areas away from their capture site or to wild elephant holding grounds. While similar views between stakeholders on many subjects are encouraging for elephant conservation, the disparities identified should be given greater attention when planning HEC management programs to minimize conflict between stakeholders.
... HEC predominantly occurs near forest fringes, which is evident from our study. Conflict intensity is notably higher along the forest boundaries, with a specific concentration of crop damage arising in villages situated on these fringes, with a substantial 93% of affected villages located within a mere 3-kilometer radius from the forest edge (Nath et al. 2009;Ravindranath 2011). Extensive forest conversion to agriculture drives the increasing HEC (Sitompul et al. 2011). ...
Habitat loss and encroachment lead to conservation challenges such as human-elephant conflicts (HEC). Understanding the patterns and predictors of HEC is crucial to identify priority areas for mitigation efforts. Accordingly, a study was conducted across the forest divisions of Tamil Nadu, India. We collected HEC data for 2016–2021 from the forest department compensation database maintained in forest divisions. Our analysis encompassed division-wise, crop-wise, conflict-wise assessments, temporal analysis and conflict risk modelling (CRM). We divided the forest divisions into 4 different zones based on the variables that likely influence HEC. The results revealed that conflict frequency was higher in the forest range Denkankottai, located in the Hosur division, which falls under Zone 1. HEC was higher from November to January in correspondence with the cropping season. Elephants primarily damaged millet (ragi) (Eleusine coracana), with n = 2,182, particularly during November and December, followed by banana (Musa genus) with n = 1,690. The CRM predicts that the southwest and northwest regions of Tamil Nādu had higher conflict risks and area coverage of medium and high conflict risk zones as 17,025 km² and 3521 km², respectively. The CRM revealed that the most significant variables in predicting conflict risk are the annual mean temperature, human modification index, and digital elevation model. Areas with higher conflict risk were closer to forest cover, croplands, roads, and water bodies. These regions typically had lower terrain ruggedness, higher human modification, lower temperatures, and dense vegetation. The present study’s findings underscore the need for a comprehensive and multidimensional approach to managing HEC, which is crucial for fostering coexistence between humans and elephants in the region.
... Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is a significant challenge in the Sonitpur region, often leading to crop damage, property destruction, and human casualties. This is true even in other protected areas of Assam such as Manas NP& TR (Nath et al., 2009). Our study highlighted the importance of involving local communities in conservation efforts, as their cooperation is crucial for the success of corridor conservation initiatives. ...
This study focuses on the conservation of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the Sonitpur Elephant Reserve, Assam by modelling potential elephant corridors and analyzing land use and land cover (LULC) changes from 1990 to 2020. Utilizing remote sensing data and geo-spatial techniques, significant LULC changes were quantified, revealing extensive forest fragmentation due to agricultural expansion and human settlements. The study produced a distribution probability map using MaxENT, highlighting areas with a high likelihood of elephant presence and identified critical corridors essential for maintaining habitat connectivity. Corridor modelling using Linkage Mapper while integrating Circuitscape, indicated highest centrality scores for corridors connecting Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary to Nameri National Park. Pinch point analysis identified critical bottlenecks primarily along river tracks, emphasizing the need for targeted conservation efforts. The barrier analysis indicated prominent barriers near roads and railway crossovers, pure cropland areas and high population areas. The findings underscore the importance of these corridors in mitigating human-elephant conflict, enhancing ecosystem services, and ensuring genetic flow among elephant populations. The research highlights the necessity of community involvement, effective governance, and adaptive management strategies to address socio-economic dimensions and the impacts of climate change. Recommendations include continuous monitoring, community engagement, policy implementation, integration of advanced technologies, and conflict mitigation strategies. This study provides a comprehensive framework for future conservation initiatives in the region.
... Sarpang is one of the dzongkhags (districts) in southern Bhutan impacted by this issue. A similar pattern was also seen in the neighbouring state of Assam (Nath et al., 2009(Nath et al., , 2015 in India bordering Bhutan. Legally, the Asian elephant is protected under Schedule I (assigning highest protection) of national legislation in India and Bhutan (as in the Forest and Nature Conservation Act, 1995 of Bhutan and Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 of India), but challenges remain in enforcement and implementation (Menon et al., 1997). ...
Asian elephants face threats from human-elephant conflict (HEC), driven by habitat encroachment and fragmentation. In the foothills of the Himalayas, HEC affects a large number of people, causing significant damage to property and crops. Bhutan, sharing elephant habitats with India, faces similar challenges, particularly in the southern regions in Sarpang. We studied the HEC pattern and mitigation strategies adopted by people through a questionnaire survey. Our primary data from the Sarpang division showed that more than 40 % of households experienced HEC. The elephant largely affected maize and paddy along with cash crops such as areca nut, orange, ginger, and cardamom. The study revealed a strong association between crop-raiding incidents and cultivated areas, with most depredations occurring at night. The majority of respondents indicated that crop depredation has increased over the years, which could be linked to the degradation and fragmentation of forest habitat in the landscape. Mitigation measures, such as electric fencing, are preferred but underutilized due to financial constraints. The study emphasizes the need for transboundary cooperation between India and Bhutan, integrating traditional and advanced mitigation strategies, and community involvement. Effective communication, joint patrolling, and habitat restoration are the keys to managing HEC. Transboundary governance should include political and legal support, regional diplomacy, and innovative land use policies.
... First, following Di Minin et al. (19), we consider total cropland including all crop types. Yet, rice, maize, and wheat are particularly favored by elephants (40,(49)(50)(51)(52)(53)(54), and the future distribution of these crops may influence conflict locations. We do not examine seasonality in this analysis as the conflict drivers explored here represent yearly or multi-year means, but conflict with elephants is known to be more common during the rainy season when crops are mature (34,41,50,52,(54)(55)(56)(57)(58). ...
Human–wildlife conflict is an important factor in the modern biodiversity crisis and has negative effects on both humans and wildlife (such as property destruction, injury, or death) that can impede conservation efforts for threatened species. Effectively addressing conflict requires an understanding of where it is likely to occur, particularly as climate change shifts wildlife ranges and human activities globally. Here, we examine how projected shifts in cropland density, human population density, and climatic suitability—three key drivers of human–elephant conflict—will shift conflict pressures for endangered Asian and African elephants to inform conflict management in a changing climate. We find that conflict risk (cropland density and/or human population density moving into the 90th percentile based on current-day values) increases in 2050, with a larger increase under the high-emissions “regional rivalry” SSP3 - RCP 7.0 scenario than the low-emissions “sustainability” SSP1 - RCP 2.6 scenario. We also find a net decrease in climatic suitability for both species along their extended range boundaries, with decreasing suitability most often overlapping increasing conflict risk when both suitability and conflict risk are changing. Our findings suggest that as climate changes, the risk of conflict with Asian and African elephants may shift and increase and managers should proactively mitigate that conflict to preserve these charismatic animals.
... AGDs should not be considered as a replacement for all other existing HEC mitigation approaches. While elephant herds are sometimes known to raid crops [32,99,100], it is primarily the male elephants that are involved in direct confrontations with people [32,101] and crop raiding [102][103][104][105]. AGDs could help reduce these HEC incidents if used on those types of problem elephants. To successfully reduce HEC incidents with problem elephants using AGDs, it is important to incorporate both human and elephant needs and ensure connectivity between elephant habitats when planning virtual fences [106,107]. ...
Simple Summary
Human-elephant conflict (HEC) has intensified in the recent decades and poses a great threat to Asian elephant conservation. Aversive geofencing devices (AGDs) or animal-borne satellite-linked shock collars might become a useful tool to help reduce HEC incidents. AGDs may be used on problem causing elephants, to train them to move away from human-dominated landscapes by associating the receipt of electric shocks with preceding audio warnings given from the AGD as they approach virtual boundaries. We assessed the opinions of experts, farmers, and others who have and have not experienced HEC towards the potential use of AGDs on Asian elephants. Most respondents had positive opinions on the potential effectiveness of AGDs in managing elephant movement (62.2%). About 62.8% respondents also expressed positive responses for the acceptability of AGDs if pilot studies with captive elephants have been successful in managing their movements. Some respondents perceived AGDs to be unacceptable because they are unethical or harmful and would be unsuccessful given wild elephants may respond differently to AGDs than captive elephants. Respondents identified several potential challenges for implementing AGDs as an elephant management tool. These issues need attention when developing AGDs to increase support from stakeholders and to effectively reduce HEC incidents in the future.
Abstract
Aversive geofencing devices (AGDs) or animal-borne satellite-linked shock collars might become a useful tool to mitigate human-elephant conflict (HEC). AGDs have the potential to condition problem elephants to avoid human-dominated landscapes by associating mild electric shocks with preceding audio warnings given as they approach virtual boundaries. We assessed the opinions of different stakeholders (experts, farmers, and others who have and have not experienced HEC; n = 611) on the potential use of AGDs on Asian elephants. Most respondents expressed positive opinions on the potential effectiveness of AGDs in managing elephant movement (62.2%). About 62.8% respondents also provided positive responses for the acceptability of AGDs if pilot studies with captive elephants have been successful in managing their movements. Some respondents perceived AGDs to be unacceptable because they are unethical or harmful and would be unsuccessful given wild elephants may respond differently to AGDs than captive elephants. Respondents identified acceptability, support and awareness of stakeholders, safety and wellbeing of elephants, logistical difficulties, durability and reliable functionality of AGDs, and uncertainties in elephants’ responses to AGDs as potential challenges for implementing AGDs. These issues need attention when developing AGDs to increase support from stakeholders and to effectively reduce HEC incidents in the future.
... The loss of forest cover led to habitat fragments that forced the elephants to move out of the forests, either for foraging in agricultural fields or moving between the fragments (Sukumar, 1990;Zimmermann et al., 2009;Santiapillai et al., 2010;Wilson et al., 2015). The conflicts occurred largely outside the forests, especially along their movement paths (Choudhury, 2004;Nath et al., 2009;Das, Lahkar & Talukdar, 2012;Gubbi et al., 2014;Prakash, Wijeratne & Fernando, 2020). The Asian elephant is a forestedge species (Fernando, 2015). ...
Alterations of the geographical ranges of animals have become a reason for interactions with humans, leading to various consequences. We describe the pattern of range expansion of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and implications for human-elephant interactions in the agricultural landscape of South West Bengal, India. We enquired about past and current sightings of Asian elephants from local people to gather information on range expansion from the 1950s to 2018. We also collected the records of human deaths and injuries by elephants from 2010 to 2018 from the records of the Forest Department. We employed an occupancy framework to understand the probability of the occurrence of elephants in the landscape from 2010 to 2018. The range of elephants in the landscape increased from ∼1200 km2 in the 1950–60s to ∼13200 km2 by 2010–18. The calculated probability of use of grid cells was 36 % and the forest edge had a high influence on the space usage by the elephants. Elephants occurred in an average of 26 grid cells per month, and the number of grid cells with elephants did not differ between the months. A total of 640 attacks on humans occurred, which significantly varied between the years. The probability of elephant occurrence in a grid cell was the major determinant factor for the elephant attacks on humans. Although people respect elephants, there is a sense of intolerance towards them if they enter the crop fields, owing to the small land holdings and the incapacity to endure the monetary losses of the farmers.
... The kind of mitigation measures employed by people in the study area are generally the short-term measures for immediate relief. The traditional system of 'scaring and chasing' with the help of fire ball and firecracker (Nath et al., 2009;Osborn & Hill, 2005;Sarkar et al., 2008c) further develops resistance among elephants. So people of the study area demanded for mostly the physical barriers like rubble wall, electric fence and trench to get rid of humanelephant conflict. ...
Large scale destruction of the forest along with encroachments has resulted in higher incidences of human-elephant conflict in Northeast India. People living in proximity to the forests are the worst victim. A study was carried out during 2018–19 to find out the people’s perception on human-elephant conflict in 10 selected fringe villages of the Rani-Garbhanga area of Assam, India. A questionnaire was prepared covering different parameters on human-elephant conflict (HEC). Study found that elephants were attracted the most by paddy, followed by home garden vegetables, stored grain, country liquor, and mud chulla (mud-oven used in village kitchens). An increasing trend of conflict over the period was observed where the majority of the respondents experienced significant crop damage annually. Most of the respondents were not very happy with the compensation practices for crop loss through ex-gratia payment from the government agencies which is often delayed or not paid at all. This delay or non-payment of ex-gratia has resulted in intensifying negative attitudes towards elephant and thus one-third of the total people of the area consider elephants as enemies, and do not vouch for their conservation. An immediate conservation initiative is suggested to conserve Asiatic elephants of this region.
... However, there have not been any standard guidelines for the provisioning of compensation, which leads to conflict and corruption (Ogra and Badola 2008). Further, compensation schemes in India and other elephant range countries are dogged by criticism on account of inadequate compensation, logistical challenges, ineffective governance, lack of transparency, reduced local understanding of program scope and limitations, and fraudulent claims (Naughton- Treves, Grossberg, and Treves 2003;Bulte and Rondeau 2005;Nyhus et al. 2005;Ogra and Badola 2008;Nath et al. 2009). Chen et al. (2013) analyzed the farmers' attitudes (ordinal measure) toward the compensation scheme that was ranked from the most negative to the most positive. ...
Odisha, an eastern Indian state, has reported an increasing number of human-elephant conflicts in recent years. Odisha's economic survey (2014–15) reveals that, up until January 2014, about 42,371.86-hectares of forest land had been destroyed for developmental activities. The loss of natural habitat has increased the frequency of conflict. The household survey conducted in nine villages within the Nilagiri forest range, captured various costs of conflict such as crop damage, human fatalities and injury, property damage, and livestock depredation. Findings suggested that crop-raiding was persistent and severe, which threatened food security and livelihoods. Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified factors influencing perceptions of the adequacy of compensation. Results show that respondents were less likely to say that compensation amounts were adequate if they had attended more than five years of schooling; if they had an annual family income greater than INR 13,500; and if the amount of compensation was more than INR 12,500.
... In all three study areas, people have experienced crop damage by wildlife species for a very long time (Nath et al., 2009;Nyirenda, Chansa, Myburgh, & Reilly, 2011;Thapa, 2010). In contrast to the higher number of preharvest crop damage in fields (Gross et al., 2018), the mean financial loss per property damage was found to be much higher compared to crop damage (South Luangwa: by 200%,Bardia: by 350%,and Manas: by 450%). ...
In recent years, reports of elephants causing damage in rural villages by destroying houses and foraging on stored food have been increasing, but little is known about the determinants and magnitude of this damage. In this study, we have examined the extent of property damage by elephants (Loxodonta afri-cana and Elephas maximus), in one African and two Asian study areas over a six-year period. A total of 1,172 damaged constructions were observed on site, involving detailed damage assessment by trained enumerators and standardized interviews with witnesses. Depending on the study area, between 67.1 and 86.4% of damage events were attributed to single, individual elephants or pairs of males. The majority of properties were damaged in search for food (62.5-76.7% respectively). Property damage caused higher mean losses than crop damage on farmland in all study areas. Results suggest that property damage by elephants has been largely underestimated and needs to form a focus in future human-elephant conflict research. We suggest a need to reduce the attractiveness of villages by storing food in locked and safe places, away from sleeping areas and to foster the development of elephant safe stores, appropriate to the particular cultural background of the target area. K E Y W O R D S attractive crops, conflict mitigation, elephant damage, elephant-safe stores, human-elephant conflict, land-use planning, property damage
... This 'open' population gains added importance as it is likely to contribute to maintaining better genetic diversity across the larger landscape. The increased human-elephant conflict in the fringe areas of the park (Nath et al. 2009) and considerable change in the land-cover types in the study area (Sarma et al. 2008) lead to potential threats to the long-term existence of elephants in the region. The larger landscape of the Ripu Chirang Elephant Reserve, of which the Manas National Park is a part, has witnessed extensive deforestation during the last decade or so. ...
The long history of armed conflict in Manas National Park has resulted in the decline of wildlife populations. With the attainment of peace, knowledge of extant animal population sizes became crucial for making informed conservation decisions. The present study estimated the population of Asian elephants within a distance sampling framework using dung counts along 92 line transects. The population size was estimated to be 601 (95%, CI 454–797), with the highest density in mixed moist deciduous forest (1.57 elephants/km2). This serves as the baseline information and also discusses the accuracy of the dung count method and possible shortcomings of our estimates.
... People's perceptions towards the conflict causing elephants has been analyzed (Rohini et al. 2016;Nsonsi et al. 2017;Patil and Patil 2017;Mumby and Plotnik 2018;Abdullah et al. 2019;Sampson et al. 2019) and identified the factors such as education, culture, level of wealth and intensity of loss by the depredation influence people's attitude and perceptions on conservation of conflict causing elephant. Many workers in northeast India have also studied the people's perceptions on conflict causing elephant (Nath et al. 2009(Nath et al. , 2015Zimmermann et al. 2009;Sarkar et al. 2013). However, no study has been carried out in the Barak Valley of Assam where a few elephants are thriving to survive in the Patharia Hills Reserve Forest (PHRF). ...
Wildlife conservation is important to maintain ecosystem balance, and its success relies largely on the involvement of local communities. The study focused on understanding the socio-economic profile of the local people, and their attitudes and perception towards the conflict causing Asiatic elephant Elephas maximus in the Patharia Hills Reserve Forest, North East India. Close-ended questionnaires were used to collect information from the local communities. A total of 300 respondents within a 2 km radius were sampled in three distance categories, and the relative frequency was calculated. The results indicate that people’s attitudes were not supportive of elephant conservation and they were scared of the negative effects of conservation. The respondents who lived far from the forest were more interested in elephant conservation whereas respondents living in close proximity to the forest were against elephant conservation (χ2 = 108.8, df = 8, p < 0.001). People who had experienced Human–Elephant Conflict in real life were significantly more negative on elephant conservation than those had no experience of conflict (χ2 = 56.33, df = 8, p < 0.001). Occupation also had a crucial role in the attitude building process to conserve conflict causing elephants. People in forest related occupation were against conservation and others who were unrelated to the forest were supporting conservation (χ2 = 39.04, df = 8, p < 0.01). As a whole, three significant factors, i.e., distance from the forest, conflict with the elephant, and occupation had key roles in building people’s attitudes. Negative attitudes and perceptions should essentially be utilized while implementing conservation programs.
... Data were collected from November 2015 to June 2019 (as per Nath et al. 2009 ;Nath et al. 2013 ;Rahman et al. 2012 ; ). For such an endeavor, two parallel groups were engaged (Group 1 for the Indian side with the first author and Group 2 for the Bangladesh side with the fourth author). ...
Asiatic elephants are facing numerous direct and indirect anthropogenic threats throughout their geographical distributional range. Consequent to the land use and land cover change, habitat loss, fragmentation, and deterioration of the corridor status are the prime threats for the species. The current study aimed to delineate the routes and migratory corridors of elephants in the Indo-Bangla forest along the Patharia Hills Reserve Forest and characterizing existing threats on the corridor for long-term conservation of the elephants using field survey and geospatial techniques. The study identified and mapped the elephant corridor for the first time in the area and named it the “Juri-Patharia-Tilbhum elephant corridor.” Land use and land cover changes in the corridor were markedly observed for over 4 decades (between 1972 and 2018). Forest-covered areas in the corridor were 32.06% in 1972, which has been reduced to only 2.98% in 2018, whereas human development types have all increased, grasslands by 127.18%, plantations by 146.56%, agriculture by 279.63%, and settlements by 147.17% between 1972 and 2018. The study concluded that the corridor area is at risk because of the lack of sustainable development in the area, which deliberately undermines conservation. Human settlement, road construction, and electrification in and around habitats and the corridor are vital threats faced by elephants in the Patharia Hills Reserve Forest. Conservation of habitat and corridor through both adoption of legal measures and community participation might be a better proposition for their long-term conservation in the habitat. The study appeals to the government to take conservation initiative in the area and suggest legal protection of the corridor and provide subsidies to the local private landowner to restrict the land-use change on the corridor.
... Data were collected from November 2015 to June 2019 as per (Nath et al. 2009;Nath et al. 2013;Rahman et al. 2012;Matleb et al. 2016). Two groups were arranged along with the first and fourth authors comprising three community members in each group who were trained to collect all the incidents spots, secondary sources such as their trails, pugmark and fecal deposits spots. ...
Throughout the tropical regions, raising demands for the land due to the exponential growth of the human population has resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation for wildlife. Consequently, wild animals come out from the fragmented habitats and compete with the human for resources. In order to reduce this conflict, sustainable habitat management balancing the socioeconomic needs of the people is of the utmost importance. The present study is an effort to assess the elephant’s habitat suitability in the trans-boundary forested areas of India and Bangladesh, Patharia Hills Reserve Forest. This is an important study considering the increased human–elephant conflict in the area, and also the area is home to many IUCN’s red-listed animals including Chinese pangolin, spectacled monkey, capped langur. Field surveys were conducted to collect the elephant distribution data and identify potential anthropogenic disturbances. Remote sensing and geographic information system along with analytical hierarchy process were used in the methods for modeling habitat suitability to identify habitat parameters and preparation of suitability maps. Vegetation status (32.50%), settlements (23.30%), elevation (17.20%) and water sources (12.70%) were found to be the most weightage parameters for the movement of the elephant. The study on elephant habitat suitability mapping in the trans-boundary forest revealed that 6.88% area of the habitat is highly disturbed, 36.07% area is somehow disturbed, 35.38% area is moderately suitable and only 21.67% area is most suitable for the Asiatic elephants. Identification of suitable areas and potential factors disturbing the habitats is important for conserving and management of wildlife for particular species and in particular sociophysical conditions. Sustainable management strategies can be fixed based on the findings for the long-term conservation of elephants and other wildlife of the area.
... Nocturnal fires were set around paddy fields and at times ignited balls of fire were thrown at conflict elephants. Fires and firecrackers are also used as control measures against elephant depredation in the fringes of Manas National Park, another protected area in Assam (Nath et al. 2009). In addition, stones were also pelted. ...
... HEC is also correlated with property damage and been ranked as the number one problem in certain communities (Okello et al. 2014). Generally, majority of the damages occur largely when elephants search for stored grains (Nath et al. 2009;Haturusinghe and Weerakoon 2012). In addition to the obvious impacts related to financial, property, and food security (Chakraborty and Mondal 2012), there are others related to social insecurity (Hegel et al. 2009;Harich et al. 2013), health problems, alcoholism (Jadhav and Barua 2012), educational disruptions (Sitati et al. 2012), and sociopsychological impacts (Jadhav and Barua 2012). ...
Human–elephant conflict (HEC) has created detrimental impacts to the residents of Bahundangi in eastern Nepal. This agricultural community is located in the north-east region of Jhapa District and is the principal point of entry for elephants from West Bengal, India. The impacts are widespread on agricultural lands, household livelihoods, personal property, and security. This study explores residents’ impacts via a qualitative approach whereby locals describe narratives about the state of HEC in their community. This method allows for further probing of the issues and identifies themes to be utilized as the next step to build assessments. Six focus group discussions were conducted among different stakeholders. Five themes were identified which were divided into ten subthemes. Results illustrated a range of opinions and were largely correlated based on where houses were located. Collectively, participants were troubled with the status quo and vented their frustration about the lack of commitment, coordination, and elephant controls by the government. Also, concerns were further emphasized about the increase in conflict intensity which has exacerbated annually. HEC issue has been deeply entrenched and needs a multipronged strategy for conflict mitigation. Results should assist policy and decision makers with respect to implementation of strategic measure for conflict alleviation.
... Similar observation was also made by earlier worker [8]. It has also been reported that the raiding of agricultural fields by elephants sometimes occurs due to proximity with cultivation [18][19][20]. Crop raiding in the study area was a herd activity, but sometimes a lone dominated male (makhna) or mother along with a calf was involved and mostly occurred in the night. The elephants raid crops when the quality of the preferred food item, grass began to decline in their natural habitat [21]. ...
Aim: The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the nutritive value of fodder in natural habitat, cultivated crops and their preference by wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in forest and non-forest areas in four seasons using field observation in Sonitpur District of Assam; since, there were frequent incidences of crop raiding by wild elephant leading to loss of property and human-elephant conflict.
Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in four seasons. The study included forest areas of Sonai-Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, part of Nameri National Park and high human-elephant conflicted areas of non-forest near to the sanctuary and parks. The consumed fodders were identified, collected and evaluated. The proximate composition was determined using AOAC (1990).
Results: Total 39 different fodder species of 18 families including herbs, climber, grasses, paddy seeds, paddy saplings, plants and its leaves, bark, fruits, and roots were recorded to be utilized by elephants. The first three family of fodder that elephant relished more were Poaceae (46.15%), Musaceae (7.69%) and Zingiberaceae (5.13%) respectively. The crude protein content of fodder in all seasons, total ash content only in winter and post monsoon seasons and neutral detergent fiber content of fodder between forest and non-forest were significant (p
... More than often loss of subsistence causes much displeasure to locals in the conservation priority areas (Parry and Campbell 1992;Newmark et al. 1993;Maikhuri and Rao 1998). In Manas National Park human-elephant conflict is on the rise, the intensity of conflict was higher in fields and nearby parks; elephant bulls were reported to be more violent than the females (Nath et al. 2009). A seasonal study of the crop raiding patterns of elephant in Zimbabwe suggest that the point at which the quality of wild grasses declines to the quality of crop species correspond to the movement of bull elephant out of PAs and into fields (Osborn 2004). ...
Along with the Greater Himalaya, in the eastern Himalayan region there has been increased efforts to bring more areas under the Protected Area Network. Protected areas including conservation areas in Arunachal Pradesh are mostly located in the low and mid-elevation forest areas. To address the need of having a protected area in the higher altitudes of the State, of late a biosphere reserve has been proposed in the western Arunachal Pradesh. This paper aims to document the existing human-wildlife conflict and prioritize the conflicts, in an effort to promote conservation in the Tsangyang Gyatso Biosphere Reserve. The paper also attempts to understand the complexity of land transfer and regulations of community, particularly pasture lands in the Biosphere reserve. This study was carried out between September 2007 and July 2008 in the proposed biosphere reserve. A total of 13 species were recorded to be in direct conflict with humans, and based on the conflict intensity mapping nine were screened as high to moderate conflicting species. Conflict intensity as per the local perceptions was recorded high for 38% species and 31% species showed moderate intensity of conflict with humans. As per the local perception, causes for human-wildlife conflict in order of importance were: increased population, non-timber forest products (NTFP) collection, road construction and increased predators. Local people perceived four major factors, namely compensatory schemes, reducing prey hunt, reducing pressure on forest and increasing vigil to safeguard crops and livestock to mitigate the existing conflicts.
This study examines the factors that lead to conflict between people and animals in the Jaimini Municipality of Baglung Nepal with an emphasis on how shifting economic conditions impact livestock and agriculture. In terms of agricultural loss livestock depredation and human causation this study sought to explore the conflict between humans and wildlife. It also aims to comprehend local perspectives tolerance and compensation levels as well as the causes of losses brought by wild animals. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed in the study including focus groups semi-structured interviews, questionnaire, surveys and case studies. The findings indicated that the most significant harm caused by human animal conflict (HAC) was crop damage with animal attacks on settlements being more common in areas near forests. There was no discernible difference in the amount of damage caused by elephants to various socioeconomic classes making property damage the second most frequent problem encountered by the locals. The results imply that since humans want to rule over and take advantage of nature and animals they are to blame for the conflict. Anger and negativity are common reactions from victims of animal abuse. Problems with migration dependency and brain drain have resulted from the conflicts detrimental effects on the livelihoods of the local population. The study evaluated stakeholders' capacity to reduce human-wildlife conflicts which are mostly caused by mishandling community forests and problems with their applications. Policymakers practitioners, researchers can benefit from its insights into the intricate relationships between people animal's migration and social transformation.
Crop raiding is a major form of Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) that poses a serious threat to human welfare in the fringe villages of Manas National Park in Assam (India). Most of the people living in the fringe villages of Manas National Park rely on agriculture for their livelihoods. Crop raiding also creates notable challenges for wildlife conservation, as people may retaliate against wildlife when the frequency and severity of crop damage escalate—resulting in the injury or death of the wild animals. To assess the socio-economic impact of crop raiding on the people living in the fringe villages of Manas National Park, data were gathered from eight fringe villages through primary sources, including household questionnaires, focus group discussions, interviews, and field observations, along with secondary sources. This study has also identified the various types of crops damaged by wildlife, quantified the economic losses incurred as a result of crop raiding and examined various mitigation measures for HWC practiced by the communities of the fringe villages
Human-elephant interactions results in numerous deaths and injuries, often due to accidental encounters at elephant crossing points at night. Addressing this, the proposed electronic elephant signage (EES), a solar-powered device, marks crossing points with a glowing elephant-shaped light. Successfully tested in the Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve, it activates at dusk, blinking throughout the night, effectively reducing surprise encounters and promoting safer coexistence.
Animal-borne aversive geofencing devices (AGDs, or satellite-linked shock collars) are commercially available and used on livestock to restrict their movement within a virtual boundary. This technology has potential application as a human-wildlife conflict mitigation tool, where problem animals might be conditioned to avoid human-dominated habitats by associating an audio warning with a subsequent electric shock, which is delivered if the audio warning is ignored. Ensuring that high standards of animal welfare are maintained when implementing such tools is important for acquiring manager and community acceptance of such approaches. We conducted two pilot experiments with eight captive Asian elephants using mild electric shocks from a modified dogtraining collar fitted around the neck, as part of an ongoing effort to develop AGDs suitable for mitigating human-elephant conflict. As part of these experiments, we assessed elephants' behavioural and physiological stress before, during and after our experiments. During the experiments elephants wore collars up to nine consecutive days and received a small number of electric shocks on 1–3 consecutive days. Bootstrapped principal component analysis showed that daily activity budgets of individual elephants on experiment days were not different to the pre-experiment days. Generalised linear mixed-effect model (GLMM) showed that anxiety/stress behaviours increased on the first day of acclimatising to the collar and on testing days (i.e. days they received shocks) of the first experiment, but not during the second experiment relative to pre-experiment days. Analysis of faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentrations using GLMM showed that FCM concentrations were higher in samples collected ~24 hrs and ~48 hrs after testing days compared to baseline levels as expected given the lag time for excretion of cortisol metabolites. These elevated anxiety/stress behaviours and FCM concentrations returned to baseline levels shortly after the experiment. Therefore, we conclude that AGDs did not produce lasting behavioural or physiological stress effects in elephants during this short term study but recommend further studies with a larger sample of elephants to confirm the transferability of these findings.
Simple Summary
Conflict between humans and Asian elephants is a major conservation issue. Here we discuss common tools used to manage human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Asia and the potential of animal-borne satellite-linked shock collars or Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) for managing problem elephants. Most current HEC mitigation tools lack the ability to be modified to accommodate needs of elephants and therefore are sometimes unsuccessful. AGDs currently used to manage livestock movement can be adapted to mitigate HEC to overcome this problem. AGDs can constantly monitor animal movements and be programmed to deliver sound warnings followed by electric shock whenever animals attempt to move across virtual boundaries demarcated by managers. Elephants fitted with AGDs are expected to learn to avoid the electric shock by associating it with the warning sound and move away from specified areas. Based on the potential shown by studies conducted using AGDs on other wild species, we suggest that experiments should be conducted with captive elephants to determine the efficacy and welfare impact of AGDs on elephants. Further, assessing public opinion on using AGDs on elephants will also be important. If elephants can learn to avoid virtual boundaries set by AGDs, it could help to significantly reduce HEC incidents.
Abstract
Asian elephants are a principal cause of human-wildlife conflict. This results in the death/injury of elephants and humans and large-scale crop and property damage. Most current human-elephant conflict (HEC) mitigation tools lack the flexibility to accommodate the ecological needs of elephants and are ineffective at reducing HEC in the long-term. Here we review common HEC mitigation tools used in Asia and the potential of Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) to manage problem elephants. AGDs can be configured to monitor animal movements in real-time and deliver auditory warnings followed by electric stimuli whenever animals attempt to move across user-specified virtual boundaries. Thus, AGDs are expected to condition elephants to avoid receiving shocks and keep them away from virtually fenced areas, while providing alternative routes that can be modified if required. Studies conducted using AGDs with other species provide an overview of their potential in conditioning wild animals. We recommend that the efficacy and welfare impact of AGDs be evaluated using captive elephants along with public perception of using AGDs on elephants as a means of addressing the inherent deficiencies of common HEC mitigation tools. If elephants could be successfully conditioned to avoid virtual fences, then AGDs could resolve many HEC incidents throughout Asia.
Negative interactions between humans and elephants are known to have serious consequences, resulting in loss of life and deterioration in the quality of life for both species. Reducing human–elephant conflicts (HEC) is essential for elephant conservation as well as social justice. Non-lethal electric fences placed around villages or communities are a widely used intervention to mitigate HEC. Such barriers act as non-excludable and non-subtractable resources—i.e., public goods—that must be maintained collectively by beneficiaries or the State. Despite being fairly effective when well maintained, most such fences in northeast India are poorly maintained. This leads to our central question: why are some fences well maintained and others poorly maintained? We studied 19 such fences using qualitative comparative analysis, Ostrom's social-ecological systems framework, and a grounded theory approach, incorporating qualitative social science tools. We found that, contrary to our hypothesis, the functionality of fences cannot be predicted based on the design of the fence, whether or not the community made cash payments, or ethnic homogeneity or leadership in the village. Instead, we found there are three potential pathways of maintenance: (1) a community maintainer, (2) the community self-organizes, and (3) the Forest Department. Maintenance occurs when there is a congruence between perceived costs and benefits for the entity responsible for fence maintenance. These costs and benefits are diverse, including not just material benefits but intangibles like goodwill, sense of safety, social standing, and a feeling of fairness. We highlight these factors and provide recommendations for practitioners and policy.
In India, the elephant population is distributed in four geographical regions, viz., north-eastern, north-western, east-central and southern regions. Within north-eastern region, the northern districts of West Bengal (also known as North Bengal) sustain a relatively healthy pachyderm population (488 nos.) with a population density of about 0.25 individuals/ km2. However, elephant conservation management and control of human elephant conflicts have been a big challenge for many reasons in this area for years. Around 2357 human deaths have been recorded due to elephant attack during 2014-15 to 2018-19, in India. Surprisingly, 18.3% of these deaths occurred in West Bengal (second highest in the country) itself, predominantly in the forests of northern West Bengal. Similarly, 63 unnatural deaths of tuskers were recorded in this part during 2015 -16 to 2018 -19, claiming 16.9% of the total elephant deaths in the country. Thus, having a mere 1.8% of the Indian elephant population, this region stands out as a major human- elephant conflict prone zone in India. Although several studies related to different aspects of human elephant conflicts (HECs) have been done in the area, however, a trend analysis in respect to HECs in the region is lacking. This analysis is necessary for understanding the effects of the policies applied for mitigation of the conflicts. The paper is an attempt to highlight the trends of elephant conservation management and human elephant conflicts in a temporal span in the elephant habitats in the northern districts of West Bengal. In the study, variables like pattern of elephant population, elephant corridor characteristics, human and elephant casualties and compensation measures have been highlighted for focusing the progress of elephant conservation in the region over a period of time. The analysis reveals that policies regarding elephant conservation and reduction of human elephant conflicts are hindered by increasing space crisis, unmanaged forest fragmentation, unplanned developmental activities, corridor shrinkage, lack of implementation of innovative mitigation strategies, development of negative psyche towards wildlife of the forest fringe dwellers and so on in recent times. Thus, a holistic retrospection and introspection of the existing policies involving government agencies, NGOs and local communities is required to find better solution to the problems in future.
An important pillar to the mainstream conservation of elephants (Loxodonta africana, L. cyclotis and Elephas maximus) is the relatively narrow and growing interest of ‘human-elephant conflict’ prevention and mitigation. This thesis problematises the hegemonic HEC discourse (Igoe, Neves and Brockington, 2010:488) which acts as a powerful resource to promote human-elephant separation, often producing failing and harmful practices, which are often obscured from public view. The discourse frames human-elephant interactions as conflict with elephants, blames local population growth and encroachment for its escalation and in turn fixates on technocratic methods of separation and control while promoting many projects as ‘win-win’ . As methods of separation are favoured, compensation is routinely tested but derided and local financial resilience, autonomy and values largely ignored. Methods of separation are replicated across Asia and Africa, finding some success to avoid crop loss. However, separation seems ill-suited to elephants, ecologically dangerous, physically difficult, and unevenly costly. It is also an appeasement to agribusiness , an acceleration of neoliberal capitalism within traditional communities, a reprise of fortress conservation and a tool to legitimise harmful forms of nature’s commodification. These issues highlight the need to question human-elephant separation and awaken opportunities to realise actively shared spaces.
Asiatic elephants have been involved in severe conflicts with the people residing in the fringes of Abhaypur Reserve Forest, Northeast India. An attempt was made for the first time ever to assess this problem in these areas. During this study, a closed-ended questionnaire survey was conducted in selected fringe villages of the protected area. The aim was to evaluate the issue from the socioeconomic point of view and also develop a general understanding about the conflict elephants as well as control measures applied. It was revealed that the elephants were responsible for widespread agricultural loss, property damage and human attacks. This resulted in severe consequences upon the financially weak rural population. Due to rampant crop raid, people were also bound to abandon agricultural land and convert paddy fields into tea gardens. The chief control measures applied included crackers, fire and noise, which were not fully effective. The issue has magnified itself into a formidable conservation challenge in the area and needs to be addressed immediately. This would enable humans and elephants to co-exist peacefully around the forest. Human–elephant conflicts around Abhaypur highlight the fact that wildlife can exert widespread impacts upon the human society.
Elephant conservation carries cost in the form of human-elephant conflict and affects the well being of people living near ecologically important areas. Conflicts impart serious challenges towards the survival of Asian Elephants, which are categorized as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Issues of wildlife conservation are least addressed in areas with less restricted categories of protection. Hence an attempt was made to evaluate the intensity of elephant conflict and factors associated with its occurrence in villages with forest fringes of North and South Forest Divisions of Nilambur, Kerala, southern India. It was hypothesized that
variables such as number of houses, area of village, livestock population, forest frontage, and presence of water source along the forest boundary abutting the village to be the underlying correlates of conflict. Field studies were conducted fortnightly from June 2014 to May 2015, by visiting farms and households of 17 selected forest fringe villages. Observational methods, questionnaire surveys and secondary
data collection were employed for this purpose. A total of 277 incidents of crop depredation, 12 incidents of property damage, three human injuries, and one human death due to conflict were recorded during this period. Crop raiding was highest during post monsoon season and it was low during pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons. Multiple linear regression results suggest that forest frontage and livestock population were significant predictors of conflict incidence. Information regarding the prime causes of conflict will be helpful for
planning strategies for the establishment of appropriate mitigation methods. The present study serves as baseline information which will be helpful for formulating prospective management plans.
Presented as a overview paper at the African Elephant Specialist group meeting in May 1994 the text reflects the contributions of group members, highlights the key issues associated with human-elephant conflict, and suggests that there are policy options which will allow for the migitation of this growing situation as opportunities for conservation management become more fully realised.
Describes human-elephant conflict northern Cameroon's Kaele area located south of Maroua and fairly close to the Chadian border. Here a small resident population has recently been augmented by animals which have come into the area because of disruptive situations within their home territory in Chad. Outlines the need for research into the background of the elephants, strategies for mitigating human-elephants conflict situations and application of long term management programmes.
The Asian elephant's foraging strategy in its natural habitat and in cultivation was studied in southern India during 1981–83. Though elephants consumed at least 112 plant species in the study area, about 85% of their diet consisted of only 25 species from the order Malvales and the families Leguminosae, Palmae, Cyperaceae and Gramineae. Alteration between a predominantly browse diet during the dry season with a grass diet during the early wet season was related to the seasonally changing protein content of grasses.
Crop raiding, which was sporadic during the dry season, gradually increased with more area being cultivated with the onset of rains. Raiding frequency reached a peak during October-December, with some villages being raided almost every night, when finger millet ( Eleusine coracana ) was cultivated by most farmers. The monthly frequency of raiding was related to the seasonal movement of elephant herds and to the size of the enclave. Of their total annual food requirement, adult bull elephants derived an estimated 9.3% and family herds 1.7% in quantity from cultivated land. Cultivated cereal and millet crops provided significantly more protein, calcium and sodium than the wild grasses. Ultimately, crop raiding can be thought of as an extension of the elephant's optimal foraging strategy.
Crop loss to wildlife impedes local support for conservation efforts at Kibale National Park, Uganda. Systematic monitoring of crop loss to wildlife (mammals larger than 3 kg) and livestock was conducted in six villages around Kibale over a 2‐year period. Five wildlife species accounted for 85% of crop damage events: baboons, bushpigs, redtail monkeys, chimpanzees, and elephants. Marked variation in frequency and extent of damage is reported within villages, between villages, and between wildlife species. Fields lying within 500 m of the forest boundary lost 4–7% of crops per season on average, but the distribution of damage was highly skewed such that maize and cassava fields were on occasion completely destroyed. Multivariate analysis was used to test predictors of damage, including human population density, guarding, hunting, sight distance, and distance from the forest. Tests were performed at two levels of analysis, field and village. Distance from the forest edge explained the greatest amount of variation in crop damage, although hunting also influenced the extent of crop damage. Elephants inflicted catastrophic damage to farms but their forays were rare and highly localized. Livestock caused considerable damage to crops but farmers seldom complained because they had institutionalized modes of restitution. Although most of the crop damage by wildlife is restricted to a narrow band of farmers living near the forest edge, risk perception among these farmers has been amplified by legal prohibitions on killing wild animals. Elevating local tolerance for wildlife will require diverse approaches, including channeling economic benefits to Kibale’s neighbors and providing compensation in limited cases.
Predicción de Patrones de Daño a Cosechas por Vida Silvestre en los Alrededores del Parque Nacional Kibale en Uganda
Pérdidas de cosechas debido a vida silvestre impide el soporte local para los esfuerzos de conservación del parque nacional Kibale en Uganda. Monitoreos sistemáticos de pérdidas de cosechas debido a vida silvestre (mamíferos > 3 kg) y ganado fueron conducidos en seis villas de los alrededores de Kibale por un período de 2 años. Cinco especies de vida silvestre fueron responsables del 85% de los eventos perjudiciales en las cosechas: baboons, bushpigs, monos cola roja, chimpancés y elefantes. Se reporta una marcada variación en la frecuencia y extensión del daño reportado dentro de las villas, entre villas y entre especies. Campos ubicados dentro de 500 m de los limites del bosque perdiéron 4–7% de las cosechas por temporada en promedio, sin embargo, la distribución del daño estuvo altamente sesgada de tal manera que los campos de maíz y cassava fueron en ocasiones completamente destruídos. Se utilizó un análisis multivariado para probar predicciones de daño, incluyendo densidad humana poblacional, cuidado, caza, visibilidad y distancia del bosque. Las pruebas fueron realizadas a dos niveles de análisis: campo y villa. La distancia al límite del bosque explicó la mayor cantidad de varaición en daño a las cosechas aunque la caza también influyó en la extensión del daño. Elefantes provocaron daños catastróficos en granjas, pero sus incursiones fueron raras y altamente localizadas. El ganado causó considerable daño a cosecha, pero los granjeros rara vez se quejaron, puesto que existen formas institucionales de restitución. Aunque la mayoría del daño a cosechas causado por vida silvestre es restringido a una banda angosta de granjas localizadas cerca de los límites del bosque, la perceptión del riesgo entre estos granjeros ha sido ampliada por prohibiciones legales en el sacrificio de animales silvestres. Incrementar la tolerancia local hacia la vida silvestre requerirá de diversas aproximaciones incluyendo la canalización de beneficios económicos para los vecinos del parque Kibale y en algunos casos, proveer compensaciones.
The economic impact of elephants, Loxodonta africana, and predators, particularly lions, Panthera leo, on rural agriculturists in the Kwando region of the East Caprivi, Namibia was assessed from the years 1991 to 1995. Elephants were responsible for the greatest number of wildlife conflicts in the region, while lions had the greatest financial impact on farmers. Attempts were made to reduce conflicts between elephants and farmers using deterrents such as electrical fencing, trip-alarm techniques and elephant warning calls. Success of deterrents depended on the frequency of exposure to elephants, maintenance and the ecology of both humans and elephants in the region. Of the deterrent strategies explored, only electrical fencing reduced elephant damage at the community level. The future efficacy of electric fencing is uncertain, however, if elephants do not associate it with fear and possible death. Deterrent efforts played a role in improving relations between communities and conservationists. Scenarios for how human agricultural communities might co-exist with free-ranging elephants are discussed.
Conflict with humans over livestock and crops seriously undermines the conservation prospects of India's large and potentially dangerous mammals such as the tiger (Panthera tigris) and elephant (Elephas maximus). This study, carried out in Bhadra Tiger Reserve in south India, estimates the extent of material and monetary loss incurred by resident villagers between 1996 and 1999 in conflicts with large felines and elephants, describes the spatiotemporal patterns of animal damage, and evaluates the success of compensation schemes that have formed the mainstay of loss-alleviation measures. Annually each household lost an estimated 12% (0.9 head) of their total holding to large felines, and approximately 11% of their annual grain production (0.82 tonnes per family) to elephants. Compensations awarded offset only 5% of the livestock loss and 14% of crop losses and were accompanied by protracted delays in the processing of claims. Although the compensation scheme has largely failed to achieve its objective of alleviating loss, its implementation requires urgent improvement if reprisal against large wild mammals is to be minimized. Furthermore, innovative schemes of livestock and crop insurance need to be tested as alternatives to compensations.
The Living Elephants is the authoritative resource for information on both Asian and African elephants. From the ancient origins of the proboscideans to the present-day crisis of the living elephants, this volume synthesizes the behavior, ecology and conservation of elephants, while covering also the history of human interactions with elephants, all within the theoretical framework of evolutionary biology. The book begins with a survey of the 60-million year evolutionary history of the proboscideans emphasizing the role of climate and vegetation change in giving rise to a bewildering array of species, but also discussing the possible role of humans in the late Pleistocene extinction of mastodonts and mammoths. The latest information on the molecular genetics of African and Asian elephants and its taxonomic implications are then presented. The rise of the elephant culture in Asia, and its early demise in Africa are traced along with an original interpretation of this unique animal-human relationship. The book then moves on to the social life of elephants as it relates to reproductive strategies of males and females, development of behavior in young, communication, ranging patterns, and societal organization. The foraging strategies of elephants, their impact on the vegetation and landscape are then discussed. The dynamics of elephant populations in relation to hunting for ivory and their population viability are described with the aid of mathematical models. A detailed account of elephant-human interactions includes a treatment of crop depredation by elephants in relation to their natural ecology, manslaughter by elephants, habitat manipulation by humans, and a history of the ivory trade and poaching in the two continents. The ecological information is brought together in the final chapter to formulate a set of pragmatic recommendations for the long-term conservation of elephants. The broadest treatment of the subject yet undertaken, by one of the leading workers in the field, Raman Sukumar, the book promises to bring the understanding of elephants to a new level. It should be of interest not only to biologists but also a broader audience including field ecologists, wildlife administrators, historians, conservationists and all those interested in elephants and their future.
Pastoralists and their livestock share much of the habitat of the snow leopard (Uncia uncia) across south and central Asia. The levels of livestock predation by the snow leopard and other carnivores are high, and retaliatory killing by the herders is a direct threat to carnivore populations. Depletion of wild prey by poaching and competition from livestock also poses an indirect threat to the region's carnivores. Conservationists working in these underdeveloped areas that face serious economic damage from livestock losses have turned to incentive programs to motivate local communities to protect carnivores. We describe a pilot incentive program in India that aims to offset losses due to livestock predation and to enhance wild prey density by creating livestock-free areas on common land. We also describe how income generation from handicrafts in Mongolia is helping curtail poaching and retaliatory killing of snow leopards. However, initiatives to offset the costs of living with carnivores and to make conservation beneficial to affected people have thus far been small, isolated, and heavily subsidized. Making these initiatives more comprehensive, expanding their coverage, and internalizing their costs are future challenges for the conservation of large carnivores such as the snow leopard.
Rhesus monkeys Macaca
mulatta and people have coexisted for many years in Vrindaban in Mathura District, Uttar Pradesh, India. The monkeys are highly valued both by locals and pilgrims to the area, in part because of their quasi sacred status, but during the last two decades the increasing human and monkey populations of the township have led to severe human-monkey conflict and a decrease in people's respect for the monkeys. To ease this situation one of the world's largest ever translocations of monkeys was undertaken. In 1995, 30 groups of rhesus monkeys, comprising an estimated 1,338 individuals, were recorded in Vrindaban. Of these, 12 groups, a total of 600 individuals, were translocated in January 1997 to eight sites in seminatural forested areas within the same District. A post-translocation study indicated that the translocated monkeys were settled and appeared to be exhibiting normal behaviour. This study indicates that translocation of commensal monkeys to forested areas can be a successful technique for their rehabilitation.
A status survey of Asian Elephants Elephas maximus was conducted in the 9 north-eastern states of India. The habitat is contiguous with that in Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Although the estimated population of 11 000 elephants is higher than in other regions of the Indian Sub-continent, it is fragmented and a number of small inviable isolated populations have formed. About 35% of the population is partly protected, but protection is inadequate. More areas and migration routes need to be protected. Man–elephant conflict is serious in many areas. A comprehensive Action Plan with a more pragmatic protected-area network has been proposed.
According to some conservationists, large, pristine, uninhabited parks are the defining criterion of success in conserving tropical forests. They argue that human residents in tropical forests inevitably deplete populations of large animals through hunting, which triggers a chain reaction of ecological events that greatly diminish the conservation value of these forests. Hence, they believe that removal of people from tropical forests is an essential step in the creation of successful parks and in the conservation of nature in the tropics. This approach can lead to undesirable consequences, however. Forest residents—and rural people generally—are potent political actors in tropical forest regions and an essential component of the environmental political constituencies that are necessary for the long-term conservation of tropical forests. In Amazonia and elsewhere, rural people are defending far bigger areas of tropical forest from unfettered deforestation and logging than are parks, thereby conserving the ecological services provided by these forests and the majority of their component plant and animal species. Moreover, the data are too sparse to judge the effects of forest peoples on populations of large forest animals. The establishment of pristine, tropical forest parks is an important conservation goal, but the exclusive pursuit of this goal undermines the broader objectives of conservation when it identifies forest residents and other rural people as the enemies of nature.
Since the Rio Conference of 1992, which declared the conservation of biodiversity and the creation of national parks to be priorities, resettlements resulting from conservation projects in Central Africa have been on the increase, as people living inside protected areas are relocated. Hardly any of these resettlements have been successful. There has been resistance to moving in the first place, and even returns to former villages inside the national parks. Resettlement is still the most common way to deal with people who happen to live in African national parks, but the risks which arise from these resettlements have led some scientists to rethink their position. This article focuses on the Congo River Basin. It reviews the only ‘official’ relocation programme in the region (Korup National Park, Cameroon) and evaluates different approaches of national parks in Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo (Brazzaville) and Gabon. The author uses the Impoverishment Risk and Reconstruction model introduced by Cernea to evaluate the risks faced by the resettled populations, and to elaborate some social and environmental guidelines to mitigate them.
We analyzed the escalating man-animal conflict due to changing cropping pattern in Talala sub-district on the periphery of Gir National Park and Sanctuary (GNPS), Gujarat, India. Sugarcane and mango cultivation has increased by 87% and 103% respectively within eight years from 1992 to 1999. Straying of lions (Panthera leo persica) and leopards (Panthera pardus) increased to 55% and 46% respectively from 1997 to 1999. Significant correlations between the increases in sugarcane cultivation and mango orchard with straying of lions (r = +0.827, df 2) and leopards (r = +0.981, df 2) were observed. From 1990 to 1998, of the total of 11 lions rescued, eight (72%) were from farmlands and of 32 leopards rescued, ten (31%) were from farmland. Ten lions (91%) and five leopards (41%) were found dead in farmlands. Thirteen lion attacks (72%) took place in farmlands, of which 10 were specifically reported, from sugarcane and mango cultivation. Fifty-nine percent of the leopard attacks (resulting in four deaths) were recorded from farmlands. Livestock kills taking place in farmland have increased by 150% within two years from 1998 to 1999. Sugarcane and groundnut cultivation in the adjoining areas also suffer from damage due to increased movement of wild ungulates and wildboar.
The more significant principles of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) concern the behavior and attitudes of outsider facilitators, including not rushing, “handing over the stick,” and being self-critically aware. The power and popularity of PRA are partly explained by the unexpected analytical abilities of local people when catalyzed by relaxed rapport, and expressed through sequences of participatory and especially visual methods. Evidence to date shows high validity and reliability of information shared by local people through PRA compared with data from more traditional methods. Explanations include reversals and shifts of emphasis: from etic to emic, closed to open, individual to group, verbal to visual, and measuring to comparing; and from extracting information to empowering local analysts.
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Date of incident Name of victim GPS location Type of Crop Phenology Extent of cultivation (Area) Extent of damage (Area)
- Sno
SNo. Date of incident
Name of victim
GPS location
Type of Crop
Phenology
Extent of cultivation (Area)
Extent of damage (Area)