![GC x GC separation of PAHs in edible oil sample with highlighted critical non-separated groups of PAHs (BaA = benz[a]anthracene, CPP = cyclopenta[cd]pyrene and BbF = benzo[b]fluoranthene, BjF = benzo[j]fluoranthene, BkF = benzo[k]fluoranthene). Reprinted from, Purcaro et al. (107), C Elsevier. Reproduced by permission of Elsevier. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rightsholder.](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Wenzl/publication/273092609/figure/fig1/AS:353245131231234@1461231610440/GC-x-GC-separation-of-PAHs-in-edible-oil-sample-with-highlighted-critical-non-separated_Q320.jpg)
![: Indicators of maximum levels of benzo[a]pyrene in foods regulated in China](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Wenzl/publication/273092609/figure/tbl1/AS:667693355122691@1536201909336/Indicators-of-maximum-levels-of-benzoapyrene-in-foods-regulated-in-China_Q320.jpg)
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The Occurrence of 16 EPA PAHs in Food – A Review
Abstract and Figures
Occurrence and toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been extensively studied in countries all over the world. PAHs generally occur in complex mixtures which may consist of hundreds of compounds. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed in the 1970 to monitor a set of 16 PAHs which are frequently found in environmental samples. This article reviews the suitability of the 16 EPA PAHs for the assessment of potential health threats to humans stemming from the exposure to PAHs by food ingestion. It presents details on analysis methods, the occurrence of PAHs in food, regulatory aspects, and related risk management approaches. In addition, consideration is given to newer evaluations of the toxicity of PAHs and the requirements for risk assessment and management stemming from them.
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... Monitoring the formation and presence of PAHs, due to their widespread occurrence and the threat they pose, is essential to ensure human health and safety. In the United States, efforts commenced over 40 years ago with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishing a list of 16 PAHs (acenaphthene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, fluoranthene, fluorene, naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[ghi]perylene, benzo[a]pyrene, chrysene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, and indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene) requiring special attention and monitoring of their occurrence in the environment [1,4] Similar activities are underway to ensure food safety-the European Commission has identified the four most relevant PAHs which levels in food and feed should be monitored (benz[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chr), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)). Their presence in food is linked not only to technological processing but also to the presence of PAHs in the environment and their penetration into raw materials [5,6]. ...
... Although the increases in PAH content in biocarbon and tar oil and syngas mass are mainly due to the pyrolysis temperature, it was decided to try to relate the volumetric contents of certain gases found in the syngas composition to the PAH content of the biochar. Relationships were observed between increasing PAH content, decreasing CO 2 content, and increasing CH 4 and H 2 content. These relationships are shown in the dot plot in Figure 6. ...
Using agricultural waste biomass pyrolysis to produce energy sources and biochar may support local economies in rural areas and enhance sustainability in the agricultural sector, reducing dependence on traditional energy sources and fertilisers. To obtain liquid and gaseous forms of biomass fuel, wheat straw pellets were pyrolysed in a screw reactor at temperatures of 300, 400, 500, 600, and 700 °C. An analysis was conducted to assess the influence of process temperature on the physicochemical composition of the raw material and the resulting biochar, pyrolysis liquid, and synthesis gas. The presence of potentially harmful substances in the biochar, whose addition to soil can improve soil properties, was assessed by quantitatively determining polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Similar tests were carried out for pyrolysis fluid. The assessments were based on the standards for the most dangerous PAHs: fluorene, anthracene, fluoranthene, benzo[b]fluorine, benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene, and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene. The results indicated that the total content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the biochar ranged from 346.81 µg·kg−1 at 300 °C to 1660.87 µg·kg−1 (700 °C). In the pyrolytic fluid, the PAH content ranged from 58,240.7 µg·kg−1 (300 °C) to 101,889.0 µg·kg−1 (600 °C). It was found that the increase in PAH content in both the biochar and the liquid progressed with increasing pyrolysis temperature. After finding a correlation between the increase in the PAH content in biochar and the increase in the content of high-energy gases in the synthesis gas, it was concluded that it is difficult to reconcile the production of PAH-free biochar in the pyrolysis of biomass with obtaining high-energy gas and pyrolysis oil.
... 17 Compounds such as B[a]A, found in e-cigs and belong to the PAH group, are of great concern due to their ability to cause mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. 18 The processes are initiated by activating the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, which play a significant role in the bioactivation and metabolism of carcinogenic agents. 19 Figure 1A and 1B illustrates the classification of compounds and the PAH identified in e-cigs and e-vaps. ...
... fluoranthene, and benzo[k]fluoranthene have been found to have genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects. 18 The toxicity of PAH is associated with reactive electrophilic metabolite formation and the activation of cellular receptors, such as the AHR. The AHR is a transcription factor that belongs to the basic helix-loop-helix-PER-ARNT-SIM (bHLH-PAS) subgroup of the bHLH superfamily and is exclusively activated by ligands. ...
... The US EPA has identified 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as priority pollutants due to their frequent occurrence in environmental samples such as air, water, soil, and food, and their potential carcinogenic and mutagenic properties (Eom et al., 2007;EPA, 1979;Sharma et al., 2007;Sopian et al., 2021;Yan et al., 2004;Zelinkova and Wenzl, 2015; was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder. All rights reserved. ...
Petroleum hydrocarbons (PHs) are compounds composed mostly of carbon and hydrogen, originating from crude oil and its derivatives. PHs are primarily released into the environment through the diffusion of oils, resulting from anthropogenic activities like transportation and offshore drilling, and accidental incidents such as oil spills. Once released, these PHs can persist in different ecosystems and cause long-term detrimental ecological impacts. While the hazards associated with such PH contaminations are often assessed by the concentrations of total petroleum hydrocarbons in the environment, studies focusing on the risks associated with individual PHs are limited. Here, we leveraged different network-based frameworks to explore and understand the adverse ecological effects associated with PH exposure. First, we systematically curated a list of 320 PHs from published reports. Next, we integrated biological endpoint data from toxicological databases, and constructed a stressor-centric adverse outcome pathway (AOP) network linking 75 PHs with 177 ecotoxicologically-relevant high confidence AOPs within AOP-Wiki. Further, we relied on stressor-species network constructions, based on reported toxicity concentrations and bioconcentration factors data for 80 PHs and 28 PHs, respectively, and found that crustaceans are documented to be affected by many of these PHs. Finally, we utilized the aquatic toxicity data within ECOTOX to construct species sensitivity distributions for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) prioritized by the US EPA, and derived their corresponding hazard concentrations (HC05) that protect 95% of species in the aquatic ecosystem. Overall, this study highlights the importance of using network-based approaches and risk assessment methods to understand the PH-induced toxicities effectively.
... Additionally, some external physical factors, including sunlight and UV irradiation, can also activate this pathway. Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is one of a large number of PAHs, and is found in nearly all foods, particularly in smoked meats, cheeses, and charcoal-broiled items [5,6]. Among non-smoking adult, more than 95% of BaP exposure is attributed to diet [7]. ...
Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a carcinogenic, teratogenic, and immunotoxic injurant in high-temperature processed foods. The Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is widely expressed in various cell types throughout the body and initiates cell death upon ligand binding. AHR plays a crucial role in the metabolism of BaP. In this study, the AHR antagonist CH223191 was utilized to investigate the toxic effects of BaP on colon tissues in mice by activating AHR. The findings revealed that BaP increased the mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10) and pyroptosis markers (NF-κB, NLRP3, Caspase-1, and GSDMD) in mouse colon tissues through AHR activating. Additionally, BaP resulted in decreased levels of ZO-1, MUC2, and Occludin. Furthermore, CH223191 demonstrated potential in mitigating the pyroptotic damage to the colon induced by BaP. Notably, BaP altered the gut microbiota by activating AHR, leading to a reduction in the abundance of several beneficial bacterial genera, such as Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Alistipes, and Rikenella, following BaP exposure. However, CH223191 effectively reversed this adverse change. In summary, BaP compromised the intestinal barrier, induced pyroptotic damage in the colon of mice, and altered the gut microbiota by binding to and activating AHR.
... Inadequate process control or intense smoking can lead to contamination of the product with PAHs. Zelinkova and Wenz, (2015) observed that low molecular weight chemicals present in food may increase in concentration during smoking procedures, although these substances generally exhibit lower toxicity compared to high molecular weight PAHs classified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Notably, hot smoking tends to produce higher PAH levels than cold smoking. ...
Petroleum hydrocarbons are a significant organic pollutant made up of a very complex mixture of molecules, and in recent years, research has focused on how they affect the environment. This study aimed to examine how various smoking techniques affected the Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) residue and nearby components of Clarias gariepinus and Sarotherodon melanotheron. The concentrations of 15 environmentally significant PAHs were investigated in Clarias gariepinus and Sarotherodon melanotheron using standard analytical laboratory procedure. The length and weight of the fish species decreased significantly after smoking processes than the raw sample. All the fifteen PAHs analyzed in this work are present in the two fish species and across all the smoking methods. In smoked samples from both species, the concentration of naphthalene was significantly greater (P <0.05) than the other PAHs examined. Smoked fish samples recorded high levels of benzo (a) pyrene (BaP) and total concentrations of four markers of PAH contamination, and mean total concentrations of PAHs (mPAH), all of which were higher than the European Union limits of 2.0 and 10 g/kg. Generally, the results obtained for the proximate compositions showed a significantly (P<0.05) higher protein content in every smoking phase. Since moisture greatly promotes the growth of microorganisms, which degrades freshness and quality, low moisture content in smoked fish species indicates a product with a longer shelf life. The smoked fish's high fat (P>0.05) and ash (P<0.05) levels are indicative of a nutrient-rich product. In conclusion, high concentrations of PAHs, particularly those with 2-3 rings, and the presence of the carcinogenic 5-ring PAH, benzo(a)pyrene, in the fish under analysis indicated that the processed fish was unfit for consumption. As a result, given the detrimental effects of PAH contamination on public health, it is imperative that concerned governmental levels take appropriate action.
... The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) has designated this group of compounds as priority pollutants. Sixteen priority PAHs are Nap, acenaphthene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, fluoranthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, pyrene, benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[ghi]perylene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, and indeno (1,2,3cd)pyrene [1,[7][8][9][10]. As mentioned previously, the simplest PAH compound is Nap, consisting of two benzene rings, with a molar mass of 128.19 g/mol, solubility of 31.69 µg/L, and the vapor pressure of ZASTITA MATERIJALA 65 (2024) broj 3 525 0.087 mm Hg [1,9]. ...
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons cause significant environmental and health concerns, necessitating effective remediation strategies. Specifically, biological treatments are only effective for PAH compounds with lower molecular weights, while for the efficient elimination of more complex PAH structures, the photocatalytic method is more recommended. Photocatalytic degradation has primarily relied on TiO2-based materials. However, this review focuses on the utilization of various metal oxide nanomaterials for the degradation or total removal of naphtalene from the environment, especially from wastewater. Precisely speaking, the photocatalytic activity of various nanomaterials is discussed, with an emphasis on photocatalytic degradation mechanisms and the identification of degradation intermediates. Key findings reveal that these materials hold substantial promise, and that photogenerated holes, superoxide radicals, and hydroxyl radicals play crucial roles in the degradation processes highlighting additionally the unique mechanisms of these processes. Important information about the intermediates and pathways of naphtalene degradation discussed in the mechanisms of degradation has been confirmed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).
Basrah province, is the economic capital of Iraq, which suffers from severe pollutants especially petroleum hydrocarbon compounds.
The stations of current study were chosen to cover most sources of hydrocarbons in different land uses. The soil samples were collected from 30 stations at Basrah province distributed in eight locations includes five residential areas (Al-Qurna, Garmat Ali, Al-Twaysa, Al-Qibla and Um Qasir), four oil areas (Nahr bin Umar, Southern Rumaila, Al-Sheaiba and Al-Zubair 1), four agricultural areas (Al-Midaina, Al-Kibasi, Bab Al-Hawa and Abu Al-Khasib), five roads (Al-Hartha, Dinar, Al-Tigari, Al-Ashar and Khor Al-Zubair), four petrol stations (Al-Dear, Al-Hota, Al-Andulus and Al-Gubaila), two electrical power plants (Al-Hartha and Al-Najibieah), two public parks (Basrah Family and Al-Khoorah) and four areas near electrical generators (Al-Dear, Al-Gubaila, Al-Kibasi and Al-Baradieah)). The collection of samples were done during dry period (July, August and September 2019) and wet period (December 2019, Juanuary, Febreuary and March 2020). The results of principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the soil characteristics that effect on TPHs, n-alkanes and PAHs compounds in the dry period were different from wet period. In general the soil characteristics (temperature, moisture, pH, EC and TOC) associated with each other but not related with hydrocarbons. This means that it is not possible to infer the presence of hydrocarbons by measuring other environmental factors.
Geographic information system (GIS) was used to show the spatial distribution of TPHs, n-alkanes and PAHs compounds measured in the studied area in the form of maps by using Arc map GIS program.
The toxic equivalent quotients (TEQs) were calculated to determine the carcinogenicity possibility associated with exposure to individual and total PAH compounds. The results of TEQs were ranged from 25.66 to 956.48 ng g-1 soil dry weight in the dry period, whereas they ranged from 130.30 to 945.71 ng g-1 soil dry weight in the wet period. According to values of TEQs the studied locations were within the safe level for human health protection (less than 600 ng g-1 soil dry weight) except the oil areas were exceeded the safe level.
Within the group,of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) there exist carcinogenic substances. They are formed during the incomplete incineration of organic material and consequently also during smoking processes. The PAH include about 250 different compounds, 16 PAHs are considered as especially hazardous to health and environment by the U.S. Environmental ProtectioncAgency (EPA). Benzo[a]pyrene is used as a leading substance. At the Federal Centre for Meat Research (BAFF) since 1978 the contents of benzo[a]pyrene in about 1000 smoked meat products were investigated. With the years subsiding contents of benzo[a]pyrene were detected. Very recently we developed a GC/HRMS-method in order to determine the contents of the other relevant PAHs in smoked meat products and liquid smokes, from which 6 compounds are proven to be carcinogenic in animal experiments.
PAHs are primarily emitted by anthropogenic activities, and although some natural and secondary sources of these contaminants are discussed, the focus of this chapter is the major primary sources to the atmosphere. We examine the thermal reactions involved in the release of PAHs, and include details of some important non-combustion sources. Section 4.2.5 looks at the study of substituted derivatives of the ‘parent’ PAHs as a tool for the identification of sources. Source apportionment techniques are important for some of the source inventory and budgetary studies discussed in Sect. 3, which examines the concepts and uncertainties inherent in studies of this kind, and assesses the importance of historical monitoring techniques in providing information on the trends in emissions of PAHs. The UK is taken as a budgetary and inventory case-study, and other national and regional approaches to source inventories and budget studies are also examined. Although primary sources of PAHs are thought to outweigh secondary sources, section four assesses the importance of environmental recycling as a secondary source of PAHs, and also looks at the balance between environmental burden and primary sources of PAHs.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) comprise a family of more than 100 compounds, some of which are known or suspected to be mutagenic and/or carcinogenic to mammals. They are lipophilic organic contaminants composed by two or more fused aromatic rings. Although virgin olive oil (VOO) should be naturally free of PAH, contamination can occur either directly during the processing in the mill or indirectly due to olive skin contamination by environmental sources. In this last situation, PAH present in dust and particles from smoke and air pollution can contaminate olives via atmospheric fallout and this superficial contamination can be transferred to the final product. Aiming to identify and evaluate the sources of PAH contamination during the processing of VOO, the influence of factors such as the environmental pollution during olive growth, contamination during olive harvesting, contamination during extraction process and environmental pollution at the olive mill site has been studied. Nine PAH have been identified and, comparing the total PAH concentration in olive oils with olive fruit surface extracted with hexane, identical values for both cases were found. This finding suggests that the contamination of olive oil is mainly from the olive skin.
