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Bases for Effective Reading
... De caráter exploratório, esta pesquisa foi realizada em turmas do terceiro e do oitavo ano do Ensino Fundamental de quatro escolas recifenses. Por meio de observação; entrevistas com professores e outros funcionários; e de análise gráfica utilizando o esquema de Twyman (1979, 2002) e de pesquisas em legibilidade tipográfica (Tinker, 1959(Tinker, ,1965Walker, 2001Walker, , 2005, o estudo procurou investigar a produção e uso dos artefatos gráficos impressos na escola. Os resultados apontam para a atuação dos docentes a partir de conhecimentos empíricos, com restrições quanto ao uso da linguagem gráfica, todavia alinhados a algumas recomendações tipográficas para os artefatos voltados ao público infantil. ...
... Os resultados apontam para a atuação dos docentes a partir de conhecimentos empíricos, com restrições quanto ao uso da linguagem gráfica, todavia alinhados a algumas recomendações tipográficas para os artefatos voltados ao público infantil. Tywman's (1979Tywman's ( , 2002 schema and researches regarding legibility of typeface (Tinker, 1959(Tinker, , 1965Walker, 2001Walker, , 2005, the study aimed to investigate the production and use of artefacts within the school environment. The results indicated that teachers use empirical knowledge, with limits regarding the use of graphic language, although aligned to some typographical recommendations for artefacts directed towards young users. ...
... Tabela 1: Recomendações para corpo, entrelinha e tamanhos máximos da coluna de texto para as faixas etárias de 6, 7 a 8 e 9. (Fonte: Tinker, 1959 Tinker (1963Tinker ( , 1965 define que a forma mais legível para conferir ênfase em um texto é por meio do uso negrito e não do itálico ou da caixa alta. Na pesquisa de 1965, o autor ainda acrescenta considerações relacionadas ao uso da caixa alta: o seu uso para adultos compromete a legibilidade, o que não acontece com leitores iniciantes. ...
Este artigo apresenta resultados da investigao intitulada Anlise dos artefatos grficos elaborados com ferramentas de TIC no Ensino Fundamental Brasileiro. De carter exploratrio, esta pesquisa foi realizada em turmas do terceiro e do oitavo ano do Ensino Fundamental de quatro escolas recifenses. Por meio de observao; entrevistas com professores e outros funcionrios; e de anlise grfica utilizando o esquema de Twyman (1979, 2002) e de pesquisas em legibilidade tipogrfica (Tinker, 1959,1965; Walker, 2001, 2005), o estudo procurou investigar a produo e uso dos artefatos grficos impressos na escola. Os resultados apontam para a atuao dos docentes a partir de conhecimentos empricos, com restries quanto ao uso da linguagem grfica, todavia alinhados a algumas recomendaes tipogrficas para os artefatos voltados ao pblico infantil.
... In his discussion of Bold as an ideal method for emphasising headings, Tinker (1966) suggests that although designers may or may not prefer certain methods of typographic emphasis, these preferences may not always be what is preferred by readers. Research conducted by Bartram (1982) found that design students perceived the semantic associations of typefaces differently to non-design students. ...
... As was the case amongst the general population, Bold was also considered the most easily identifiable of the seven heading styles. In his discussion of Bold as an ideal method for emphasising headings, Tinker (1966) suggests that although designers may prefer or not prefer certain methods of typographic emphasis, these preferences may not always be what is preferred by readers. In this study, bold was preferred by both designers and nondesigners, but their second preference differed. ...
... Word form was reported as the major cause of the poorer legibility of all-capital text. 5 The word form is more distinctive when it is set in lower-case (e.g. stopped) than when set in all-capitals (e.g. ...
... Distinctive word form facilitates reading by word units and contributes to the faster reading of lower-case type. 5 This statement was echoed in Ref. 6 that "feature discriminability rather than familiarity is the critical variable in word identification". Feature here refers to word shape features like word length, initial and final letters, internal features, and outer contour. ...
Native English speakers need more time to recognize capital letters in reading, yet the influence of capitals upon Chinese learners’ reading performance is seldom studied. We conducted an eye tracker experiment to explore the cognitive features of Chinese learners in reading texts containing capital letters. The effect of English proficiency on capital letter reading is also studied. The results showed that capitals significantly increase the cognitive load in Chinese learners’ reading process, complicate their cognitive processing, and lower their reading efficiency. The perception of capital letters of Chinese learners is found to be an isolated event and may influence the word-superiority effect. English majors, who possess relatively stronger English logical thinking capability than non-English majors, face the same difficulty as the non-English majors do if no practice of capital letter reading has been done.
... Ohne Zweifel existieren typische Textmerkmale, die das Leseverständnis fördern. In der Tradition dieses Denkansatzes stehen Forschungen zur Lesbarkeit von Texten aufgrund unterschiedlicher (typo-)graphischer Textgestaltung (Tinker, 1969) stehen hermeneutisch orientierte Stilfibeln (Reiners, 1964) und Studien zur Entwicklung brauchbarer Textverständlichkeitsformeln (Klare, 1984) oder Dimensionsanalysen zur Identifizierung von Hauptmerkmalen der Textgestaltung (Langer, Schulz von Thun & Tausch, 1990;vgl. umfassend Ballstaedt, 1997). ...
Geschichte und Konstrukt (S. 507-508) - Produkt vs. Prozess (S. 508) - Quellen von Leseverständnisvarianz (S. 508-513) - Leseverständnis bei PISA und IGLU (513-514) - Lese- und Hörverständnis (514-516) - Förderung (516-517) - Literatur (517-520).
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[History and construct (pp. 507-508) - Product vs. process (p. 508) - Sources of reading comprehension variance (pp. 508-513) - Reading comprehension in PISA and PIRLS (513-514) - Reading comprehension and listening comprehension (514-516) - Training (516-517) - References (517-520)]
... 9-12 pt type size Use a type size between 9-12 pt for the body of text (Tinker, 1965;Bernand et al., 2003;Beymer et al., 2008;Fuchs, 2008;Lonsdale, 2014). ...
Infographics are becoming a common tool in the communication of public-health information. However, research-based resources in how to create effective infographics are rare. The application of design principles in the creation of infographics has been shown to more effectively communicate information. Here, the research explores the adherence of 84 research-based infographic design principles on 3 designs of varying levels of application. A multi-method approach, including eye-tracking, was used to record information location efficiency, memorability and user perception. Support was found in favour of utilising design principles in the creation of public health infographics; resulting in improved user opinion and information location.
... In general, the mind integrates all the information collected from successive fixations and forms a stable and coherent oral representation of the text during both reading aloud and sight translation. O'Brien (1926), Tinker (1965) and Vernon (2014) agree that the size of spatial EVS has a strong correlation with the position of meaning units in a sentence. Quantz (1897) and Buswell (1920) also argued that the spatial EVS is longer at sentence-initial positions than at sentenceterminal positions. ...
This chapter examines the dynamic latency between human translators’ reading input and speaking output during reading aloud and sight translation. It aims to determine whether the temporal eye-voice span (EVS) at sentence level could work as a dynamic indicator of cognitive effort during speech processing. Thirty participants performed both the reading aloud and sight translation tasks with either English or Chinese texts. Their eye movements and speech outputs were recorded by an eye-tracker and an audio recorder, respectively. EVS at sentence-initial and sentence-terminal positions in the reading aloud and sight translation tasks were analyzed. The results show that the lengths of both sentence-initial and sentence-terminal EVS in sight translation tasks are significantly longer than those in reading aloud tasks. This is in line with the total gaze fixation duration and fixation count results, which are closely related to cognitive effort. Further correlation tests show that both initial and terminal EVS yield a positive although weak correlation with the fixation indexes in the sight translation tasks, while discrepant results emerge in the reading aloud tasks. Hence, we suggest that temporal EVS can be used to discriminate different types of reading-speaking tasks and has the potential to serve as a dynamic indicator of cognitive effort during sight translation.
... The percentage of regression was computed by dividing the number of regressive fixations by the total number of fixations. These values are comparable to other studies (Tinker, 1965). For the individual difference analyses, a RFI was calculated by dividing the number of regressive fixations by the number of fixations that were preceded and succeeded by a right going saccade. ...
... His initial work followed the road his doctoral advisor Dean Carl Seashore sent him down at the time of their first meeting. To understand the direction his academic travels took him, one must realize that many of the psychologists and educators with interest in the process and pedagogy of reading and learning held a strong interest in research on eye movement, perceptual span, reading rate, and comprehension with applied possibilities for the improvement of reading pedagogy (see Leedy, 1958;Taylor, 1937;Tinker, 1965). Much later Robinson (1971) noted the influence of this research track upon his early research endeavors. ...
This manuscript is an examination of a life well lived with the professional contributions of a leader who served across the fields of educational psychology, counseling, and literacy. Francis P. Robinson was a pioneer in the development of postsecondary literacy theory, research, and pedagogy. Although he is most widely known for what is perhaps the best-known textbook study strategy in the world, SQ3R, his contributions to the field of reading and learning strategy research and praxis have gone well beyond the influence of SQ3R.
... The use of eye tracking technology to study reading has roots in early work on physical movements of the eyes during reading, e.g., [1][2][3][4][5], as well as on the properties of the perceptual span, which refers to the area of visual acuity within a single fixation, e.g., [6,7]. Subsequent work focused on how studying individuals' eye movements during reading can provide information about underlying processes, such as those involved in word recognition, semantic access, syntactic parsing, and higher level comprehension. ...
The majority of eye tracking studies in reading are on issues dealing with word level or sentence level comprehension. By comparison, relatively few eye tracking studies of reading examine questions related to higher level comprehension in processing of longer texts. We present data from an eye tracking study of anaphor resolution in order to examine specific issues related to this discourse phenomenon and to raise more general methodological and theoretical issues in eye tracking studies of discourse processing. This includes matters related to the design of materials as well as the interpretation of measures with regard to underlying comprehension processes. In addition, we provide several examples from eye tracking studies of discourse to demonstrate the kinds of questions that may be addressed with this methodology, particularly with respect to the temporality of processing in higher level comprehension and how such questions correspond to recent theoretical arguments in the field.
... Es gibt eine Reihe von Textmerkmalen, die sich begünstigend oder erschwerend auf das Textverständnis auswirken (Ballstaedt, 1997;Klare, 1984;Langer, Schulz von Thun & Tausch, 1990;Rost, 2001;Tinker, 1969 Diese Textmerkmale wirken sich unabhängig vom Gegenstandsbereich positiv auf das Textverständnis aus (Rost, 2001). Groeben (1978Groeben ( , 1982 (Clark, 1993;Schnotz, 2001 (Lesgold & Perfetti, 1981;Rost, 2001 Leseerfahrungen (B. ...
In der Literatur werden zwar zahlreiche Einflussfaktoren von Leseaktivitäten und Leseverständnis beschrieben, jedoch fehlt eine systematische Untersu- chung der Kombination verschiedener Wirkfaktoren. Um das komplexe Bedin- gungsgefüge von Lesekompetenz bei Erwachsenen und Kindern genauer zu untersuchen, werden drei Studien durchgeführt. Es werden kausale Modelle entwickelt, die die Effekte von individuellen Faktoren und Sozialisationsfaktoren integrieren. Anhand von Strukturgleichungsmodellen wird die Gültigkeit dieser Modelle überprüft. Sowohl für Erwachsene als auch für Kinder zeigt sich ein beträchtlicher Einfluss von freiwilligen Leseaktivitäten auf das Leseverständnis. Freiwillige Leseaktivitäten werden stark beeinflusst von der intrinsischen Lese- motivation, die wiederum begünstigt wird durch ein positives Leseselbstkon- zept. Dabei erweisen sich das Leseselbstkonzept, die intrinsische Lesemotiva- tion und freiwillige Leseaktivitäten als unabhängig von der Intelligenz. Als zen- trale Einflussvariable von Lesekompetenz ist die Ausbildung anzusehen. Bei Erwachsenen gehen mit steigender Ausbildung ein besseres Leseselbstkonzept und ein höherer Berufsstatus einher, die wiederum häufigere Lese- und Schreibaktivitäten in der Freizeit und bei der Arbeit zur Folge haben und das Leseverständnis begünstigen. Eine gute Ausbildung wirkt sich auch positiv auf die Förderung ihrer Kinder aus. Je höher die Ausbildung der Eltern, desto häu- figer beschäftigen sie sich mit ihren Kindern in Form von gemeinsamen sprach- lichen Aktivitäten im frühen Kindesalter, desto günstiger ist das familiäre Lese- klima und desto stärker ist die Vorbildfunktion der Mütter hinsichtlich freiwilliger Leseaktivitäten. Diese Förderung erfolgt unabhängig von der Intelligenz der Kinder und wirkt sich positiv auf Selbstkonzept, Motivation, Leseaktivitäten und Leseverständnis aus. Es werden also schon in der frühen Kindheit Unter- schiede in der Lesekompetenz angelegt, die sich bis in das hohe Erwachse- nenalter hinein vergrössern und von Generation zu Generation weitergegeben werden. Die in der Literatur beschriebenen Einzelbefunde zur Lesekompetenz finden in einem komplexen Bedingungsgefüge Bestätigung. Zudem werden neue Wirkungswege aufgezeigt, aus denen Ansätze für Fördermassnahmen abgeleitet werden. Schlagwörter: Lesekompetenz, Literalität, Leseverständnis, Leseaktivitäten, Lesesozialisation, Lesemotivation, Leseselbstkonzept, Leseklima, Lesefähig- keiten, Lesetätigkeiten, Lesen, Kulturelles Kapital, Strukturgleichungsmodelle Though in the literature numerous influencing factors of reading activities and reading comprehension are described, however, a systematic investigation of the combination of different influencing factors is absent. To examine more detailed the complex causal structure of reading literacy in adults and children, three studies are conducted. Causal models are developed which integrate the effects of individual factors and socialisation factors. On the basis of structural equation modeling the validity of these models is investigated. For adults as well as for children a substantial influence of voluntary reading activities on reading comprehension is evidenced. Voluntary reading activities are strongly influenced by intrinsic reading motivation which is favoured by a positive reading self-concept. Reading self-concept, intrinsic reading motivation and voluntary reading engagement turn out to be independent of intelligence. As a key variable of influence for the development of reading literacy education emerges. The higher the education in adults, the better their reading self- concept and the higher their occupational status, which entail higher frequencies of reading and writing activities in leisure time and at work and promote reading comprehension. Good education also shows a positive effect on the support of their children in terms of common language activities in early childhood, a favourable family reading climate and the exemplary function of mothers’ voluntary reading activities. This support occurs regardless of the intelligence of the children and affects positively reading self-concept, reading motivation, reading activities and reading comprehension. Thus differences in reading literacy emerge quite early, increase in the course of life till late adulthood and are transmitted from generation to generation. The single findings about reading literacy described in the literature find confirmation in complex causal models. Besides, new pathways of effects are indicated from which support measures are derived. Keywords: Literacy, reading literacy, reading skills, reading comprehension, reading activities, reading engagement, reading socialization, reading motivation, reading self-concept, reading, cultural capital, structural equation modelling
... However, written with lower-case letters words look quite different. All-capital printing has been shown to markedly reduce the speed of reading [27], [31]. Güneş [14] indicates that our eyes are more familiar with small letters. ...
The aim of this research is to examine the speed of reading the uppercase and lowercase texts of primary school students. This research is the survey of quantitative research methods. The survey population of the research is the primary school students who are educated in the primary schools in the Sorgun district of Yozgat province. Cluster sampling used for sampling. The sample primary school students’ number is 732. As a means of collecting data, a text was used from the textbook. The data were collected in three primary schools in the Sorgun district of Yozgat province in March 2018. The number of words a pupil reads in a minute is noted. Reading speed of text written with lower case letters is more than reading speed of text written with capital letters at all grade levels. The scores varied for the capital letters and lower case letters. At an alpha of .05, the analysis indicated a statistically significant difference among reading rate of the capital letters and lower case letters, (t=23.13, p<.01), effect size .28 SD. The speed of reading lowercase letters text is 13% higher than the speed of reading capital letters character text. The text with lower case letter reading aloud score significantly higher mean scores than text with capital letter reading aloud score (λ=.278; F= 92,536; p<.001; η2=.70. Secondary school students’ reading aloud text with lower case letter score significantly higher than primary school students’ aloud reading speed text with capital letters (p<.001). Suggestions were made within the scope of the research results.
... Text Ohne Zweifel existieren Textmerkmale, die Leseverständnis fördern. In der Tradition dieses Ansatzes stehen Forschungen zur Lesbarkeit von Texten aufgrund unterschiedlicher (typo-)grafischer Textgestaltung (Tinker, 1965), hermeneutisch orientierte Stilfibeln (Reiners, 2015) und Studien zur Entwicklung brauchbarer Textverständlichkeitsformeln (Klare, 1984) (Rost, 1985) sowie umfangreiche empirische Untersuchungen (Bos , Lankes et al., 2003;Zwick, 1987;Rost, 1989Rost, , 1993Lietz, 1996;Wauters, 2005) belegen jedoch, dass die postulierten Subfähigkeiten diagnostisch kaum zu isolieren sind (vgl. Alderson, 2005, 97), wahrscheinlich auch nicht in relativ frühen Stadien des Lesenlernens (Õ Lesenlernen). ...
Inhalt:
1 Geschichte und Konstrukt - 2 Produkt und Prozess - 3 Quellen von Leseverstädnisvarianz - 4 Leseverständnis bei PISA und IGLU - 5 Lese- und Hörverständnis - 6 Leseverständnisförderung
... 1930'lu yıllarda okuma hızı ile ilgili çalışmalar başlatılmış ve yazı tipi, karakter boyutu ve sayfa düzeni gibi faktörlerin okuma hızı üzerindeki etkileri incelenmiştir (Tinker, 1965). Yirminci yüzyılın ilk yarısında kornea yansıması ve hareketli resimlerin kullanılması ile birlikte göz izleme çalışmalarında önemli gelişmeler kaydedilmiştir. ...
... Entendida como la claridad visual de un texto depende del tamaño, tipo de letra, contraste, bloques de texto y espaciado. Para el texto impreso las investigaciones empíricas sobre legibilidad (Miles, 1965) recomiendan un estándar de entre 9 y 12 puntos considerando los tamaños más pequeños aceptables si se limitan a notas. En cuanto al tipo de letra es indiferente el uso de tipografías con remates o sin remates siempre que se trate de soportes con alta resolución en el caso de baja resolución (actualmente a excepción de las pantallas retina podemos considerar que se tratan de baja resolución) las tipografías sin remates y la sangría del texto mejoran la claridad. ...
El nuevo uso social de internet permite desempeñar un papel importante en el flujo continuo de información, reforzando no sólo la participación, sino además el conocimiento directo, las fuentes alternativas y la comunicación en las redes sociales; en este contexto, una de las tendencias actuales es la distribución libre de los contenidos educativos; “The Peer 2 Peer University” (P2PU), es uno de los casos que reflejan esta realidad.
Queremos aprovechar esta tendencia para distribuir contenidos educativos y nuestra idea, desde el inicio, nace de la receptividad de la educación y los esfuerzos de los programas académicos para llevar la práctica curricular al aprendizaje en línea, a través de una comunidad con acceso libre y abierto a la participación. Queremos ofrecer información libre y accesible para los estudiantes o cualquier persona interesada en ellos.
Esta colección no pretende competir con otras propuestas editoriales ni con los esfuerzos realizados por diversos docentes alrededor del globo terráqueo, los cuales hacen ya un uso acertado de las diferentes herramientas web 2.0 para distribuir el aprendizaje. Es un emprendimiento conjunto entre dos universidades que ha creado un espacio abierto al mundo académico en general.
... Finally, an additional factor worth consideration is that the scrolling format necessarily strips the text of informative navigational 'landmarks' such as paragraph breaks. These cues may help readers to organise the information they are receiving from the text, aiding in the identification of structurally central concepts (Tinker, 1965); a key process in successful text comprehension (van den Broek, Mouw, & Kraal, 2016). The importance of this information in reading text can be supported by findings that readers are able to use this information to recall the position of information on a page for when asked to revisit it (Christie & Just, 1976;Rothkopf, 1971;Zechmeister & McKillip, 1972), and, furthermore, that removal of such information has been found to reduce reading speed (Paterson & Tinker, 1940). ...
The horizontally scrolling format, where text is presented in a single line drifting right to left, is relatively commonly used to display text on digital screens. This format presents a potentially challenging reading situation, as the text must be followed smoothly to the left (to track individual words) whilst rightward eye-movements are made as usual to progress through the text. This conflict may reduce attention allocated to upcoming text. Returning to previously encountered text is also more difficult with this format. Here, a sustained reading comprehension task was used to compare performance with horizontally scrolling and multiline static text formats. Results showed that literal comprehension can be reasonably well-maintained with scrolling text, although small decrements are seen at faster scrolling rates. However, they indicated that this format makes it more difficult to answer questions requiring an inference to be made. The contribution of working memory capacity and the impact of display speed on these effects was considered. These findings have implications for the application of this format in digital media, and also more widely for the conditions required for successful in-depth reading comprehension with any text format.
... While the results of such studies may, in fact, be valid for VDTs as well, there is reason to be cautious in making the generalization. For example, it has been shown that reader preferences for fonts in printed materials are quite consistent (Misanchuk, 1989a;Tinker, 1963Tinker, , 1965. However, users prefer quite different fonts on computer screens than they do on paper (Misanchuk, 1989c). ...
... While the results of such studies may, in fact, be valid for VDTs as well, there is reason to be cautious in making the generalization. For example, it has been shown that reader preferences for fonts in printed materials are quite consistent (Misanchuk, 1989a;Tinker, 1963Tinker, , 1965. However, users prefer quite different fonts on computer screens than they do on paper (Misanchuk, 1989c). ...
... In such contexts, letter identification may be marginally slowed down but this may not be deleterious. Words in bold may also be perceptually more salient, described by Tinker (1965) as having greater visibility. The degree of overlap between letters in different fonts (a measure of physical differences) has been investigated but no clear correlation found between amount of overlap and accuracy of letter identification (Sanocki 1991b). ...
Text designers are likely to benefit from guidance on how to use typographic differentiation for emphasis. Three experiments use purposely-designed fonts to explore the size and nature of differences in the stylistic characteristics of fonts (weight, width, contrast, italic) which affect letter identification. Results indicate that words set in bold and expanded fonts, when alternated with words set in a Neutral test font, may impair performance, whereas changing to italic does not. Possible explanations are explored through measuring the physical and perceptual similarities of the test fonts.
... The total driving (or reading) process cannot be separated from the essential shift system that changes dynamically according to the driver's (or reader's) purpose and the level of difficulty of the road (or text). These facts have been amply demonstrated in empirical research on the reading process (e.g., Gray, 1917;Judd & Buswell, 1922;Buswell, 1926;Tinker, 1965;Postman & Senders, 1946;Rickards & August, 1975). ...
The article examines the cognitive prerequisites for the acquisition of reading skills and identifies two kinds of conceptual representations of language activities: functional concepts and technical concepts. In addition, specific reference is made to ESL students and reading in order to point out what they should know about reading and what their instructors should determine before working with them on reading.
... The main characteristics of legible typefaces are increased x-height and stressed counter shape (Weisenmiller, 1999;Wheildon, 2005;Mo zina et al., 2010). Furthermore, important factors include the form of letters, the thickness of strokes and white spaces (Tinker, 1966;Reynolds, 1988;Lund, 1999;Shaikh et al., 2006). ...
Daily contents presented on television screen are in most cases equipped with titles, for example the names and surnames of presented people, data about the location, subtitles or different advertisements. It is widely believed that upper-case letters are more useful (compared to lower-case letters) for placing short titles. The aim of the research was to determine the differences in recognition and reproduction times of short titles in various experimental conditions (especially the difference between lower- and upper-case letters when the x-height of lower-case letters is increased to the main size of upper-case letters). We were interested in how lower-case letters are comparable to upper-case letters in recognition and information processing. Five typefaces were included in the experiment, i.e. Calibri, Georgia, Swiss 721, Trebuchet and Verdana. Three-letter words were presented in lower- and upper-case, covering a comparable area in four different positions on the screen. The analysis of variance showed that the Calibri typeface was recognized and processed faster. The Georgia, Trebuchet and Verdana typefaces showed comparable processing times regardless their letter case.
... A large part of information available in our everyday lives is brought to us with the use of typography, which is why special emphasis on understanding typography is needed (Van Leeuwen 2005). The knowledge about the recommended layout and use of typefaces in books, magazines, newspapers and printed advertisements is well developed (Tinker 1963;Gonzales-Crisp 2005;Kim et al. 2014). However, in the field of the most frequently used mediumtelevisionthe debate is mainly about the layout design (Cooke 2005) and much less about typography. ...
In television broadcasting, there are no general rules about the implementation of various short inscriptions that accompany video image and provide additional information for the viewer. Therefore, we wanted to study what combination of typeface, letter case and position should be used for an on-screen presentation when fast recognition of a text is required. The present study investigated the minimum time required for recognising three-letter words presented in bold style on the screen in different experimental conditions. The typeface Georgia showed better legibility than Verdana, Calibri, Trebuchet and Swiss 721. Upper case letters were recognised faster compared to sentence and lower case letters. The recognition times were shorter for upper on-screen positions compared to the lower ones. The resulting combinations of text properties that are processed faster thus seem more appropriate for the on-screen use (especially for television broadcasts).
... Suitable line spacing has been found to be a key factor, to ensuring, that the eye remained on the line being read, while finding the next line with ease (Burt, 1959). Suitable line length is an influential decision, to reduce fatiguing of the eye during reading, and again, to ease finding the next line (Dyson & Kipping, 1998;Tinker, 1965;Watts & Nisbet, 1974). Word spacing is recognized as a central concern, to enable the eye to effectively differentiate words with ease during peripheral information processing and saccadic programming (Epelboim, Booth, Ashkenazy, Taleghani, & Steinman, 1997;Rayner, 1998;Rayner, Fischer, & Pollatsek, 1998). ...
Increasingly children's educational reading material is presented in a screen-based environment. This includes a range of interactive learning tools, interactive whiteboards, on-line standardized testing material, digital books including CD-ROMs and E-Books, as well as digital reference books such as encyclopedia and dictionary. With this increase in on-screen educational reading material and use of on-screen reading material in the school, it seems clear that the quality of material intended for children's on-screen reading requires careful consideration to ensure that it is of a high standard and that it will facilitate children's learning. This investigation case study's digital books intended for learning through reading as found to be available to students of New Zealand Primary Schools. The writer analyses a selection of the products of the two publishers that were found available to primary and intermediate school children at two different schools in two different socio-economic school regions. The writer outlines specific consideration of typographic presentation with respect to eye movements that will aid in the development of material for children's on-screen learning including CD-ROM, EBook, and web-based reading material.
... В 1965 году Тинкер выпусил монографию «Основы эффективного чтения» [108], где собрал результаты всех своих предыдущих исследований чтения. Кроме приведенных выше результатов, в книге содержатся данные после проведения серии экспериментов с тестами на скорость чтения взрослыми читателями. ...
В монографии приведен обзор основных исследований, касающихся процесса чтения, зрения
человека применительно к процессу чтения, вопросов разборчивости и читабельности текстов, а так-
же некоторых санитарно-гигиенических норм чтения с бумажных и цифровых носителей. Проведен
анализ данных, полученных в ходе различных исследований. Обнаружено наличие противоречий в
результатах некоторых исследований и предложены пути разрешения данной проблемы.
Книга рассчитана на широкий круг читателей, интересующихся вопросами восприятия инфор-
мации на естественных языках. Монография может быть использована при изучении учебных курсов
«Психология ощущения и восприятия», «Психология обработки сенсорной информации», «Методы и
средства научных исследований», «Типографика и макетирование».
Автор выражает глубокую признательность научному редактору А. Г. Тягунову и научным
консультантам А. П. Сергееву и Ж. Е. Ибраевой, оказавшим значительную помощь при подготовке
материалов к изданию.
Over the years, numerous speed-reading technologies have proposed ways for people to improve their reading speed and efficiency. The current study empirically tested Bionic Reading’s claims that bolding the first half of words provides an optimal location for the eyes to land and is enough to process the entire word. Participants read paragraphs in five bolding conditions to see how reading patterns and eye movements were impacted. Bionic Reading’s claims were not supported by this study, as bolding the first half of every word did not facilitate reading relative to bolding the middle half or last half of every word and, in fact, led to costs relative to regular unbolded reading. Additionally, visual access to only the first few letters was not enough to recognize whole words. The differential effects of bolding were also explored across different individual difference measures, but Bionic Reading was not found to be beneficial for any specific population on reading speed or in eye movement measures.
The tendency to respond more rapidly to a familiar than to an unfamiliar stimulus was studied in 3 experiments. In Exp I 18 paid undergraduates responded faster to familiar letters (upright) than to unfamiliar letters (inverted) when the 2 stimulus types were presented in random order. Results are interpreted in terms of the effects of processing strategy changes. Exp II compared the responding of 10 native Japanese and 10 American paid students to Japanese and English letters. American Ss responded faster to English letters, and Japanese Ss responded faster to Japanese letters. This familiarity effect was obtained even when stimulus presentation was organized by letter type and Ss knew which letter type to expect. Exp III with 8 American undergraduates compared English and Japanese letters in a memory search task. The rate of search for Japanese letters was slower than for English letters. However, no zero-intercept difference was obtained. The evidence indicates that familiarity does not affect an initial encoding process, but it can affect a comparison process.
Infographics are commonly used in public health to disseminate key messages to wide audiences. Although health organisations are making increasing use of infographics, their designs are of variable quality. The research reported here aimed to develop an educational tool that could improve public health infographic design, using motion graphics to teach users with limited design experience how to apply research-based design principles. Results were positive, with significant improvements in performance (including information location time, memorability, and user perception) observed for the infographics designed after the resource was used, compared to the infographics created before.
O conceito da legibilidade est cercado de confuso e ambiguidade. Isso gera todo tipo de problema, incluindo brechas na interpretao da legislao brasileira sobre como devem ser feitas as receitas mdicas. A lei diz que proibido ao mdico fazer receitas ilegveis. Mas mesmo entre os estudiosos no h consenso sobre o que algo legvel. A definio desse termo ainda polmica e usa palavras subjetivas como fcil, diferente e acostumado, que no deixam claro o seu significado. Mas no s a definio de legibilidade que sofre de inconsistncia. Muitas pesquisas que tentaram mensur-la de forma objetiva tambm tem provocado debate, pois sofrem pela falta de validade ecolgica, ou seja, seus resultados no se aplicam em condies reais de leitura. Logo, a palavra legvel, usada na legislao de sade, no clara o suficiente para evitar confuso e no ajuda os mdicos a avaliarem se suas receitas se enquadram dentro do esperado, para garantir a segurana dos pacientes. [ Download ]
Improvements in the 1997 revision of the ANSI Z535.4 Product Safety Signs and Labels standard were based largely on human factors considerations. The design guidelines for safety messages have been revised, affecting their content, order, grammatical style, and physical appearance. There are also revisions concerning the signal word panel, the use of pictorials, and multi-lingual, and multi-hazard warnings. Warnings designed according to the revised criteria are expected to be more recognizable, legible, readable, and understandable, and therefore, more effective. This paper explains the revisions of interest and the role of human factors in the standard's evolution. Potential liability issues related to the standard and suggestions regarding future revisions are also discussed.
Closed circuit television is widely used in industry for surveillance, inspection or to enable tasks to be carried out remotely because restricted space or a hazardous environment prevents man-access. Two drawbacks are (i) that cathode ray tube (CRT) displays generate an intermittently illuminated image which often appears to flicker, (ii) that with a single camera scene depth may be poorly reproduced. In book 1 guide-lines are presented for minimising display flicker. Previous research also suggests intermittent illumination may disrupt eye movements, making saccades overshoot at 50Hz but less so at higher display field rates. A proportion of saccades may be followed by corrective saccades whose almost inevitable latency may lead to a measurable difference in performance; a visually demanding task may be accomplished more quickly and possibly more accurately with a display field rate greater than 50Hz. However in this study, for visual search and reading tasks, performance was largely unaffected by display field rate. In further experiments eye movements were recorded and the distribution of saccades and fixations analysed. Saccadic overshoots followed by corrective saccades were relatively rare, but there was evidence that saccades were enlarged at 50Hz with respect to the same display at 100Hz. The lack of corrective saccades probably explained why performance was largely unaffected. In book 2 depth cues in human vision and their transmission by closed circuit television are discussed. The principles of stereoscopic television systems built by UKAEA Harwell Laboratory to improve depth perception are described. As earlier experiments have been largely equivocal about the advantages 3D TV, two new evaluations were performed, based on real applications, attempting to avoid previous pitfalls. In the first, aligning a steel plate with a rack was accomplished 17% faster with 3D TV. However in the second, little difference was found in the accuracy with which a manipulator could be positioned. This was probably due to the poor control system of the robot rather than insufficient visual feedback. Videotapes indicated a single 3D view was sufficient for both tasks.
The academic literature on reading is largely of a technical nature, most of it having to do with learning.
The degree and type of reading that are done, however, and the motivations and purposes that underpin actual usage, remain less studied.
Yet it could be argued that, once some basic fluency has been established, these factors – which we could put under the general rubric of the social psychology of reading – assume central importance. This chapter summarizes some of the relevant work in the field. Some is narrowly empirical but most involves medium- to large-scale survey approaches.
The chapter concludes by suggesting some fruitful lines for future research.
The effects of manipulating discrete element error types and font types were determined on a reading performance task using a plasma panel display. Thirty male and 30 female college students attending Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University participated as subjects. The results demonstrate that reading performance is significantly degraded by the random addition or removal of discrete elements or lines of elements. Subjects made more errors with lower case characters than with upper case characters. Similarly, more errors were also made in the discrete element failure condition than with horizontal line or vertical line failure. The Huddleston font was found to be better than the Lincoln-Mitre and the font used on the HP2621A.
The relative legibility of a telephone directory that used horizontally compressed print was determined in comparison to one that did not use compression but was otherwise identical, by measuring the speed and accuracy with which present and absent targets could be searched by college students (20) and senior citizens (9). The compressed print significantly increased response times, more markedly for senior citizens. Error rates were not significantly different. The data also showed that compression decreased legibility for phone numbers more than for names, and this effect was more pronounced for the aged.
Useful guidelines on writing well have been available for more than fifty years (e.g. Fowler, 1926). Yet many legal documents are a lexical steeplechase, in which intrepid readers surmount the hurdles of archaic terms only to stumble at the lengthy waterjumps of qualifying clauses packed end to end against each other. Such language inevitably restricts people’s access to information. Moreover this style of language has been copied by many organisations dealing with the general public. The following example, from form SA101 issued by the Department of National Savings, is currently available in British post offices (January 1979). Paragraph to of the form explains what happens to those who join the Save as you Earn Scheme but die before making the full sixty payments:
If repayment is made on or after the first anniversary of the starting date there shall be payable —
(a) the total amount of the revalued contributions each contribution being revalued to reflect the difference between the Index figure applicable to the month beginning with the date following the due date of that contribution or, in the case of the first contribution, between the Index figure applicable to the month in which the starting date falls and the Index figure applicable to the month of repayment; or …
Can many readers understand this without a struggle? Does the difficulty of such language restrict the number of people willing to join the scheme?
The academic literature on reading is largely of a technical nature, most of it having to do with learning.
The degree and type of reading that are done, however, and the motivations and purposes that underpin actual usage, remain less studied.
Yet it could be argued that, once some basic fluency has been established, these factors – which we could put under the general rubric of the social psychology of reading – assume central importance. This chapter summarizes some of the relevant work in the field. Some is narrowly empirical but most involves medium- to large-scale survey approaches.
The chapter concludes by suggesting some fruitful lines for future research.
Most of the research into reading eye movements has been concerned with making accurate observations of readers carrying out unusual tasks under restrictive conditions. However, the applicability of such findings to normal reading is limited, and has precluded investigation of strategies employed by skilled silent readers, which recent emphasis on flexibility in reading necessitate.
This paper describes apparatus devised by the writer for studying styles and strategies used by skilled readers under normal conditions. It also reviews three studies where the method was used to investigate location of information in books. In addition, a correlational analysis is given that relates performance on this task to scores on several tests.
It is concluded that more work needs to be done in observing readers’ purposeful use of texts, and that the neglect of this area may be due not only to methodological problems, but also to lack of knowledge about how adults read.
Early studies of eye movements in reading appear to have been motivated by the belief that this topic provided an opportunity to observe the less accessible mental behaviour which is part of reading and thinking. “To completely analyse what we do when we read would almost be the acme of a psychologist’s achievements, for it would be to describe very many of the most intricate workings of the human mind….” said Huey (1908, p. 6) in reviewing the early work. Reviews by later writers (Vernon, 1931; Carmichael & Dearborn, 1948; Tinker, 1965) show that eye movement research has also concerned itself with applied fields, notably legibility, but an attempt to “understand what we do when we read” has nevertheless continued. Some important work in eye movement research (Yarbus, 1967; Ditchburn, 1973) has avoided reading as a topic, however, and it appears that our knowledge of the processes involved in reading has not increased markedly, despite the research. For example, Geyer (1972) concluded from his review of 48 models of the reading process, that we have insufficient understanding to be able to apply most of the models to normal reading.
Eye guidance in reading and control of fixation durations are discussed and relevant data reviewed. It is concluded that the location of fixations in reading is determined in a nonrandom manner and that fixation durations are affected by cognitive activities occurring during the fixation. Recent experiments on the integration of information across successive saccades are described. These experiments suggest that I) eye movements per se are not necessary for integration since similar patterns of results were obtained when subjects made eye movements and when the saccade was simulated; 2) attentional allocation is tied to the direction of an eye movement; and 2) purely visual information obtained from parafoveal vision is not overlapped with visual information in foveal vision after the saccade. On the basis of the data and experiments reviewed, a tentative processmonitoring view of eye movements in reading is proposed.
Saccadic eye movements during reading generally extend about 8 character spaces (or 2 deg of visual angle), while the mean duration of the fixational pauses separating each saccade is 200–250 msec. However, there is a great deal of variability in both these eye movement characteristics so that the range of saccades is often 1 to 20 character spaces and the mean fixation duration is from 100 to over 500 msec (Rayner & McConkie, 1976). Recently, there have been a large number of studies utilizing eye movement data as dependent variables in attempts to understand the reading process (see Rayner, 1978a, for a review.)
Perhaps as much as any other natural human activity, reading is a very complex process. Those of us who take an analytic attitude toward reading tend to think of it as a process that emerges from several simpler component information processing activities. We speak of the processes that control the movements of the eyes, guiding them to the the successive points of fixation in the text, and of the processes of letter and word identification. Some researchers stress the importance of phonological encoding processes, and syntactic processes are obviously important. Finally, we speak of the semantic processes that result in the comprehension of what is read, integrating the incoming information with information already stored in the reader’s memory. An analytic approach may be necessary if we are to make progress toward an understanding of the reading process. At the same time, however, we should not lose sight of the fact that reading is not merely the concatenation of the components into which we divide it for the sake of analysis. In the fluent reader, it is clear that the components are all highly interdependent (Rumelhart, 1977).
An acceptable definition of reading would necessarily be broad enough to include many processes: perceiving, comprehending, remembering, and even making inferences. These cognitive processes would be accompanied by other processes which might be said to serve them such as orienting the head, fixating and moving the eyes, and articulating subvocally. Learning to read, therefore, involves more than perceptual learning. Nevertheless, perception is propaedeutic to any other process involved in reading. The information on the printed page must be extracted; it is embodied in the printed stimulus and can only be picked up by perceptual processes. These processes vary tremendously in efficiency: in skill of discrimination; in the way the page is scanned; in the size of the unit extracted; and in flexibility of attention. Perceptual learning takes place in improving these skills and will thus be stressed. Since reading requires extraction of information from visual displays, visual perception will be considered primarily, but phonologic aspects of words and larger speech units must be related to corresponding visual units and will be considered briefly.
Der Rezipient (Adressat einer verbalen, nonverbalen, auditiven, visuellen oder audiovisuellen Kommunikation) stand in den ersten Jahrhunderten der Mediengeschichte kaum im Blickpunkt. Fragen, wie und warum Medien genutzt werden, beschäftigten die Zeitungswissenschaft nicht in dem Maße; das Interesse konzentrierte sich nahezu ausschließlich auf die Tätigkeit und Persönlichkeit der Journalisten, die über die Jahrhunderte Anlaß zu vielen kritischen Betrachtungen gaben. Auch nach dem Entstehen der Massenpresse und der völligen Kommerzialisierung des Zeitungswesens im 19. Jahrhundert verwandten die Medienunternehmen, entsprechend der noch wenig ausgeprägten Marktforschung, zunächst kaum Initiativen auf die Erforschung ihrer Lesermärkte, und die Zeitungswissenschaft begnügte sich mit allgemeinen Betrachtungen. So stellte 1905 Egger unter dem Titel »Presse und Publikum« einen »Ratgeber zur Vermeidung von Ungelegenheiten und Prozessen« vor; 1911 ventilierte Engel über die »Psychologie des Zeitungslesers«, 1914 folgte Posse, der sich mit dem Thema »Zeitung, Publikum und öffentliche Meinung« befaßte, und 1930 veröffentlichte Peters die »Grundlegung einer Soziologie« des Zeitungspublikums.1 Erst während des totalitären NS-Regimes rückten in Deutschland die Rezipienten stärker in das Interesse der Medienforschung. Eine der ersten Studien zur Mediennutzung war die Studie »Publizistik im Dorf« von Schmidt (1939), der die Bewohner eines thüringischen Dorfes befragte, um »alle einwirkenden Faktoren, die zu einer Meinungsbildung und Meinungspflege beitragen«, herauszufinden. — In den 60er Jahren fand die Forschung eine Fortsetzung ansatzweise in gemeindesoziologischen Studien. Die ergiebigsten Resultate lieferte Rink 1963 in seiner Dissertation »Zeitung und Gemeinde«. Eine weitere Studie war 1973 die von Kluthe über das »Kommunikationsverhalten von Lokalzeitungslesern», untersucht bei den Lesern der »Werra-Rundschau« in Eschwege. Daneben gab es bereits seit den 50er Jahren statistische Erhebungen über die Leseinteressen von Tageszeitungslesern2 Eine ausgeprägte Präferenz für lokale Informationen wurde in den Befragungen festgestellt.
Introduction Responding to Self-Administered Questionnaires: A Conceptualization Principles for Designing Self-Administered Questionnaires Questionnaires Conclusion Acknowledgments
A vitally important part of any research activity is the dissemination of results to other research workers, to students, and to those in a position to implement the findings in a practical way. This dissemination process can take place in a number of ways, but in most cases some kind of visual presentation of all or part of the information is necessary. Printed material, in the form of journal articles, reports and books, is perhaps the most commonly used medium for publicizing research results, and here the presentation is entirely visual. At conferences, visual aids such as slides are used as an essential complement to the spoken word. More recently posters have begun to become popular as a means of presenting summaries of research results. In all three cases, the quality of the visual presentation will affect the ease with which potential users of the results are able to read, understand and remember the information given.
Display units designed for the transfer of alphanumeric information may be found to be quite different in quality. Badly designed units are not read easily and cause visual fatigue when used in long and intensive sessions. This has already received some attention (e.g., Grandjean, 1980; Padmos, this volume; Cakir, Renter, Schmude, & Ambruster, 1978; Cakir, Hart, & Stewart, 1979; Matula, 1981). It became apparent that it was important to match the physical parameters of the displays to the demands of the visual system. However, visual fatigue is known to be very difficult to measure and, consequently, is not an obvious design criterion. Looking for a more adequate measure, therefore, we surveyed other criteria based on two different angles of approach. The most direct candidate is the comfort with which a subject feels he can read the information on the screen. In principle this can be measured at least ordinally by psychometric methods. Another line of approach is the speed at which information is taken in, as reflected by performance measures like reading speed or by eye movement characteristics such as saccadic length and fixation duration.
Origins and Early RecommendationsTwo Models of LegibilityDevelopmental Typeface TestingThe Dine Fonts and the Formative Stage of ResearchThe Sylexiad Fonts and the Summative Stage of ResearchFindings and AnalysisApplications and UsesReferences
This paper presents a schema that attempts to embrace all graphic language. The essence of the schema is shown in a matrix which presents a number of theoretical possibilities in terms of approaches to graphic language. One axis of the matrix describes the methods of configuration of graphic language, using such terms as pure linear, linear interrupted, list, linear branching, matrix, non-linear directed, non-linear open. The other axis describes the modes of symbolization of graphic language, using four somewhat crude categories: verbal/numerical, pictorial and verbal/numerical, pictorial, schematic. Numerous, examples are shown to clarify terms and the underlying concepts they describe. It is emphasized that the matrix is a device for directing thinking, rather than a means of defining graphic language.
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