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The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition
Abstract
This study investigated the impact of nature experience on affect and cognition. We randomly assigned sixty participants to a 50-min walk in either a natural or an urban environment in and around Stanford, California. Before and after their walk, participants completed a series of psychological assessments of affective and cognitive functioning. Compared to the urban walk, the nature walk resulted in affective benefits (decreased anxiety, rumination, and negative affect, and preservation of positive affect) as well as cognitive benefits (increased working memory performance). This study extends previous research by demonstrating additional benefits of nature experience on affect and cognition through assessments of anxiety, rumination, and a complex measure of working memory (operation span task). These findings further our understanding of the influence of relatively brief nature experiences on affect and cognition, and help to lay the foundation for future research on the mechanisms underlying these effects.
Available here: http://authors.elsevier.com/a/1QdlwcUG4~B3U
... Literature suggests that nature images induce similar effects; viewing simulated nature images in a hospital room affects pain reduction (Vincent et al., 2010), influences stress and anxiety, and contributes to environmental satisfaction (Pati et al., 2016). Anxiety reduction is one of the most potent effects of contact with nature (Beyer et al., 2014;Bratman et al., 2015;Frumkin et al., 2017;Song et al., 2015). ...
... Researchers have found a negative association between increased wait times and patient satisfaction (Anderson et al., 2007;Dansky & Miles, 1997;Derlet & Richards, 2000;Huang, 1994). Derived abundant evidence indicating the restorative effect of nature and its apparent potential for anxiety management (Bratman et al., 2015;Lawton et al., 2017), nature could positively affect patient wait experiences. However, studies on the impact of nature on wait time perceptions or wait experiences are scarce. ...
... Substantial studies confirmed the anxiety-reducing effects of contact with nature (Bratman et al., 2019;Hartig et al., 1991;Hartig et al., 2014;Van den Berg et al., 2007). Findings from previous literature show that nature contact improves patients' anxiety and propose that nature contact is an effective intervention for anxiety management (Bratman et al., 2015;Lawton et al., 2017). We expected natural elements would positively influence anxiety levels in the context of ED waiting areas. ...
Visitors to emergency department waiting areas often experience high anxiety, which results in discomfort during their waits. Our findings offer empirical evidence for the positive impact of including natural elements in these waiting areas. We created four high-fidelity virtual environments that incorporated natural elements in three ways, i.e., the presence of plants, the use of nature images and natural materials, and a combination of those two, in addition to a controlled environment without natural elements. We tested how subjects responded to each environmental setting. Our findings demonstrated that the inclusion of natural elements significantly lowered patients' anxiety in hospital environments, confirming previous research, and the presence of natural elements improved perceived wait time, as well as service quality through anxiety and perceived wait time. The combination yielded higher scores in anxiety, perceived wait time, and service quality than the other conditions. Serial mediation analysis results revealed that underlying anxiety and patients' perceived wait time mediated the effect of natural elements on perceived service quality. Among the five dimensions of service quality, the mediating effects of anxiety and perceived wait time appeared stronger in reliability and responsiveness.
... In the majority of those (n ¼ 8), significant positive improvements were reported (e.g. Berman, Jonides, and Kaplan 2008;Bratman et al. 2015a;Hartig et al. 2003;Hoag et al. 2013). ...
... Other parameters, such as heart rate variability (HRV), brain and neural activity, and blood pressure obtained mixed results, with some studies reporting significant improvements (e.g. Bratman et al. 2015a;Chen, He, and Yu 2020;Jeon, Yeon, and Shin 2018), while others verified no significant changes (e.g. Olszewska-Guizzo et al. 2020;Stigsdotter et al. 2017;Yu and Hsieh 2020). ...
... Evaluation procedureslack of follow-up evaluation (e.g. Bratman et al. 2015a;Gatersleben and Andrews 2013;Mutz, M€ uller, and G€ oring 2019;Silva et al. 2018;South et al. 2018), instruments' fragilities (e.g. Diessner et al. 2015;Hinds 2011;Silva et al. 2018;South et al. 2018;Stigsdotter et al. 2017) and prevalence of subjective outcomes through self-reporting instruments (e.g. ...
... This is mainly due to the demands of attention in urban environments that overload the voluntary attention, exhausting the cognitive and psychological resources. Several studies have studied the effects that exposure to natural environments has on different cognitive variables as emotion (Fuegen & Breitenbecher, 2018;Gatersleben & Andrews, 2013), decreased anxiety and increased working memory performance (Bratman et al., 2015), attention control tasks (Geniole et al., 2016) or an increased executive processing (Tomporowski & Ganio, 2006). ...
... Unlike natural environments, urban environments are filled with stimulation that captures attention dramatically and additionally requires directed attention (e.g., to avoid being hit by a car. In contrast, five studies found no significant difference between PENE and PEAE (Bayley et al., 2018;Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Bratman et al., 2015;de Brito et al., 2019;Fuegen & Breitenbecher, 2018 ...
... Regarding the tests used to measure DA, most cases included the Digital Span Backward test; three studies opted for Necker Cube Pattern Control (NCPCT) (Gatersleben & Andrews, 2013;Hartig, Evans, Jamner, Davis, & Gärling, 2003). With respect to the main physical tests performed, these were walking between 15 and 50 minutes ( Bayley et al., 2018;Berman et al., 2008;Bratman et al., 2015;de Brito et al., 2019;Fuegen & Breitenbecher, 2018;Gatersleben & Andrews, 2013;Hartig et al., 2003;Mayer et al., 2009), running (Bodin & Hartig, 2003;Rogerson & Barton, 2015) or cycling (Rogerson et al., 2016). ...
Background: There is sufficient evidence to confirm that practice of physical exercise improves cognitive and emotional performance. This idea is also related to UNESCO's current trend of establishing connections with its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and educational actions. Furthermore, the relationship of humans with nature seems to produce an improvement in different cognitive variables and specifically in directed attention. The mere presence of the human being in nature produces psychological, well-being and directed attention benefits. However, there is little research on the syn-ergistic effect of physical exercise in natural environments, and how this affects directed attention, as a determining variable in academic performance. oBjective: The main objective is to show the effect of the physical exercise in natural environments on the directed attention in comparison with those performed in urban or built environments. The present systematic review analyzed studies that had evaluated the performance of directed attention when physical exercise in natural environments was practiced. Methods: A Declarations: This research was financed by the research projects of the "Instituto Estu-dios Giennenses en el área de conocimiento Ciencias Naturales y Tecnologıá" (Diputación provincial de Jáen). Authorship Contributions: SBM lead the project, established the protocol and wrote and revised the original manuscript. FTGF, OGT and ABE wrote and revised the original manuscript. Correspondence to: Francisco Tomás González-Fernández. (E-mail: ftgonzalez@ugr.es) Physical exercise in natural environments and its influence on directed attention. 153 results: Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria of the review. Most of these studies were crossover or controlled trials investigating the effects of short-term exposure in natural environments during physical exercise. There is no consensus on the benefits of the physical exercise in natural environments for the directed attention. conclusion: The studies provide theoretical foundations that could explain some of the potential benefits. However, more rigorous research is needed to control the variables that may influence the improvement of directed attention.
... • Biomorphic elements could be botanical/animal motifs, shells, spirals, eggs, oval, tubular forms, arches, vaults, domes, etc. 10. Patterns & geometries • Adopt fractals, hierarchically organised ratios and scales in designs • Use the Fibonacci series (0,1,1,2, 3,5,8,13,21,34) or Golder Ratio (1:1.618) • Choose the intermediate ratio (1:1.3-1.75) ...
... • Natural images should include a rich variety of species, landscapes or human survival experiences in nature. 13 Of the three biophilic design principles, "nature incorporation" is predominantly associated with significant occupants' health and well-being benefits [3,8,13,14]. However, "nature incorporation" strategies like green roofs, green walls, and court yards have been associated with high implementation costs which impedes their adoption [15,16]. ...
... • Natural images should include a rich variety of species, landscapes or human survival experiences in nature. 13 Of the three biophilic design principles, "nature incorporation" is predominantly associated with significant occupants' health and well-being benefits [3,8,13,14]. However, "nature incorporation" strategies like green roofs, green walls, and court yards have been associated with high implementation costs which impedes their adoption [15,16]. ...
... Variations occurred, for example, in frequency and duration of walking, and location. The naturebased walking interventions took place in forests (Hassan et al., 2018;Keenan et al., 2021;Koselka et al., 2019;Shin et al., 2011;Song et al., 2018Song et al., , 2019, urban parks (Aspinall et al., 2015;Berman et al., 2012;Bratman et al., 2015a;Goulding et al., 2018;Johansson et al., 2011;Song et al., 2014Song et al., , 2015, landfill (Geniole et al., 2016), and other natural landscapes with grassland (Bratman, Daily et al., 2015;de Brito et al., 2019;Mayer et al., 2009b). Conversely, the comparator walking took place downtown (Berman et al., 2012;Johansson et al., 2011;Shin et al., 2011;Song et al., 2019), in urban areas (Bratman, Daily et al., 2015;Bratman, Hamilton, Bratman et al., 2015a, b;Geniole et al., 2016;Hassan et al., 2018;Song et al., 2014Song et al., , 2015Song et al., , 2018, in busy shopping streets (Aspinall et al., 2015;Goulding et al., 2018;Koselka et al., 2019), in residential areas with traffic roads (Koselka et al., 2019), and in concrete areas with buildings (Keenan et al., 2021;Mayer et al., 2009a). ...
... Other measurements included EEG (Aspinall et al., 2015;Hassan et al., 2018), and arterial spin labelling (ASL, a neuroimaging method to record brain activity in prefrontal cortex) (Bratman, Hamilton et al., 2015). This evaluated either via the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Berman et al., 2012;Bratman et al., 2015a;de Brito et al., 2019;Goulding et al., 2018;Keenan et al., 2021;Koselka et al., 2019;Mayer et al., 2009a) and/or the Profile of Mood State (POMS) (Shin et al., 2011;Song et al., 2014Song et al., , 2015Song et al., , 2018Song et al., , 2019. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was also used to assess anxiety (Bratman, Daily et al., 2015;de Brito et al., 2019;Hassan et al., 2018;Koselka et al., 2019;Song et al., 2014Song et al., , 2015Song et al., , 2018Song et al., , 2019. ...
Nature-based walking interventions represent a low-cost, eco-friendly activity, designed to assist people in maintaining physical well-being and improving their mental-health status. This systematic review aims to evaluate the evidence regarding the effectiveness of nature-based walking interventions in the improvement of mental health outcomes in adults. This paper draws upon Applied Social Sciences Index & Abstracts (ASSIA), PsycINFO, MEDLINE, EMBASE, the Web of Science Core Collection, Doctoral thesis databases (ProQuest), and manual searches. Due to the heterogeneity of the eligible studies, a narrative synthesis was employed. The present review includes 1,209 adult participants, of whom 336 were female; it also involves 17 discrete studies. The evidence from this systematic review suggests that nature-based walking interventions can indeed improve adults’ moods, sense of optimism, mental well-being, and nature connectedness. They simultaneously mitigate stress, anxiety, and negative rumination. In addition, compared with urban walking, nature-based walking interventions may bring greater benefits vis-à-vis anxiety and rumination. This review contributes to the synthesis of evidence for nature-based walking interventions, and identifies several research gaps around the topic. In clinical practice, nature-based interventions may be used to relieve one’s negative mood, stress, and anxiety. To enhance treatment efficacy, however, they should be combined with formal modes of psychotherapy.
... The psychological benefits that nature offers to humans are undisputed. Several decades of research attest to how exposure to outdoor natural environments can improve mental and physical health (e.g., Bratman, Daily, Levy, & Gross, 2015;Carrus et al., 2015;Coventrye et al., 2021;Giannico et al., 2021;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Yao, Zhang, & Gong, 2021). According to the biophilia hypothesis, people have an innate need for affiliation with nature since it is related to our evolution (Wilson, 1984), while for both Stress Reduction Theory (SRT; Ulrich, 1983) and Attention Restoration Theory (ART; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989), nature is restorative, in terms of affect and cognitive recovery from stress and mental fatigue. ...
... Thus, there is a need for future studies to investigate further the underestimated outcomes, through different instruments and experimental designs. For instance, since the relationship between outdoor nature exposure and cognitive processes is well-known (Bratman et al., 2015), it would be crucial to better understand whether, and under what conditions, virtual nature can have comparable effects. Here, the available evidence points to the sense of presence as an important catalyst of virtual nature benefits. ...
Evidence on the benefits of virtual nature is steadily increasing. In the current paper, we present a systematic review summarizing studies that examined the effects of virtual nature on psychological and psychophysiological outcomes up to March 2023. We found 236 records, of which 59 met the eligibility criteria. Results from quality assessment showed that most studies were of high or very high quality. Studies addressed three main outcomes: mood, stress, and restorativeness. Other outcomes such as environmental preference and pleasantness, cognitive performance, and nature connectedness received less attention, while others such as behavior and behavioral intentions, creativity, perceived safety, subjective vitality, and dental experience were hardly investigated at all. Findings generally point to a positive effect of virtual nature on its users, although further evidence is needed. Studies adopted experimental or quasi-experimental designs, used heterogeneous measures, and often sample sizes of unknown power. Future research could consider uninvestigated outcomes using larger studies with adequate power, specific samples, a focus on building new theories and on identifying best practices. Also, disentangling the optimal type and duration of virtual exposure and investigating the role of individual differences in its effectiveness for desirable psychological and psychophysiological changes is warranted.
... In another experiment, Berman et al. (2012) showed that a 50-min walk in a natural environment as compared to in an urban environment enhanced working memory capacity in participants with major depressive disorder. The cognitive benefits of walking in a natural environment were also successfully replicated in a number of replication studies by other researchers (e.g., Bratman et al., 2015;Hartig et al., 2003). ...
... The task was selected given that performance on it has been shown to be malleable in that it can be improved with training or otherwise modified by various interventions (Foster et al., 2017;Gallant, 2016;Harrison et al., 2013;Quek et al., 2021;Storbeck & Maswood, 2016;Yang et al., 2013). More importantly, several existing studies that found significant cognitive effects of nature have similarly employed the operation span task with a comparable number of trials (e.g., Bratman et al., 2015;Jamrozik et al., 2019). In this task, participants were asked to solve mathematical equations while simultaneously memorizing a series of twodigit, three-syllable numbers (e.g., 28). ...
Existing studies have shown that direct exposure to a real nature environment has a restorative effect on attentional resources after a mentally fatiguing task. However, it remains unclear whether virtual nature simulations can serve as a substitute for real nature experienced in the outdoors to restore executive attention. Given the mixed findings in the literature, the present study sought to examine if viewing videos with natural scenery (vs. a control with urban scenery) restores participants' working memory capacity - measured by an operation span task - in a high-powered pre-registered within-subject experimental study. Overall, our within-subject experiment did not find any evidence to support the benefit of watching videos with natural scenery on restoration of executive attention. Moreover, the results from our Bayesian analyses further showed substantial support for the null hypothesis. Our study suggests that virtual nature simulations, even with the use of videos, may not be able to replicate the experiences of nature in the outdoors and restore attentional resources.
... [45][46][47] Brief exposure can have beneficial effects. [48][49][50] As part of a study by the University of Essex, 48 the authors recommended that ecotherapy should be a clinically recognised prescription treatment for mental distress; care planning should consider access to green space and access to green space should be a human right. ...
... All items are scored positively; a higher score indicates a higher level of mental well-being. Total scores were used to indicate the current level of wellbeing: low (14-42);medium(43)(44)(45)(46)(47)(48)(49)(50)(51)(52)(53)(54)(55)(56)(57)(58)(59)(60) and high(61)(62)(63)(64)(65)(66)(67)(68)(69)(70). ...
Introduction:
Mental health problems are a considerable public health issue and spending time in nature has been promoted as a way to access a range of psychological benefits leading to the development of nature-based interventions for people with severe and enduring mental health problems. Less, however, is understood about the potential benefits and efficacy of day-to-day routine access to outdoor green and blue spaces for mental health service users.
Methods:
Using a mixed-methods design between April and October 2021, we explored the benefits and barriers to spending time outdoors with a purposive sample of mental health service users (N = 11) using qualitative interviews and an online general population survey (N = 1791). Qualitative evidence highlighted the restorative benefits of nature and identified a number of barriers associated with fears around personal safety, social anxiety, fatigue and lack of motivation. COVID-19 had also restricted access to green and blue spaces. Having social contact and support encouraged people to spend time outdoors. In the quantitative survey, self-report and standardised measures (the Patient Health Questionnaire and the Warwick-Edinburgh Wellbeing Scale) were used to assess past and current mental wellbeing.
Findings:
Statistically significant differences were found between wellbeing and the use of green and blue spaces. Those with mental health problems spent time outdoors because they: felt guilty; wanted to reduce their anxiety; or rely on someone for encouragement. Those without mental health problems endorsed more positively framed reasons including relaxation, improving physical health or getting exercise. Barriers for people with mental health problems involved safety concerns, feeling anxious and having a poor self-image. These findings give insight into motivations for an outdoor activity to help inform the design of public mental health interventions.
Conclusion:
Further work is required to improve access and safety to promote the benefits of green and blue spaces for everyone.
Patient or public contribution:
The research team included expert experienced researchers with a mental health service provider (Praxis Care) and they were involved in the development of the research idea, funding application, design, data collection, analysis, writing up and dissemination activities.
... A person's relationship to nature may be defined in terms of their knowledge of nature, time spent outdoors, sense of connection to the natural world, and dedication to the natural world, according to the paradigm provided by Zylstra et al. (2014). Many scales and surveys have a prime focus on the individual, notably the "connectedness to nature" (Bratman et al., 2015), which assesses people's sentiments and perceptions of nature using the singular personal pronoun (e.g. "I often feel a kinship with animals and plants"). ...
There has been research on the significance of placemaking as a process for user health and well-being and how that affects their way of life in urban planning and development. Creative placemaking, one of the most effective paradigms for making social sustainability, lacks community attributes for social cohesion in planning and design techniques for community spaces, which is the focus of the study. A conceptual model for the inclusion of the concept of creative placemaking in community open spaces to enhance social cohesion in residential environments are proposed in this study. The study employs a qualitative approach to determine the elements and indicators of creative place placemaking considering placemaking as a social process. Community open spaces in a residential neighbourhood were shown to be developing creative placemaking indicators based on theoretical Research VIZ: a) place attachment, b) connection to nature, c) sense of place, d) place memory, e) happy place mapping, and f) image and identity that altogether significantly could contribute towards effective social cohesion in these spaces.
... Urban forests as a restorative environment are conveyed through the experience of the above four components of restorative environments [20,41]. Studies on the restorative environment [42], environmental components [41], and recovery effects [45] have been conducted by examining structured questionnaires and reviewing the literature [46]. In this study, we attempted to structure and interpret the experiences recorded by individuals using big data. ...
Since the COVID-19 pandemic, urban forests have become important restorative environmental spaces for which demand-customized management based on users’ experiences is needed. We collected 21,557 data points from blogs from January 2020 to December 2021. For data analysis, keyword frequency, term frequency–inverse document frequency, and sentiment analyses were conducted using TEXTOM 4.0, and a semantic linkage network was established and analyzed using Gephi 0.92. In the analyses, the restorative environment components of “being away”, “fascination”, “extent”, and “compatibility” were derived from users’ experiences. Fascination, which stems from natural objects such as rocks, valleys, and trails, was derived the most frequently, and being away and compatibility, representing leisure activities such as climbing and walking, formed the largest cluster in cluster analysis. Sentiment analysis revealed a high positive word rate of 91.6%, with favorable feelings accounting for 87.5%, whereas the proportion of joy and interest (12.5%) was relatively low. In addition, this study showed that hard fascinations such as sports, entertainment, and education are required to improve the experience quality in urban forests as restorative environments. Hence, the necessity of local government policies and projects is emphasized.
... Differences in cognition in these two different types of environments have been studied in western populations, but findings are still mixed. On the one hand, there is a body of research that demonstrates that brief contact with nature, such as walking in nature is beneficial to both affect and cognition (Bratman, Daily, Levy, & Gross, 2015;McMahan & Estes, 2015;Stenfors et al., 2019). On the other hand, some studies focusing on ageing and cognitive capacities report lower rates of dementia, and better cognitive performance among older adults in urban compared to rural areas (Georgi et al., 2019), possibly due to the greater social engagement and availability of education and public health services in urban areas (Glaeser, 2011;Robbins, Scott, Joska, & Gouse, 2019). ...
... A study conducted in real and virtual environments found a 14% increase in working memory only in real environments with nature 45 . In addition, a comparison study of nature and urban walking experience showed that working memory is improved only with measurements by the automated operation span task, but the backward digit span scores did not show significant differences 46 . Moreover, the effect of indoor nature on working memory may be impacted by the exposure time to nature; in our experiment, participants viewed each site for five minutes. ...
This study investigates the effects of natural exposure in an indoor environment on restorative quality and cognitive ability. Thirty participants were shown nature at three different indoor sites: baseline, indoor (some vegetation), and semi-indoor (a large amount of vegetation and view to sky) for five minutes. After viewing, they completed an assessment of restoration and a cognitive task, and their electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded. Compared to the baseline, the sites with nature resulted in restorative (higher perceived restoration scores) and cognitive (higher working memory performance and lower delta-to-theta ratio (DTR), delta-to-alpha ratio (DAR), theta-to-beta ratio (TBR), and alpha-to-beta ratio (ABR) responses) benefits. These findings further our understanding of the effects of exposure to nature on restorative and cognitive benefits in an indoor environment, and help to build guidance for future research on the effects of nature indoors and designing restorative- and cognitive-enhancing indoor spaces.
... Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4537468 P r e p r i n t n o t p e e r r e v i e w e d evidence that natural sounds can reduce negative affect (Bratman et al., 2015). Considering the numerous health hazards that follow urban noise pollution and the health benefits associated with natural sound exposure, studying the neural processes that underlie such auditory stimulations is highly relevant. ...
... Hartig et al. (2003) showed that positive affect increased and anger decreased after a walk in a nature reserve while walking in an urban environment resulted in the opposite pattern. Finally, Bratman et al. (2015aBratman et al. ( , 2015b found that nature versus urban walks provided affective benefits and reduced rumination. ...
Nature-based solutions (NBS) are increasingly being adopted to address climate change, health, and urban sustainability, yet ensuring they are effective and inclusive remains a challenge. Addressing these challenges through chapters by leading experts in both global south and north contexts, this forward-looking book advances the science of NBS in cities and discusses the frontiers for next-generation urban NBS.
... In an ideal situation, the investigation of environmental preference should be conducted in situ. Although there are studies that investigate participants' reactions in situ, either comparing differences between urban and natural walks (e.g., [58,67]) or forest experiences (e.g., [68,69]), this research procedure is not very frequent, and for understandable reasons, it is not applicable in this type of study. For a long time, environmental preference research has used environmental simulations, from simple black-and-white photos to color slides, videos, and virtual reality. ...
To live a healthy lifestyle, urban residents need contact with nature and restoration in a natural environment. Environmental psychology has investigated the types and features of natural environments that could be optimal for restoration. Using a sample of undergraduates from the Czech Republic, the present study explored whether attractive and open natural environments are liked more and perceived as more restorative than unattractive and closed environments. Furthermore, this study explored which spatio-cognitive dimensions and emotional qualities of the environments are associated with the liking and perceived restoration of the environments. It was found that attractive and open environments were liked significantly more and had a significantly higher level of perceived restoration than attractive closed environments, but in the nonattractive environments, the openness of the environments had no significant effects on liking and perceived restoration. Although we only found a significant contribution of the spatio-cognitive dimension of mystery to liking and perceived restoration, emotional qualities of the environment were a good predictor for the liking and perceived restoration of natural environments. The effects of the aesthetic qualities of images and the photographic techniques used should also be considered. The results are discussed in connection with the fact that preference for attractive landscapes may lead to an underestimation of the value of ordinary nature in neighborhoods.
... Having a greater insight into the inner workings of our minds and what is showing up as our discontent will give us a greater appreciation of what is gained from reconnecting with the natural world (i.e., having a clearer picture of the mind before and after) (Bratman et al. 2015). As such, it has been widely reported that people living in urban centres are increasingly motivated to improve their overall mental health by intentionally seeking out nature-connected experiences (Lackey et al., 2019;Mathers and Brymer, 2022). ...
This research aims to explore the role of nature therapy guides in successfully leading nature-based experiences and, through that effort, allowing their clients to achieve their mental health and well-being goals. Understanding the role a nature therapy guide plays can, in turn, aid policymakers, individuals and communities in promoting positive mental health and well-being outcomes, supporting conservation efforts, and improving access to nature experiences. Here a nature therapy guide is defined as a trained professional who helps individuals or groups connect with nature to promote mental health and well-being. Nature therapy guides may have a variety of backgrounds, including naturalists, ecologists, psychologists, or healthcare professionals, with most of which completing some form of nature therapy qualification. Nature therapy guides may work in a variety of settings, such as parks, forests, beaches, or gardens, and may tailor their approach to different populations, such as children, adults, or seniors. They may also incorporate elements of ecotherapy, which emphasises the connection between human well-being and the health of the natural environment. To this end, this research answers two interrelated research questions. Firstly what motivations have guides found that bring the general public (i.e., clients) to them and, in turn,
... Hartig et al. (2003) showed that positive affect increased and anger decreased after a walk in a nature reserve while walking in an urban environment resulted in the opposite pattern. Finally, Bratman et al. (2015aBratman et al. ( , 2015b found that nature versus urban walks provided affective benefits and reduced rumination. ...
... The study revealed that spending time in natural surroundings, such as walking in a park, can help reduce rumination, which is associated with an increased risk of depression and other mental health disorders. This finding emphasizes the importance of incorporating natural elements and green spaces into urban environments to support mental well-being, especially for neurodiverse individuals who may have a tendency toward rumination (Bratman et al., 2015). Therefore, including natural elements in the design of smart cities can provide a more holistic and inclusive environment that supports the mental health and well-being of all individuals. ...
This study aims to investigate the impact of biophilic design on occupational health and productivity, with a particular focus on addressing the needs of diverse populations, including the neurodiverse, during the post-pandemic return to work. With an estimated 15-20% of the global population considered neurodiverse, it is crucial to understand and accommodate their specific needs, such as those with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum condition, and learning disabilities. These individuals face increased occupational stress, necessitating the development of targeted strategies. The renewed interest in sustainability and employee well-being has led to a resurgence of biophilic design in the workplace. Grounded in the concept that humans possess an inherent inclination to affiliate with nature, the biophilic design integrates natural elements and art into the built environment. This integration has been found to reduce activity in the amygdala, promoting stress recovery, prolonged attention, and increased productivity among employees. To effectively acclimate neurodiverse individuals in the work environment, biophilic design should be complemented using extended reality (XR) technology supported by artificial intelligence. Virtual reality, in particular, has been shown to facilitate individuals' comfort in new workspaces, aid in self-assessments through biofeedback, and enable the adjustment of surroundings for self-regulation. Furthermore, biophilic design has the potential to promote sustainability in smart cities by integrating natural elements into the built environment. This integration helps reduce the carbon footprint of buildings and enhances energy efficiency. By creating workplaces that prioritize biophilic design principles, organizations can contribute to a more inclusive, sustainable, and productive work environment.
... Contact with nature and health have been linked in three interconnected domainsreducing harm from exposure to environmental hazards such as heat; restoring capacities diminished by stress and constant stimuli; and building new capacities such as facilitating social interactions (Markevych et al., 2017). Nature contact is also associated with reduction in symptoms of depression and anxiety (Bloomfield, 2017;Maund et al., 2019, Nguyen et al., 2022, improvements in sleep, memory, cognition, and attention (Berto, 2014;Bratman et al., 2015;Sia et al., 2020), lower stress levels (Corazon et al., 2018, Shuda et al., 2020, van den Berg and Beute, 2021, and can serve as a pathway to recovery from sexual assault (Moore et al., 2022). Nature's qualities such as ``the views, the smells, the sense of `being there' and sense of place'' (Sempik and Bragg, 2016, p. 101) permit and enable individuals to process their thoughts and emotions nonverbally, which is especially important for people receiving mental health services who are unresponsive to traditional therapeutic settings (Adevi et al., 2018). ...
... Frequent and close contact with nature has a profound impact on children's healthy development and the formation of their values regarding conservation. Direct experience with nature improves children's physical fitness, psychological well-being, cognitive ability, and relationship with the natural world (Chawla, 2015;Bratman et al., 2015). Such experience, especially spontaneous play during childhood , reinforces a sense of connection with nature (Cheng & Monroe, 2012), which is key to fostering people's commitments to nature conservation (Rosa et al., 2018). ...
... For example, walking in nature can lead to significant improvements in working memory compared to walking in the city (Janeczko et al., 2020). In addition, natural elements in the learning or work environment can also help students or employees regain cognitive abilities such as attention and thus improve their academic performance or productivity (Bratman et al., 2015). Children show higher levels of creativity, self-discipline, and concentration in environments with more green landscapes (Stevenson et al., 2019). ...
Complex stimuli in urban environments often lead to cognitive fatigue in residents. As a result, there is a growing demand from residents for restorative environments. Previous research has shown that the pure natural environment in the wild can help people achieve cognitive restoration. However, little attention has been paid to cognitive restoration through exposure to green infrastructure. Based on Attention Restoration Theory (ART), this study conducted an eye-tracking experiment in a controlled laboratory environment to investigate the effects of two view types, green infrastructure and urban, on individuals’ cognitive restoration.
The results show that green infrastructure has a positive effect on the cognitive functioning of the participants in the experiment. The positive effect of green infrastructure on cognitive restoration is reflected in the restoration of directed attention. Less cognitive effort is an important factor contributing to cognitive restoration. Nature-relatedness plays a vital role in the eye movement behaviour of individuals when viewing landscape pictures and in the restorative benefits of cognition.
... As reported in that manuscript, we found that people are more likely to report positive thoughts and thoughts about the past while in the conservatory, while they are more likely to feel impulsive and report thoughts about the future while in the mall. Additionally, participants showed improvements in working memory, as measured by a dual 2-back task, after the conservatory visit compared to the mall visit, which is consistent with other studies (Berman, Jonides, & Kaplan, 2008;Bratman, Daily, Levy, & Gross, 2015;Cimprich & Ronis, 2003;Dadvand et al., 2015). ...
Research has shown differences in pro-social and pro-environmental attitudes after exposure to different physical environments. It is unclear whether these perspective shifts are associated with changes in conscious thoughts and feelings about other people and the environment. In Study 1, we used a within-subject experiment to measure social and environmental thought content throughout one-hour environmental explorations of a nature conservatory and an indoor mall. At three survey time points, participants (N = 86, undergraduates and community members) reported whom they were thinking about and how connected they felt to the physical and social environment. Using Bayesian multi-level models, we found that while visiting the conservatory, participants were less likely to think about themselves, felt closer to people nearby and around the world, and felt higher connectedness to their social and physical environment. In Study 2, we used a correlational design to investigate the association between perceived naturalness of city parks and feelings of connection to nearby others and the physical environment while visiting. Participants (N = 303, Chicago residents) reported feeling higher levels of connection to nearby people and the physical environment when they were visiting city parks rated as more natural. These studies further our understanding of the ways in which natural environments influence conscious thoughts and feelings about the social and physical environment.
... The state parks, such as NBS can increase a person's mental and overall well-being, which is like physical well-being (Bloomfield, 2017;Lovell, 2016;Marselle et al., 2014). Increased well-being then means that the visitors may also experience clearer thinking, fewer negative moods, and less fatigue (Bloomfield, 2017;Bratman et al., 2015;Coon et al., 2011) in order to enhance their overall satisfaction with nature. ...
... The use of natural elements providing biophilic visual connections inside the building can improve IAQ as a factor of indoor environmental quality (IEQ) [17], as IEQ is defined by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) [18] as "a perceived indoor experience of the building's indoor environment that includes aspects of design, analysis, and operation of energy-efficient, healthy and comfortable buildings". Consistently occupying spaces with natural elements can have positive effects on mood and cognitive performance [19], low pulse rates [20], and psychological nervousness (mental stress) [21], and it can also slow down blood flow, which minimizes the burden on the heart and, potentially preventing cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases [21]. Green plants also have a soothing effect on the human mind causing relaxation of the nervous system, reduction of mental stress, and fatigue prevention [22]. ...
People are spending more and more of their lives indoors, making thermal comfort and air quality essential factors for their health and well-being. The use of natural elements within indoor spaces can improve the indoor environment and air quality, but can also bring multiple health and well-being, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral benefits due to its biophilic effect. Indoor vertical greenery strategy in buildings can give these benefits to the building occupants. In this study, a prototype of a living green curtain is assessed to evaluate the benefits that may derive when used as a shading device. The analysis evaluated the performance of the green curtain prototype compared to the other two scenarios, no curtains (control module) and external blind. Temperature, relative humidity, air quality, and solar radiation were measured in the indoor environment. Results indicate that the green curtain module was cooler by 0-4 • C than the control module during the peak solar radiation hours, and the difference even reached up to 8 • C on hotter days. Due to the evapotranspiration effect, the green curtain recorded the highest daily average relative humidity of 67%. This study demonstrates the potential ability of a green curtain to improve air quality and thermal comfort.
... Psychological well-being measures show better values after VR exposure in some dimensions (e.g., positive affect) while other measures (i.e., sadness, fear arousal, negative affect) showed no significant differences. These results are in line with a large body of research, in which the positive effects of exposure to nature on psychological well-being have been demonstrated in both physical and virtual environments 9,12,42,66,67,[74][75][76][77][78][79][80] . These results could be explained by the stress reduction theory (SRT) which suggests that contact with nature leads to a reduction in stress, which in turn leads to an improvement in positive emotions and a reduction in stress-related feelings. ...
Previous research has shown the positive effects of exposure to real and virtual nature. To investigate how such benefits might generalize to ever-more-prevalent virtual workplaces, we examined the effects of the absence or presence of virtual plants in an office environment in Virtual Reality (VR) on users’ cognitive performance and psychological well-being. The results of our user study with 39 participants show that in the presence of virtual plants, participants performed significantly better in both short-term memory and creativity tasks. Furthermore, they reported higher psychological well-being scores, including positive affect and attentive coping, whilst reporting lower feelings of anger and aggression after exposure to virtual plants in VR. The virtual office with plants was also perceived as more restorative and induced a higher sense of presence. Overall, these results highlight how the presence of virtual plants in VR can have positive influences on users, and therefore, constitute important design considerations when developing future working and learning spaces.
... Nature is believed to provide a calming effect and the ability to relax an individual's mind and body. According to Attention Restoration Theory (ART), natural environment invoke a different sort of attention from people such as a sense of 'fascination', 'being away', 'extent', and 'compatibility' that may lead to improve performance on tests that measure memory and attention (1). Nature has been known to deliver positive feelings, a sense of ease, rest, self-confidence and self-esteem. ...
Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a method of measuring the neuro-signals of the brain. Portable EEG device was used to measure the level of attention and meditation before and during listening to the sounds of nature. Listening to the sounds of nature may induce relaxation to the body and mind. The objectives of this study were to identify the differences in the level of attention and meditation before and during listening to the sounds of nature and also to determine whether there is a difference between males and females with regards to the level of attention and meditation. Thirty pharmacy students (15 males; 15 females) were involved in this study. Attention and meditation levels of the students before and during listening to the sounds of nature were recorded, analyzed and evaluated. The results showed that the mean score of attention was higher during listening to the sounds of nature meanwhile the mean score of meditation was lower. There were no significant differences in the level of attention and meditation between males and females.
... So far, research on the impact on attention restoration of interacting with nature or vegetation has shown significant improvements in the individuals' attention level. This impact has been observed for durations of interaction from a few minutes to hours and days (BERTO 2005, BRATMAN et al. 2015. The outcome of this study expanded on the existing literature by suggesting that such an impact can occur in a much shorter timeframe. ...
... So far, research on the impact on attention restoration of interacting with nature or vegetation has shown significant improvements in the individuals' attention level. This impact has been observed for durations of interaction from a few minutes to hours and days (BERTO 2005, BRATMAN et al. 2015. The outcome of this study expanded on the existing literature by suggesting that such an impact can occur in a much shorter timeframe. ...
This exploratory research aims to examine if the existence of vegetation in indoor environments affects people's attention levels. Also, do those elements receive more visual attention, or do they cause other elements in the space to stand out more visually? During experimental research, 182 residents of a high-rise residential building were randomly assigned to experience one of two versions of their building's lobby as a 3D virtual reality (VR) environment, one with and one without vegetation. Participants completed the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) twice, once before experiencing the lobby to establish a baseline of attention and once after, to assess possible improvement. Also, the amount of visual attention that each element received in the environment was calculated through gaze tracking. Results indicated that participants who experienced the lobby with vegetation showed meaningful improvement in their SART score. The gaze tracking heatmaps revealed that vegetation received significantly higher attention than all other elements. The analysis of the data demonstrated that those who gained the highest scores paid the highest amount of visual attention to vegetation. These findings suggest a positive relationship between the location and duration of visual attention and attention restoration level and that vegetation capturing non-voluntary attention may be among the major factors that positively impact attention restoration.
... Developing concrete infrastructure and buildings to support human comfort is one of the primary approaches to planning current cities (Wakefield, 2020), which has resulted in keeping them disconnected from nature (Kotsila et al., 2021). However, the human-nature connection increases people's life satisfaction (Chang et al., 2020), responsibility level (Chawla, 2020), collaboration (Schmied et al., 2010), and offers an effective way to improve living conditions (Bratman, Daily, Levy, & Gross, 2015). environmental preference (Alizadeh Asli, Moshfeghifar, Mousighichi, & Mousavi Samimi, 2023;Mousavi Samimi & Sadraei Tabatabaei, 2022;Sadeghifar, Pazhouhanfar, & Farrokhzad, 2019), perceived beauty, and attractiveness (Ta, Li, Zhu, & Wu, 2021;Wu, Dong, Yeran, & Yun, 2020). ...
Acknowledging biophilic design as a nature-based solution to compensate for the expansion of urbanization and human separation from nature that deteriorate citizens’ satisfaction and responsible pro-environmental behaviors toward the environment are among the environmental planning’s principal goals. Therefore, the current study investigates the effects of Biophilic design dimensions on residential satisfaction to promote citizens’ pro-environmental behavior. In order to evaluate the effects between Biophilic design, residential satisfaction, and pro-environmental behavior, SEM method was used. Obtained data from 380 questionnaires were analyzed by SPSS and Smart PLS, and the results demonstrated that the Biophilic design’s ‘street’ dimension has the greatest impact on residential satisfaction (β = 0.799) and citizens’ pro-environmental behavior (β = 0.751). Additionally, residential satisfaction’s ‘quality’ dimension has the highest effect on pro-environmental behavior (β = 0.430). The outcomes provide a solution for policymakers and designers to enhance citizens’ pro-environmental behaviors towards the environment through a sustainable solution.
... Nevertheless, studies (Berman et al., 2008;Hartig et al., 2003;Staats et al., 2003) have found higher restorativeness in natural environments using various self-reported measures (e.g., the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule [PANAS], Perceived Restorativeness Scale [PRS], and Zuckerman Inventory of Personal Reactions [ZIPERS]). Other studies (Berto, 2005;Bratman et al., 2015;Felsten, 2009;Hartig et al., 2003;Laumann et al., 2003) have found an increase in attention, such as concentration, executive attention, sustained attention, and working memory, when people were exposed to natural environments using various cognitive tasks (e.g., Digit Span and Necker cube tasks). Additionally, studies have found that exposure to natural environments by viewing images and videos (Laumann et al., 2003;Ulrich et al., 1991) and walking around (Gidlow et al., 2016;Tyrväinen et al., 2014) in the natural environment reduce psychophysiological stress indicators such as skin conductance level (SCL), heart rate, and cortisol levels. ...
Vegetation in the built environment is known to affect human well-being. Although previous studies have provided quantitative evidence of the benefits of indoor vegetation on human well-being, the effects of vegetation density in indoor environments remain to be explored. To bridge this gap, this study explored the effects of indoor vegetation density on well-being, particularly on perceived restorativeness, stress reduction, and selective visual attention. This study employed the perceived restorativeness scale (PRS-11) and psychophysiological restorativeness (EEG) and found a positive association between increased indoor vegetation density and restorativeness. Despite the restorative effect, there was an inflection point in the indoor environments at 13%–24% vegetation density. For perceived restorativeness and stress reduction, 13%–24% was the most efficient density within indoor environments. Thus, this study contributes a baseline guideline and reference for designers and decision makers to understand efficient vegetation density in indoor environments.
... This result showed that the self-guided and the guided forest therapy program improved the negative emotions even though there was no significant change in the participants' positive emotions. The findings partially correspond with previous studies showing that forest walking activities improve the emotional state(Bratman et al., 2015;Brooks et al., 2017;Takayama et al., 2014).For example, Takayama et al. (2014) examined 45 men on the emotional and resilient effects of walking and viewing at forests and cities for a short time. As a result, it was found that the group who walking or viewing the forest had higher positive emotions, lower negative emotions, and higher resilience and vitality than the group who did the same activities in the city. ...
Background and objective: University students' mental health is threatened by various stressors. Forest therapy is considered an effective way to improve mental health. Many researchers have investigated the effectiveness of forest therapy programs operated by guides. Recently, although the concept of a self-guided forest therapy program has emerged without a guide, research is insufficient. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the influence of self-guided and guided forest therapy program on students' psychological benefits.Methods: We employed a randomized 3 × 3 crossover study. Twenty-three university students were randomly assigned into three groups to eliminate the order effect. Twenty-three university students were randomly exposed to three conditions: a self-guided forest therapy program, a guided forest-therapy program, and routine activities. All participants participated in all interventions once a week for three weeks, and each intervention was conducted over a one-week washout period to eliminate the carryover effect of the intervention. Measures included the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES), and the Connectedness to Nature Scale (CNS).Results: As a result, self-guided and guided forest-therapy programs significantly improved participants' negative emotions and natural connectedness compared to routine activities. As for self-esteem, only a guided forest therapy program was higher than daily routine activities.Conclusion: This study shows that not only guided forest therapy programs but also self-guided forest therapy programs have a positive effect on psychological health. Therefore, these findings suggest that running guided forest therapy programs and self-guided forest therapy programs as university in-campus programs will significantly help university students' mental health.
Experiences of nature have various benefits on human health and well-being. In workplace environments, the integration of biophilic design strategies to incorporate elements and features of nature can enhance employee productivity, emotional state, and psychological well-being, mainly addressing the third goal of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs). The literature abounds with studies providing empirical evidence on the positive effect of nature exposure in the workplace on employees. However, there is a lack of understanding of the status of such studies. To this end, the authors conducted descriptive analysis and a review on the applications, capabilities, and limitations of studies implementing biophilic design principles at workplaces. A total of 59 peer-reviewed articles that met the inclusion criteria were selected and reviewed based on the defined factors and sub-factors. The results show that the introduction of biophilic design elements into indoor, semi-outdoor, and outdoor workplace environments can promote employee health, well-being, and productivity. However, the literature gives limited attention to some of the identified categories/factors including “natural analogues”, “emotion and mood”, “physiological data”, “non-visual sensory input”, and “virtual reality”. Based on the review findings, we have identified several knowledge gaps and opportunities for further research.
This chapter focuses on stress prevention measures in the workplace. The aim will be to categorise the various strategies into an overarching system while reviewing evidence of their effectiveness. As such this chapter will take an intentionally broad approach to stress reduction measures, examining a range of very different approaches to the issue.
Background:
Evidence shows that greenspace exposure benefits children's health and cognitive development. However, evidence assessing this association in young children in low- and middle-income economies is scarce.
Objective:
To assess the association between exposure to greenness and cognitive performance in pre-pubertal boys living in Mexico City.
Methods:
Cross-sectional study using data from 144 boys aged 6-11 years living in Mexico City in 2017 and enrolled in the "MetCog" study. Cognitive performance was evaluated through selected Wechsler Scale for Intelligence in Children Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) and Neuropsychological Assessment of Children (Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil, ENI) tests. Exposure to greenness was assessed through Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) at 300, 500, 1500, 2000, and 3000 m buffer zones from children's residences. Multiple linear regression analysis was undertaken to assess associations between cognitive performance and greenness (aβ) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) and adjusted for potential confounding variables. Significance was set at q < 0.05 after False Discovery Rate (FDR) correction.
Results:
A positive association was found between the NDVI Interquartile Range (IQR) at 2000 m and the WISC-IV block design test score (aβ 2000 = 1.18, 95% CI = 0.31, 2.06; q < 0.05), which assesses perceptual reasoning. Positive associations were found with NDVI IQR at 1500 m and WISC-IV block design (aβ1500 = 1.00, 95% CI = 0.14, 1.86) and matrix reasoning (aβ1500 = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.06, 1.61) scores, but neither survived FDR correction. No significant associations were found between NDVI IQR at any buffer size with other WISC-IV and ENI task scores.
Conclusions:
Greater exposure to greenness was associated with higher perceptual reasoning skills in 144 pre-pubertal boys living in Mexico City. Thus, urban planning should consider increasing vegetation in megacities, especially in neighbourhoods with high percentages of young children.
Aim:
This review explores the role of purposefully designed and well-integrated therapeutic hospital gardens (THGs) for the benefits of patients, their families, and staff.
Background:
Significant benefits are realized when people are in contact with nature in the city. Although hospital gardens are prevalent and the beneficial effects of nature on health are widely acknowledged, the establishment of a consistent definition for hospital gardens that promote health is vital to attain reliable and quantifiable health outcomes.
Methods:
Twenty-eight peer-reviewed journals were critiqued for the period of 2016-2021 and updated with 12 articles from 2021 to 2023 to analyze and synthesize the latest thinking and development in this emergent field. Subsequently, current books and exemplar practice literature were synthesized with the results of the literature review to produce a working definition of THGs.
Results:
Three themes and 14 subthemes were established showing the interconnectedness of THG definition, user needs and experiences, and the benefits and values of THGs. Two original findings can be established-a need to have a consensus on terminology and to establish design processes. The working definition was produced as a foundational step to guide stakeholders in implementing THGs.
Conclusion:
THGs can play a role in improving well-being when they are purposefully designed and well-integrated in hospital programs and health policy. Hospital CEOs, designers, and healthcare experts can use the findings and working definition to assist the establishment of such health promoting gardens.
A treetop trail is an elevated linear green open space that plays a key role in forming a scientifically rational urban space and meeting the growing leisure needs of the people. Taking the Mountains-to-Sea Trail in Xiamen, China as a case, and through 426 questionnaires, this study explores the dimensions of the perceived restorative environment components of greenway recreationists and impacts on behavioral intentions. The demographic factors lead us to the following three conclusions. First, from an age perspective, restorative environmental perceptions are strongest among those aged 60 and above and weakest among those aged 18–30. Second, in terms of place of permanent residence, local visitors have stronger restorative environmental perceptions than other city users. Third, in relation to the number of accompanying travelers, individuals who embark on solo journeys experience the most robust perception, while that diminishes as the count reaches three or more companions. A structural equation model (SEM) is used to present the quantitative relationship among avoidance motivation, treetop trail environmental quality, restorative environmental perception, place attachment, and loyalty. The results showed that users’ escape motivation has a direct and indirect positive correlation with restorative environmental perceptions, and environmental perceptions have a significant positive correlation with restorative environmental perceptions. Furthermore, their place attachment to the restorative nature of the treetop trails positively affected their loyalty. This study provides essential factors to consider when constructing treetop trails in high-density cities.
This chapter is based on the author’s doctoral thesis and depicts the psychological ‘geography’ and therapeutic ‘topography’ of the Norwegian St. Olav Way, describing people’s motivations, processes, effects, and perceived therapeutics associated with walking this way. Qualitative open-ended questionnaires were sent to all pilgrim shelters along this way in 2017. 53 pilgrims from 13 countries and of different beliefs responded. Motive, process, effect, and therapeutic categories were generated through a thematic text analysis of their answers. Main motivations resulted to be contemplation, health, social/solitary walking, pilgrimage walking/repeating, and nature. Pilgrims experienced mental, physical, spiritual, social, and sensory processes. Mental processes were the most reported and included self-immersion, self-release, and self-restoration. Physical processes involved improved shape, sleep, persistence, and coping skills. Spiritual processes comprised of religious reflection and spiritual enrichment. Sensory processes contained stimulation of the senses, sense of coherence and belonging. Social processes composed a community feeling, sharing of experiences, an educational and social practice, and re-evaluation of values. After-effects encompassed improved health, health assets, and a more positive outlook. Therapeutics were identified as walking, nature, and community. Given the therapeutic, relational and dynamic nature of the findings, the results are explained in light of therapeutic landscapes, relational ontology, and the mobility turn.KeywordsSt. Olav WayPilgrimage walkingMotivesProcessesEffectsTherapy
Prescribed nature walks frequently yield improvements to mood and cognition as observed in experimental studies. Research that uses real life settings such as self-determined time exercising outdoors for restorative health benefits may more accurately elicit effects than time-specified study protocols. This study examined in situ psycho-cognitive outcomes of routine walks in urban greenspace to test the concept that self-set exposure duration and not context alone is related to magnitude of psycho-cognitive benefit. Pre-post measurements taken on a diverse participant pool of individuals walking in urban parks and recruited on random days over a two-week period found significant associations between outdoor activity duration and cognitive and mood improvements. Greater outdoor walking duration linearly predicted stronger processing speeds but non-linearly in tests of other cognitive domains. Results of fixed effects model for mean mood change following green exercise show outdoor walking influenced mood change at highest levels of significance, even after accounting for individual level variability in duration. Mood improved for all durations of outdoor walking under a random effects model with high significance. Untethering fixed intervals of outdoor exercise from formal study design revealed briefer but more frequent nature engagement aligned with nature affinity. The influence of unmeasured factors, e.g., nature affinity or restorative conditioning, for prescriptive durations of urban green exercise merits further investigation toward designing wellbeing interventions directed at specific urban populations.
The intersection of ecosystem and exposure science with health concerns has led to a gradual infiltration of these disciplines. Exposure to (urban) natural ecosystems, defined as ecological exposure, has proven to be substantially beneficial to health, providing more effective and preventive measures than dealing with downstream consequences of the disease. Besides, the eco-environment & health field has shifted its paradigm from focusing on negative environmental exposure to exploring the positive health benefits of ecological exposure. However, a unified framework that integrates the nexus of natural ecosystem, exposure, and health is still lacking. To address these challenges, we propose a new framework, Exposure Ecology (EE), and reviewed relevant studies. We suggest the domain and scope of EE include subject-reality, object-reality, subject-virtual, and object-virtual dimensions and that all previous studies can be covered within this coordinate frame. We analyze the trends and shortcomings of each domain and explain the pathways of ecological exposure to health, including reduction, restoration, promotion capacity, and potential harm. Furthermore, we discuss the theoretical basis for the formation of the theoretical framework of EE, as well as the EE-derived hypotheses, implications, and connections to other related fields. In short, the EE-driven holistic critical review enhances our understanding of this frontier topic substantially, and it can serve as a unified framework for understanding the nexus of (urban) natural ecosystems, ecological exposure, and health, and realizing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Two studies investigated whether a brief dose of an environment influenced subjective wellbeing and the perceived restorativeness of the setting; and if either varied by place preference. Participants (NS1 = 211; NS2 = 338) were randomly allocated to view one environment online for 30-seconds, rated perceived restorativeness and indicated state mood and emotion. In study 1, mood did not differ by environment. In study 2, the emotions happy, relaxation and desire were lowest and anger and fear/anxiety highest in the urban street condition. In both studies, perceived restorativeness was lower in the urban street condition and the interaction between preference/environment type significant. Nature settings were rated more restorative than urban streets; the effect was greatest with a nature preference. A similar interaction effect existed for positive emotion in study 2. Virtual brief doses of environments can elicit differences in emotion but not mood (which should be differentiated) and place preference should be considered in future studies.
There are 6 Official Pillars of Lifestyle Medicine, and now mounting evidence supports daily exposure to nature and fresh air as vital to optimizing overall physical and mental health. Time spent in nature has been shown to help lower blood pressure, reduce nervous system arousal, enhance immune system function, reduce anxiety and increase self-esteem. The positive effects of time spent in nature span different occupations, ethnic groups, financial status and individuals with a variety of chronic illnesses and disabilities. “Forest Bathing” is the term coined by Japanese researchers for walking in the woods. It is suspected that aerosols from trees, when inhaled during a forest walk, are one factor responsible for elevated immune system Natural Killer (NK) cells, which help fight off infections and tumor growth. In a culture of ever-increasing technology and screen time, now more than ever it is crucial to educate and empower individuals to incorporate nature into therapeutic treatment regimens. This article will demonstrate the potential benefits of nature, share evidence supporting nature as medicine and provide tools to help engage individuals to spend more time outdoors.
City road verges often represent existing green space and provide opportunities for ecological enhancement. Urban greenspace improvement initiatives at the residential verge scale require genuine community support and engagement for success. We examined a community-based voluntary assisted verge greening program designed to enhance greenspace connectivity using native plants in a local municipality in Perth, Western Australia. A social survey of verge-greening program participants and non-participants was conducted to understand factors associated with community involvement. Results indicated general resident support for the program, where both groups viewed the program objectives positively. However, non-participants were less convinced, than participants, of the likelihood that the verge greening program would achieve its aims and the merits of some aims. This paper provides insight into a voluntary community engagement tool for developing urban green space connectivity and enhancing natural values at the residential roadside verge level.
A distinction between ruminative and reflective types of private self-attentiveness is introduced and evaluated with respect to L. R. Goldberg's (1982) list of 1,710 English trait adjectives (Study 1), the five-factor model of personality (FFM) and A. Fenigstein, M. F. Scheier, and A. Buss's(1975) Self-Consciousness Scales (Study 2), and previously reported correlates and effects of private self-consciousness (PrSC; Studies 3 and 4). Results suggest that the PrSC scale confounds two unrelated motivationally distinct disposition-rumination and reflection-and that this confounding may account for the "self-absorption paradox" implicit in PrSC research findings: Higher PrSC sources are associated with more accurate and extensive self-knowledge yet higher levels of psychological distress. The potential of the FFM to provide a comprehensive Framework for conceptualizing self-attentive dispositions, and to order and integrate research findings within this domain, is discussed.
Failures to replicate published psychological research findings have contributed to a "crisis of confidence." Several reasons for these failures have been proposed, the most notable being questionable research practices and data fraud. We examine replication from a different perspective and illustrate that current intuitive expectations for replication are unreasonable. We used computer simulations to create thousands of ideal replications, with the same participants, wherein the only difference across replications was random measurement error. In the first set of simulations, study results differed substantially across replications as a result of measurement error alone. This raises questions about how researchers should interpret failed replication attempts, given the large impact that even modest amounts of measurement error can have on observed associations. In the second set of simulations, we illustrated the difficulties that researchers face when trying to interpret and replicate a published finding. We also assessed the relative importance of both sampling error and measurement error in producing variability in replications. Conventionally, replication attempts are viewed through the lens of verifying or falsifying published findings. We suggest that this is a flawed perspective and that researchers should adjust their expectations concerning replications and shift to a meta-analytic mind-set.
© The Author(s) 2014.
Two studies on the use of nature for emotion regulation were conducted. Study 1 (N = 35) ran over two weeks and was an experimental investigation. Participants in the experimental condition were asked to use a picture of nature actively as environmental stimuli for emotion regulation in their everyday life, while two control groups simply looked at a picture of nature or a picture of balloons each evening. A significant effect of the manipulation was found on positive mood, but the effect was complex with an initial increase and then a decrease. There were no findings on negative mood. Study 2 (N = 473) explored the motivational tendency to seek out nature when the participants were happy or sad. A novel concept (expectancy construct) was introduced to measure the perception of the emotion regulatory potential of different environments. The classical natural environment was rated highest on emotional potential of all environments tested here. Perceiving a higher emotional potential in nature was related to a higher intention to seek out nature when happy or sad. Personality and mood were also related to these concepts. Higher positive mood was related to the intention to seek out nature when happy. Conscientiousness was related to a more positive perception of nature. The studies support the notion that using nature may be an effective strategy for regulating one's emotions.
There is growing appreciation for the advantages of experimentation in the social sciences. Policy-relevant claims that in the past were backed by theoretical arguments and inconclusive correlations are now being investigated using more credible methods. Changes have been particularly pronounced in development economics, where hundreds of randomized trials have been carried out over the last decade. When experimentation is difficult or impossible, researchers are using quasi-experimental designs. Governments and advocacy groups display a growing appetite for evidence-based policy-making. In 2005, Mexico established an independent government agency to rigorously evaluate social programs, and in 2012, the U.S. Office of Management and Budget advised federal agencies to present evidence from randomized program evaluations in budget requests (1, 2).
Green space has been associated with a wide range of health benefits, including stress reduction, but much pertinent evidence has relied on self-reported health indicators or experiments in artificially controlled environmental conditions. Little research has been reported using ecologically valid objective measures with participants in their everyday, residential settings. This paper describes the results of an exploratory study (n = 25) to establish whether salivary cortisol can act as a biomarker for variation in stress levels which may be associated with varying levels of exposure to green spaces, and whether recruitment and adherence to the required, unsupervised, salivary cortisol sampling protocol within the domestic setting could be achieved in a highly deprived urban population. Self-reported measures of stress and general wellbeing were also captured, allowing exploration of relationships between cortisol, wellbeing and exposure to green space close to home. Results indicate significant relationships between self-reported stress (P < 0.01), diurnal patterns of cortisol secretion (P < 0.05), and quantity of green space in the living environment. Regression analysis indicates percentage of green space in the living environment is a significant (P < 0.05) and independent predictor of the circadian cortisol cycle, in addition to self-reported physical activity (P < 0.02). Results also show that compliance with the study protocol was good. We conclude that salivary cortisol measurement offers considerable potential for exploring relationships between wellbeing and green space and discuss how this ecologically valid methodology can be developed to confirm and extend findings in deprived city areas to illuminate why provision of green space close to home might enhance health.
Background
The Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 (GBD 2010) identified mental and substance use disorders as the 5th leading contributor of burden in 2010, measured by disability adjusted life years (DALYs). This estimate was incomplete as it excluded burden resulting from the increased risk of suicide captured elsewhere in GBD 2010's mutually exclusive list of diseases and injuries. Here, we estimate suicide DALYs attributable to mental and substance use disorders.
Methods
Relative-risk estimates of suicide due to mental and substance use disorders and the global prevalence of each disorder were used to estimate population attributable fractions. These were adjusted for global differences in the proportion of suicide due to mental and substance use disorders compared to other causes then multiplied by suicide DALYs reported in GBD 2010 to estimate attributable DALYs (with 95% uncertainty).
Results
Mental and substance use disorders were responsible for 22.5 million (14.8–29.8 million) of the 36.2 million (26.5–44.3 million) DALYs allocated to suicide in 2010. Depression was responsible for the largest proportion of suicide DALYs (46.1% (28.0%–60.8%)) and anorexia nervosa the lowest (0.2% (0.02%–0.5%)). DALYs occurred throughout the lifespan, with the largest proportion found in Eastern Europe and Asia, and males aged 20–30 years. The inclusion of attributable suicide DALYs would have increased the overall burden of mental and substance use disorders (assigned to them in GBD 2010 as a direct cause) from 7.4% (6.2%–8.6%) to 8.3% (7.1%–9.6%) of global DALYs, and would have changed the global ranking from 5th to 3rd leading cause of burden.
Conclusions
Capturing the suicide burden attributable to mental and substance use disorders allows for more accurate estimates of burden. More consideration needs to be given to interventions targeted to populations with, or at risk for, mental and substance use disorders as an effective strategy for suicide prevention.
The findings suggest that stressed individuals feel significantly better after exposure to nature scenes rather than to American urban scenes lacking nature elements. Compared to the influences of the urban scenes, the salient effect of the nature exposures was to increase Positive Affect — including feelings of affection friendliness, playfulness, and elation. The increase in positive affect produced by the nature scenes is consistent with the finding that the nature exposures also significantly reduced Fear Arousal. According to psychological theories, a reduction in arousal or activation produces pleasurable feelings if an individual is experiencing stress or excessive arousal (Berlyne, 1971, pp. 81–82). In contrast to the nature scenes, the urban views tended to work against emotional well‐being. The major effect of the urban scenes was to significantly increase Sadness. There was also a consistent but non‐significant tendency for the urban scenes to‐aggravate feelings of Anger/Aggression, and for the nature scenes to reduce such feelings. The urban exposures also held the attention of subjects somewhat less effectively than the nature exposures. These findings were stable across sexes, and applied to subjects who had grown up in either rural or urban environments.
Subjects viewed sixty color slides of either (1) nature with water, (2) nature dominated by vegetation, or (3) urban environments without water or vegetation. The information rates of the three slide samples were equivalent. Measurements were taken of the effects of the slide presentations on alpha amplitude, heart rate, and emotional states. Results revealed several significant differences as a function of environment, which together indicate that the two categories of nature views had more positive influences on psychophysiological states than the urban scenes. Alpha was significantly higher during the vegetation as opposed to urban slides; similarly, alpha was higher on the average when subjects viewed water rather than urban content. There was also a consistent pattern for nature, especially water, to have more positive influences on emotional states. A salient finding was that water, and to a lesser extent vegetation views, held attention and interest more effectively than the urban scenes. Implications of the findings for theory development in environmental aesthetics are discussed.
Restorative environments help renew psychological resources depleted in environments that do not fully support intended functions. The design of restorative environments can be aided and underlying theory elaborated with a means for measuring psychological factors thought to work in restorative experiences. This paper reports on four studies carried out to develop such a measure, the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS). Each study employed several strategies for assessing reliability and validity. Factor analysis was used to examine the stability of the measure's factor structure across different sites and studies. To assess criterion, convergent, and discriminant validities, measures of emotional states and other environmental qualities were also completed for each site. The sites selected for evaluation differed on theoretically relevant dimensions (natural-urban; outdoor-indoor), enabling checks on the PRS's sensitivity to meaningful differences among environments. The results were consistent across the studies, which also involved different subject populations (American, Swedish, Finnish) and presentation modes (on-site, video, photographic slides). Although the factor analytic results introduce some interpretive qualifications, substantial validity coefficients and sensitivity to meaningful differences between sites speak to the utility of the measure.
A qualitative case study from Brumunddalen, Norway, indicates that children's use of nature areas near their homes have changed substantially from being spontaneous and self-initiated to being part of planned, organised and adult-controlled activities. This study explores the association between changes in outdoor play and wider patterns of change in childhood today, as increasing amounts of play time is spent in institutions and organised activities, or occupied by computer and internet usage. The paper discusses these effects in terms of social relations as well as children's identity formation. The subject was investigated through adults' memories of their own childhood and their observations of children's practices.
Depending on what is in the view, looking out the window may provide numerous opportunities for restoration. Unlike other restorative opportunities, however, window viewing is more frequent and for brief moments at a time. The setting is also experienced from afar rather than while being in it. A study conducted at six low-rise apartment communities, using a survey with both verbal and visual material, provides considerable support for the premise that having natural elements or settings in the view from the window contributes substantially to residents’ satisfaction with their neighborhood and with diverse aspects of their sense of well-being. Views of built elements, by contrast, affected satisfaction but not well-being. Views of the sky and weather did not have a substantial effect on either outcome. The potential of nature content in the view from home to contribute so significantly to satisfaction and well-being suggests clear action mandates.
S. Kaplan suggested that one outcome of mental fatigue may be an increased propensity for outbursts of anger and even violence. If so, contact with nature, which appears to mitigate mental fatigue, may reduce aggression and violence. This study investigated that possibility in a setting and population with relatively high rates of aggression: inner-city urban public housing residents. Levels of aggression were compared for 145 urban public housing residents randomly assigned to buildings with varying levels of nearby nature (trees and grass). Attentional functioning was assessed as an index of mental fatigue. Residents living in relatively barren buildings reported more aggression and violence than did their counterparts in greener buildings. Moreover, levels of mental fatigue were higher in barren buildings, and aggression accompanied mental fatigue. Tests for the proposed mechanism and for alternative mechanisms indicated that the relationship between nearby nature and aggression was fully mediated through attentional functioning.
Environmentalists and ecopsychologists claim that focusing on “I” leads people to feel less connected to nature. The present study empirically tests this argument by manipulating participants’ objective self-awareness (OSA). Heightened OSA has been shown to increase participants’ self-focus, but also increase the impact of individuals’ attitudes and personality characteristics. Integrating these effects, we predicted that individuals lacking pro-environmental internal characteristics (nonenvironmentalists and those high on exploitativeness) would show decreased connection to nature in response to heightened OSA, while individuals with pro-environmental internal characteristics would not. For these individuals, their pro-environmental internal characteristics should counteract the effects of OSA on connection to nature. Two studies provide empirical support for this hypothesis. Implications of this research for pro-environmental actions are discussed.
Environments shape health and well-being, yet little research has investigated how different real-world environmental settings influence the well-known determinant of health known as stress. Using a cross-over experimental design; this pilot study investigated the effect of four urban environments on physiological and psychological stress measures. Participants (N = 15) were exposed on separate days to one of the four settings for 20 min. These settings were designated as Very Natural; Mostly Natural; Mostly Built and Very Built. Visitation order to the four settings was individually randomized. Salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase; as well as self-report measures of stress; were collected before and after exposure to each setting. Gender was included as a variable in analysis; and additional data about environmental self-identity, pre-existing stress, and perceived restorativeness of settings were collected as measures of covariance. Differences between environmental settings showed greater benefit from exposure to natural settings relative to built settings; as measured by pre-to-post changes in salivary amylase and self-reported stress; differences were more significant for females than for males. Inclusion of covariates in a regression analysis demonstrated significant predictive value of perceived restorativeness on these stress measures, suggesting some potential level of mediation. These data suggest that exposure to natural environments may warrant further investigation as a health promotion method for reducing stress.
There is mounting empirical evidence that interacting with nature delivers measurable benefits to people. Reviews of this topic have generally focused on a specific type of benefit, been limited to a single discipline, or covered the benefits delivered from a particular type of interaction. Here we construct novel typologies of the settings, interactions and potential benefits of people-nature experiences, and use these to organise an assessment of the benefits of interacting with nature. We discover that evidence for the benefits of interacting with nature is geographically biased towards high latitudes and Western societies, potentially contributing to a focus on certain types of settings and benefits. Social scientists have been the most active researchers in this field. Contributions from ecologists are few in number, perhaps hindering the identification of key ecological features of the natural environment that deliver human benefits. Although many types of benefits have been studied, benefits to physical health, cognitive performance and psychological well-being have received much more attention than the social or spiritual benefits of interacting with nature, despite the potential for important consequences arising from the latter. The evidence for most benefits is correlational, and although there are several experimental studies, little as yet is known about the mechanisms that are important for delivering these benefits. For example, we do not know which characteristics of natural settings (e.g., biodiversity, level of disturbance, proximity, accessibility) are most important for triggering a beneficial interaction, and how these characteristics vary in importance among cultures, geographic regions and socio-economic groups. These are key directions for future research if we are to design landscapes that promote high quality interactions between people and nature in a rapidly urbanising world.
The Distinctiveness of Environmental PsychologyTheoretical BasesEnvironmental Perception and Spatial CognitionManaging Social SpaceEncouraging Proenvironmental BehaviorThe Psychology of Resource ManagementResidential Environmental PsychologyThe Environmental Psychology of Neighborhoods and CitiesEducational Environmental PsychologyWorkplace Environmental PsychologyNatural Environmental PsychologyThe Social Construction of Nature, the Environment, and Environmental ProblemsEnvironmental Psychology and Architectural DesignInformation and Communication Technologies and EnvironmentsConclusion - Changing Contexts, Horizons, and ChallengesReferences
We used a direct rating approach based on definitions of each construct to measure the four components of a restorative environment proposed by attention restoration theory (ART): being away, extent, fascination, and compatibility. We used the same approach to measure two criterion variables, perceived restorative potential (PRP) of a setting and preference for the setting, as well as four additional predictor variables (openness, visual access, movement ease, and setting care). Each participant rated 70 settings, 35 each from urban and natural environments, for only one of the variables. Mean ratings were higher for the natural than the urban settings for both criterion variables and all four restorative components, with differences significant in all cases except for fascination. Correlations across settings generally followed the predictions of ART, but collinearity appeared among several sets of variables, most notably being away and setting category, PRP and preference, and extent and fascination. Despite these problems, regression analysis showed that being away and compatibility predicted PRP and that the pattern of prediction for PRP and preference was somewhat different. r 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
To evaluate the impact of an intensive period of mindfulness meditation training on cognitive and affective function, a non-clinical
group of 20 novice meditators were tested before and after participation in a 10-day intensive mindfulness meditation retreat.
They were evaluated with self-report scales measuring mindfulness, rumination and affect, as well as performance tasks assessing
working memory, sustained attention, and attention switching. Results indicated that those completing the mindfulness training
demonstrated significant improvements in self-reported mindfulness, depressive symptoms, rumination, and performance measures
of working memory and sustained attention, relative to a comparison group who did not undergo any meditation training. This
study suggests future directions for the elucidation of the critical processes that underlie the therapeutic benefits of mindfulness-based
interventions.
An academic scientist's professional success depends on publishing. Publishing norms emphasize novel, positive results. As such, disciplinary incentives encourage design, analysis, and reporting decisions that elicit positive results and ignore negative results. Prior reports demonstrate how these incentives inflate the rate of false effects in published science. When incentives favor novelty over replication, false results persist in the literature unchallenged, reducing efficiency in knowledge accumulation. Previous suggestions to address this problem are unlikely to be effective. For example, a journal of negative results publishes otherwise unpublishable reports. This enshrines the low status of the journal and its content. The persistence of false findings can be meliorated with strategies that make the fundamental but abstract accuracy motive-getting it right-competitive with the more tangible and concrete incentive-getting it published. This article develops strategies for improving scientific practices and knowledge accumulation that account for ordinary human motivations and biases.
© The Author(s) 2012.
This study aimed to explore whether walking in nature may be beneficial for individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD). Healthy adults demonstrate significant cognitive gains after nature walks, but it was unclear whether those same benefits would be achieved in a depressed sample as walking alone in nature might induce rumination, thereby worsening memory and mood.
Twenty individuals diagnosed with MDD participated in this study. At baseline, mood and short term memory span were assessed using the PANAS and the backwards digit span (BDS) task, respectively. Participants were then asked to think about an unresolved negative autobiographical event to prime rumination, prior to taking a 50-min walk in either a natural or urban setting. After the walk, mood and short-term memory span were reassessed. The following week, participants returned to the lab and repeated the entire procedure, but walked in the location not visited in the first session (i.e., a counterbalanced within-subjects design).
Participants exhibited significant increases in memory span after the nature walk relative to the urban walk, p<.001, η(p)(2)=.53 (a large effect-size). Participants also showed increases in mood, but the mood effects did not correlate with the memory effects, suggesting separable mechanisms and replicating previous work.
Sample size and participants' motivation.
These findings extend earlier work demonstrating the cognitive and affective benefits of interacting with nature to individuals with MDD. Therefore, interacting with nature may be useful clinically as a supplement to existing treatments for MDD.
Five studies assessed the validity and reliability of the connectedness to nature scale (CNS), a new measure of individuals’ trait levels of feeling emotionally connected to the natural world. Data from two community and three college samples demonstrated that the CNS has good psychometric properties, correlates with related variables (the new environmental paradigm scale, identity as an environmentalist), and is uncorrelated with potential confounds (verbal ability, social desirability). This paper supports ecopsychologists’ contention that connection to nature is an important predictor of ecological behavior and subjective well-being. It also extends social psychological research on self–other overlap, perspective taking, and altruistic behavior to the overlap between self and nature. The CNS promises to be a useful empirical tool for research on the relationship between humans and the natural world.
Children growing up in the inner city are at risk of academic underachievement, juvenile delinquency, teenage pregnancy, and other important negative outcomes. Avoiding these outcomes requires self-discipline. Self-discipline, in turn, may draw on directed attention, a limited resource that can be renewed through contact with nature. This study examined the relationship between near-home nature and three forms of self-discipline in 169 inner city girls and boys randomly assigned to 12 architecturally identical high-rise buildings with varying levels of nearby nature. Parent ratings of the naturalness of the view from home were used to predict children's performance on tests of concentration, impulse inhibition, and delay of gratification. Regressions indicated that, on average, the more natural a girl's view from home, the better her performance at each of these forms of self-discipline. For girls, view accounted for 20% of the variance in scores on the combined self-discipline index. For boys, who typically spend less time playing in and around their homes, view from home showed no relationship to performance on any measure. These findings suggest that, for girls, green space immediately outside the home can help them lead more effective, self-disciplined lives. For boys, perhaps more distant green spaces are equally important.
Different conceptual perspectives converge to predict that if individuals are stressed, an encounter with most unthreatening natural environments will have a stress reducing or restorative influence, whereas many urban environments will hamper recuperation. Hypotheses regarding emotional, attentional and physiological aspects of stress reducing influences of nature are derived from a psycho-evolutionary theory. To investigate these hypotheses, 120 subjects first viewed a stressful movie, and then were exposed to color/sound videotapes of one of six different natural and urban settings. Data concerning stress recovery during the environmental presentations were obtained from self-ratings of affective states and a battery of physiological measures: heart period, muscle tension, skin conductance and pulse transit time, a non-invasive measure that correlates with systolic blood pressure. Findings from the physiological and verbal measures converged to indicate that recovery was faster and more complete when subjects were exposed to natural rather than urban environments. The pattern of physiological findings raised the possibility that responses to nature had a salient parasympathetic nervous system component; however, there was no evidence of pronounced parasympathetic involvement in responses to the urban settings. There were directional differences in cardiac responses to the natural vs urban settings, suggesting that attention/intake was higher during the natural exposures. However, both the stressor film and the nature settings elicited high levels of involuntary or automatic attention, which contradicts the notion that restorative influences of nature stem from involuntary attention or fascination. Findings were consistent with the predictions of the psycho-evolutionary theory that restorative influences of nature involve a shift towards a more positively-toned emotional state, positive changes in physiological activity levels, and that these changes are accompanied by sustained attention/intake. Content differences in terms of natural vs human-made properties appeared decisive in accounting for the differences in recuperation and perceptual intake.
Previously studies have shown that nature improves mood and self-esteem and reduces blood pressure. Walking within a natural environment has been suggested to alter autonomic nervous system control, but the mechanisms are not fully understood. Heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive method of assessing autonomic control and can give an insight into vagal modulation. Our hypothesis was that viewing nature alone within a controlled laboratory environment would induce higher levels of HRV as compared to built scenes. Heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) were measured during viewing different scenes in a controlled environment. HRV was used to investigate alterations in autonomic activity, specifically parasympathetic activity. Each participant lay in the semi-supine position in a laboratory while we recorded 5 min (n = 29) of ECG, BP and respiration as they viewed two collections of slides (one containing nature views and the other built scenes). During viewing of nature, markers of parasympathetic activity were increased in both studies. Root mean squared of successive differences increased 4.2 ± 7.7 ms (t = 2.9, p = 0.008) and natural logarithm of high frequency increased 0.19 ± 0.36 ms(2) Hz(-1) (t = 2.9, p = 0.007) as compared to built scenes. Mean HR and BP were not significantly altered. This study provides evidence that autonomic control of the heart is altered by the simple act of just viewing natural scenes with an increase in vagal activity.
We know that children need nature … or do we? There are certainly many reasons to think that nature plays an important role in child development. For many of us, intuition emphatically asserts that nature is good for children. We hold intuitions such as, ‘every kid needs a dog’, ‘children need a nice yard to play in’, and ‘children need “fresh air”’. Beyond these intuitions, there are also well-reasoned theoretical arguments as to why humans in general – and therefore children – might have an inborn need for contact with nature (e.g., S. Kaplan, 1995; Wilson, 1984). And there is a growing body of qualitative research consistent with this idea (Bardill, 1997; Hart, 1979; R. Moore, 1989; R. C. Moore, 1986; Nabhan, 1994; Sebba, 1991; Sobel, 1993; Titman, 1994). But what do we really know about the value of nature in promoting child development? What systematic evidence is there for or against this possibility? Is children's need for nature established fact, yet-to-be-substantiated folk theory, or simply myth? The question of nature's role in healthy child development is increasingly urgent. A consistent concern among the researchers studying children and nature is that children's access to nature is rapidly diminishing (e.g., Kahn, 2002; Kellert, 2002; Pyle, 2002; Rivkin, 2000). Not only may there be less nature for children to access, but children's access of what remains may be increasingly sporadic.
A study was conducted in which 133 participants performed 11 memory tasks (some thought to reflect working memory and some thought to reflect short-term memory), 2 tests of general fluid intelligence, and the Verbal and Quantitative Scholastic Aptitude Tests. Structural equation modeling suggested that short-term and working memories reflect separate but highly related constructs and that many of the tasks used in the literature as working memory tasks reflect a common construct. Working memory shows a strong connection to fluid intelligence, but short-term memory does not. A theory of working memory capacity and general fluid intelligence is proposed: The authors argue that working memory capacity and fluid intelligence reflect the ability to keep a representation active, particularly in the face of interference and distraction. The authors also discuss the relationship of this capability to controlled attention, and the functions of the prefrontal cortex.
Human beings are unique in their ability to think consciously about themselves. Because they have a capacity for self-awareness not shared by other animals, people can imagine themselves in the future, anticipate consequences, plan ahead, improve themselves, and perform many other behaviors that are uniquely characteristic of human beings. Yet, despite the obvious advantages of self-reflection, the capacity for self-thought comes at a high price as people's lives are adversely affected and their inner chatter interferes with their success, pollutes their relationships, and undermines their happiness. Indeed, self-relevant thought is responsible for most of the personal and social difficulties that human beings face as individuals and as a species. Among other things, the capacity for self-reflection distorts people's perceptions, leading them to make bad decisions based on faulty information. The self conjures up a great deal of personal suffering in the form of depression, anxiety, anger, envy, and other negative emotions by allowing people to ruminate about the past or imagine the future. Egocentrism and egotism blind people to their own shortcomings, promote self-serving biases, and undermine their relationships with others. The ability to self-reflect also underlies social conflict by leading people to separate themselves into ingroups and outgroups. Ironically, many sources of personal unhappiness - such as addictions, overeating, unsafe sex, infidelity, and domestic violence - are due to people's inability to exert self-control. For those inclined toward religion and spirituality, visionaries throughout history have proclaimed that the egoic self stymies the quest for spiritual fulfillment and leads to immoral behavior.
The therapeutic value of landscape in giving opportunity for 'spiritual renewal' through closer contact with nature has been the basis for much of the scenic conservation movement and lies behind a universal concept of National Parks as providing recreational resources for urban populations. This belief is tested in a series of classroom studies. -C.Laverick
A growing body of empirical research suggests that brief contact with natural environments improves emotional well-being. The current study synthesizes this body of research using meta-analytic techniques and assesses the mean effect size of exposure to natural environments on both positive and negative affect. Thirty-two studies with a total of 2356 participants were included. Across these studies, exposure to natural environments was associated with a moderate increase in positive affect and a smaller, yet consistent, decrease in negative affect relative to comparison conditions. Significant heterogeneity was found for the effect of nature on positive affect, and type of emotion assessment, type of exposure to nature, location of study, and mean age of sample were found to moderate this effect. The implications of these findings for existing theory and research are discussed, with particular emphasis placed on potential avenues for fruitful future research examining the effects of nature on well-being.
Urbanization, resource exploitation, and lifestyle changes have diminished possibilities for human contact with nature in urbanized societies. Concern about the loss has helped motivate research on the health benefits of contact with nature. Reviewing that research here, we focus on nature as represented by aspects of the physical environment relevant to planning, design, and policy measures that serve broad segments of urbanized societies. We discuss difficulties in defining "nature" and reasons for the current expansion of the research field, and we assess available reviews. We then consider research on pathways between nature and health involving air quality, physical activity, social cohesion, and stress reduction. Finally, we discuss methodological issues and priorities for future research. The extant research does describe an array of benefits of contact with nature, and evidence regarding some benefits is strong; however, some findings indicate caution is needed in applying beliefs about those benefits, and substantial gaps in knowledge remain. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Public Health Volume 35 is March 18, 2014. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
This study investigated the psychological (perceived restorativeness, subjective vitality, mood, creativity) and physiological (salivary cortisol concentration) effects of short-term visits to urban nature environments. Seventy-seven participants visited three different types of urban areas; a built-up city centre (as a control environment), an urban park, and urban woodland located in Helsinki, the capital of Finland. Our results show that the large urban park and extensively managed urban woodland had almost the same positive influence, but the overall perceived restorativeness was higher in the woodland after the experiment. The findings suggest that even short-term visits to nature areas have positive effects on perceived stress relief compared to built-up environment. The salivary cortisol level decreased in a similar fashion in all three urban environments during the experiment. The relations between psychological measures and physiological measures, as well as the influence of nature exposure on different groups of people, need to be studied further.
The complex span measure of working memory is a word/digit span measured while performing a secondary task. Two experiments investigated whether correlations between the complex span and reading comprehension depend on the nature of the secondary task and individual skill in that task. The secondary task did not have to be reading related for the span to predict reading comprehension. An arithmetic-related secondary task led to correlations with reading comprehension similar to those found when the secondary task was reading. The relationship remained significant when quantitative skills were factored out of the complex span/comprehension correlations. Simple digit and word spans (measured without a background task) did not correlate with reading comprehension and SAT scores. The second experiment showed that the complex span/comprehension correlations were a function of the difficulty of the background task. When the difficulty level of the reading-related or arithmetic-related background tasks was moderate, the span/comprehension correlations were higher in magnitude than when the background tasks were very simple, or, were very difficult.
This article investigates the direct and indirect effects of windows in the workplace onjob satisfaction, intention to quit, and general well-being. The impact of three specific influencing mechanisms are examined: general level of illumination, sunlight penetration, and view. The extent to which these environmental features might moderate the negative consequences of job stress is investigated. The sample consisted of 100 white-and blue-collar workers who were employed in a large wine-producing organization in the Mediterranean region of Southern Europe. The results showed a significant direct effect for sunlight penetration on job satisfaction, intention to quit, and general well-being. A view of natural elements (i.e., trees, vegetation, plants, and foliage) was found to buffer the negative impact of job stress on intention to quit and to have a similar, albeit marginal, effect on general well-being. No effects for general level of illumination were found.
The utility of different theoretical models of restorative experience was explored in a quasi-experimental field study and a true experiment. The former included wilderness backpacking and nonwilderness vacation conditions, as well as a control condition in which participants continued with their daily routines. The latter had urban environment, natural environment, and passive relaxation conditions. Multimethod assessments of restoration consisted of self-reports of affective states, cognitive performance, and, in the latter study, physiological measures. Convergent self-report and performance results obtained in both studies offer evidence of greater restorative effects arising from experiences in nature. Implications for theory, methodology, and design are discussed.
Three experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that exposure to restorative environments facilitates recovery from mental fatigue. To this end, participants were first mentally fatigued by performing a sustained attention test; then they viewed photographs of restorative environments, nonrestorative environments or geometrical patterns; and finally they performed the sustained attention test again. Only participants exposed to the restorative environments improved their performance on the final attention test, and this improvement occurred whether they viewed the scenes in the standardized time condition or in the self-paced time condition. Results are in agreement with Kaplan's [(1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182] attention restoration theory, and support the idea that restorative environments help maintain and restore the capacity to direct attention.
Urbanization is a potential threat to mental health and well-being. Cross-sectional evidence suggests that living closer to urban green spaces, such as parks, is associated with lower mental distress. However, earlier research was unable to control for time-invariant heterogeneity (e.g., personality) and focused on indicators of poor psychological health. The current research advances the field by using panel data from over 10,000 individuals to explore the relation between urban green space and well-being (indexed by ratings of life satisfaction) and between urban green space and mental distress (indexed by General Health Questionnaire scores) for the same people over time. Controlling for individual and regional covariates, we found that, on average, individuals have both lower mental distress and higher well-being when living in urban areas with more green space. Although effects at the individual level were small, the potential cumulative benefit at the community level highlights the importance of policies to protect and promote urban green spaces for well-being.
In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors report further evidence bearing on the relations among restorative experiences, self-regulation, and place attachment. University students (n = 101) described their favorite places and experiences in them, and 98 other students described unpleasant places. Natural settings were overrepresented among favorite places and underrepresented among the unpleasant places. In open-ended accounts, frequent mention of being relaxed, being away from everyday life, forgetting worries, and reflecting on personal matters indicated a link between favorite places and restorative experience. Restoration was particularly typical of natural favorite places. Structured evaluations of being away, fascination, coherence, and compatibility indicated they were experienced to a high degree in the favorite places, although fascination to a lesser degree than compatibility. The favorite and unpleasant places differed substantially in all four restorative qualities but especially in being away and compatibility. Self-referencing appears to be more characteristic of favorite place experiences than engaging or interesting environmental properties.