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The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition

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Abstract

This study investigated the impact of nature experience on affect and cognition. We randomly assigned sixty participants to a 50-min walk in either a natural or an urban environment in and around Stanford, California. Before and after their walk, participants completed a series of psychological assessments of affective and cognitive functioning. Compared to the urban walk, the nature walk resulted in affective benefits (decreased anxiety, rumination, and negative affect, and preservation of positive affect) as well as cognitive benefits (increased working memory performance). This study extends previous research by demonstrating additional benefits of nature experience on affect and cognition through assessments of anxiety, rumination, and a complex measure of working memory (operation span task). These findings further our understanding of the influence of relatively brief nature experiences on affect and cognition, and help to lay the foundation for future research on the mechanisms underlying these effects. Available here: http://authors.elsevier.com/a/1QdlwcUG4~B3U

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... Being away is similar to psychological detachment in that the mind is intentionally disconnecting and mentally "leaving" the present stressful environment so the individual can restore their cognitive resources (Kaplan, 1995). Bratman et al. (2015) found that nature can facilitate disconnecting and settling into a calm state by giving the mind something else to focus on. The concept of being away relates to mediation as it is the practice of disengaging mental ...
... The increasing stimuli, interconnectedness, and distractions of the modern office are draining our cognitive resources, from the energy it takes to adhere to social pressures of constant work to the energy we waste ignoring all the external stimuli competing for our attention. These experiences are amplified in the rapid urbanization of communities, which nature researchers are starting to connect to the significant rise in mental health disorders (Bratman et al., 2015). We propose several parallels between silence and nature in their restorative abilities, applications at work, and eventual outcomes. ...
... ART posits that an environment can have a positive impact on individual resources and recover cognitive resources through the sensations of fascination, being away, extent, and compatibility (Bratman et al., 2015;Kaplan, 1995). We propose silence can improve cognitive functioning at work through the components of fascination and being away (Bratman et al., 2015;Kaplan, 1995), specifically soft fascination. ...
... This theory postulates that perception of several "safety" indicators (such as water and food availability) usually present in natural environments would cause a reduction in stress levels and an improvement in mood, which then translates into an improvement in cognitive performance. Evidence that supports this possibility could be the reduction of skin conductance response and heart rate (Laumann et al., 2003) or the reduction of cortisol levels and enhancement of positive affect (Bratman et al., 2015) as a consequence of nature interventions. ...
... In another study by Bratman et al. (2015), two groups of young adults completed a series of verbal (e.g., OSPAN) and visuospatial WM tasks before and after a 50-min walk in either a natural or an urban environment. To assess visuospatial WM, they used a variant of the Change Detection task-CDT (e.g., Luck & Vogel, 1997). ...
... There is behavioral and electrophysiological evidence that when participants are required to hold more than 4 items in a CDT, their accuracy performance can decline notably, especially in lower capacity individuals (e.g., Fukuda et al., 2015). Based on these findings, the results by Bratman et al. (2015) in the 8-item condition should be interpreted carefully as they might be constrained by our limited capacity for large sets of relevant stimuli (e.g., Fukuda et al., 2015; see also Cowan, 2001). ...
... Although we did not measure working memory in our study, it could potentially be a mediator of the restorative effects of environment exposure we found on decision-making performance (e.g., González-Espinar et al., 2023;Stenfors et al., 2019). Previous research has suggested that working memory is more likely than attention control to be affected by environmental exposure manipulations (Bratman et al., 2015;González-Espinar et al., 2023;Ohly et al., 2016;Stenfors et al., 2019;Stevenson et al., 2018), even if the two are related (e.g., Burgoyne et al., 2023;Draheim et al., 2021;Engle, 2002). Moreover, working memory is relevant to complex decision making, including performance on the Applying Decision Rules task (e.g., Del Missier et al., 2013, 2017 and other cognitively demanding judgment and decision-making tasks (e.g., De Neys & Verschueren, 2006;Dougherty & Hunter, 2003). ...
... Thus, it is possible that the restoration or depletion of working memory resources in different environmental exposure conditions may have played a role in the effects we observed in decision-making performance. From existing findings, it may be hypothesized that restorative effects concern not only the attention control functions of working memory but also, or especially, its updating and maintenance functions (see also Bratman et al., 2015;Stenfors et al., 2019). This would explain the higher sensitivity of tasks like Backwards Digit Span, Operation Span, or Applying Decision Rules to restorative effects vs. 'purer' attention control tasks like the Antisaccade, given that the former tasks but not the latter require maintaining and updating information in working memory. ...
Article
Exposure to natural environments or to their audiovisual representations has a restorative effect on attention and short-term memory. However, higher-level cognitive processes, such as decision making, have been overlooked. Additionally, studies have generally compared natural environments perceived to be restorative, such as woods, with built environments perceived to be nonrestorative, such as roads with traffic, paying less attention to built environments that could be restorative, such as libraries. We examined whether exposure to potentially restorative natural or built environments (vs. nonrestorative built environments) would improve the ability to apply decision rules to multiattribute choices, an important aspect of decision-making competence. Fatigued participants completed parallel versions of the Applying Decision Rules task before and after being exposed to audiovisual representations of these environments. Performance improved after exposure to restorative natural environments, remained unchanged after exposure to restorative built environments, and deteriorated after exposure to nonrestorative built environments. Restorative effects were partially mediated by self-reported fatigue, but not mediated by changes in attention control, emotional state, or motivation. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our findings.
... VR provides an immersive and repeatable platform to simulate the sensory-rich environments of caves, allowing researchers to explore how such conditions might have impacted the cognition and consciousness of early humans. Previous studies have successfully used VR to simulate environmental impacts on cognition, including the emotional benefits of nature in green environments [15,16]. In recent research, the potential of VR to evoke ASC-related changes in cognitive dynamics has been demonstrated; for instance, simulated hallucinatory experiences have been shown to enhance cognitive flexibility and inhibit automatic responses in modern participants [17]. ...
... (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 20 November 2024 doi:10.20944/preprints202411.1541.v115 ...
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This study explores the use of immersive Virtual Reality (VR) cave environments to investigate hypotheses concerning altered states of consciousness, creativity, and flexible thinking in archaeological contexts. Building on the premise that ancient humans used caves as sites for rituals involving altered consciousness, we recreated a virtual Cave environment to simulate these experiences and examine their impact on participants' cognitive processes. Participants engaged in pareidolic tasks within both a virtual cave and a virtual open-space environment, allowing for comparative analysis of semantic network organization and subjective experiences. Our findings show that the Cave environment elicited higher emotional arousal and spiritual engagement, as well as an improvement in the aspects of creativity and flexible thinking. These results suggest that VR can serve as a powerful tool in archaeology for reconstructing early humans’ experiences and to investigate their psychological and cognitive states, thus providing new insights into their use of caves for mind-altering or ritualistic purposes. This interdisciplinary approach contributes to both cognitive archaeology and the development of immersive VR technologies in scientific research.
... The findings of the present study also reveal that the leisure capability of the environment, viewed as a recreational and adventurous space, has not been able to foster positive relationships contributing to teenagers' relaxation and sense of competence at this site. In contrast, studies by Tseng and Wang (2020) and Bratman et al. (2015) highlight the importance of leisure environments in promoting adolescents emotional well-being, noting that teenagers often regard natural sites as valuable spaces for adventure and refuge. They seek such places for curiosity, discovery, and challenges, which offer them relaxation (Tseng & Wang, 2020). ...
... Spending free time in natural environments is also linked to positive outcomes, as recreational activities promote relaxation, mental restoration, and clarity of thought (Kaplan & Kaplan, 2002). However, the findings of Bratman et al. (2015) suggest that, in this particular site, the leisure capabilities of the natural environment did not provide emotional well-being for the adolescents, as they were unable to achieve relaxation and competence through recreational and adventure activities. ...
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This study investigates the relationship between various environmental capabilities (physical, social, leisure, and emotional) and adolescent well-being across multiple dimensions (physical, emotional, and social well-being). Data were collected through questionnaires distributed to 737 adolescents aged 12 to 19 in Tabriz, Iran, in 2022. The study focused on selected sites displaying specific adolescent behaviours in urban spaces, including natural, commercial, sports, urban pathways and intersections, and cultural settings. The questionnaires were used to evaluate environmental capabilities as independent variables and adolescent well-being as the dependent variable.Multivariate regression Analyses were employed to examine the impact of environmental capabilities on adolescent well-being within the defined typologies of urban spaces. The regression analysis unveiled that the commercial sites significantly influenced adolescent well-being, particularly physical well-being (regression coefficient = 0.437). It was found that environmental capabilities, categorized as physical, social, leisure, and emotional, assume a pivotal role in adolescents’ well-being across physical, emotional, and social dimensions.
... parklands, forests, mountains, oceans, rivers, and lakes. In an age of rapid urbanization and fast-paced living, many people do not have access or connection to nature (Bratman et al., 2015;Yu & Hsieh, 2020). A report on approximately 16,000 Europeans and Americans found people spend on average 90% of their time indoors (Velux, 2018). ...
... Urbanization has coincided with rising worldwide rates of mental health issues (Whiteford et al., 2013), with growing evidence suggesting urban living is associated with stress, negative emotions, and psychiatric disorders (Dye, 2008;Peen et al., 2007;Ventriglio et al., 2021). On the other hand, natural environments have been found to reduce physical and mental health problems, as well as increase vitality and cognitive functioning (Bratman et al., 2015;Kaplan, 1995;Kondo et al., 2018). However, not all nature is the same. ...
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The widespread benefits of creativity have become more salient in recent years. This has led to scholarly interest in finding ways to foster creativity. Nature immersion may be one way to enhance creativity, particularly as many individuals involved in creative pursuits have found nature to be a source of inspiration and a haven for restoration. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) extension for scoping reviews and the PRISMA-ScR 22 item checklist, we conducted a scoping review to examine the evidence on the relationship between nature and creativity as well as any underlying mechanisms facilitating this relationship. A scoping review was deemed appropriate given the infancy of the topic and the need to understand the broad landscape. Our aim was to present a range of interdisciplinary applications of nature interventions on different types of creative performance. We found 45 publications exploring the relationship between nature and creativity, with the majority (n = 36, 80%) published within the past seven years. Overall, the quantitative studies in our scoping review provided evidence of a significant positive relationship, or effect, between nature and creativity. These relationships held across various types of nature including for wilderness, rural and urban settings, as well as in different applications of creativity such as in the arts, workplace, education, and laboratory conditions. Qualitative and case study research also supported the positive relationship between nature and creativity including in diverse nature settings and in different applications such as in visual arts, design, writing, music, free play in kindergartens, and work. Qualitative studies highlighted potential mechanisms behind this relationship, including time in solitude, appreciation of impermanence, relaxation and inspiration, and disconnection from technology. Moreover, the degree of exposure to nature may be an important consideration for creative performance with more immersive, real-life experiences typical of outdoor nature, tending to be more effective than indoor spaces with window views or indoor plants. These preliminary findings suggest that more opportunities to connect with nature, especially in the outdoors, may help to stimulate creativity in a wide range of settings including education, the creative arts, and workplaces, although more high-quality research examining the sustained effects of nature on creativity is needed.
... Environmental conditions have the potential to impact working memory, which is closely linked to academic success and quality of life, resulting in individual distinctions in cognitive performance (Grissom & Reyes, 2019). Exposure to nature is an example of environmental manipulation that can improve working memory (Bratman et al., 2015;Norwood et al., 2019). Studies have found that exposure to nature positively affects human cognitive abilities, including working memory (Bratman et al., 2015;Rhee et al., 2023b). ...
... Exposure to nature is an example of environmental manipulation that can improve working memory (Bratman et al., 2015;Norwood et al., 2019). Studies have found that exposure to nature positively affects human cognitive abilities, including working memory (Bratman et al., 2015;Rhee et al., 2023b). Furthermore, nature exposure has been used as a treatment in health care services for patients who experience emotional, behavioral, and cognitive difficulties (Norwood et al., 2019). ...
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The positive impact of nature on working memory is well established; however, the relationship between indoor nature density, sex, and working memory remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the impact of indoor nature density on working memory and explore sex differences. Forty-one participants (26 females and 15 males) viewed 200 images of indoor environments with varying indoor nature densities. Following image viewing of each density group, participants completed a backward digit span task, and their electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded during both image viewing and task performance. The results indicated that as indoor nature density grew, there were increasing trends in backward digit span scores and relative frontal theta during the task and decreasing trends in the frontal theta-to-alpha ratio (TAR), theta-to-beta ratio (TBR), and theta-to-gamma ratio (TGR). According to the post hoc results of relative frontal theta during the task, frontal TAR, and TGR, working memory might be optimized in 25–36% indoor vegetation density. The study also found significant sex differences: females showed more substantial improvements in working memory with increased exposure to indoor nature density than males. This study’s results provide evidence for practical guidelines of designing indoor environments that enhance working memory.
... Three theories have been frequently cited as underpinning the potential health benefits of NBHT: Attention Restoration Theory, a cognitive model in which natural spaces reduce the demand on voluntary attentional control mechanisms (11), Stress-Reduction Theory (SRT) in which experiences with nature are believed to trigger emotional and physiological changes (12), and the Biophilia Hypothesis (13) which posits that humans have an innate attraction towards living entities and processes (14). While these theoretical frameworks are subject to debate based on their evolutionary assumptions and purported mechanisms (15)(16)(17), epidemiological data suggests that exposure to natural environments is associated with positive health outcomes. ...
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Nature-based health and therapy (NBHT) is a term incorporating a broad suite of practices that focus on engagement with the natural world and nature-rich spaces for potential physical and mental health benefits. As healthcare professions such as physiotherapy and osteopathy move away from biomedical/reductionist models of care for complex conditions towards approaches which take into account social and environmental determinants of health, NBHT may become part of clinical interventions and public health messaging. However, there are multiple challenges in aspects of NBHT research and application, from methodological issues in the primary research base, to questions of environmental injustice and access inequalities in many areas. In addition, engaging with natural environments which are vulnerable to the entwinned threats of climate change and biodiversity collapse requires consideration of the effects of ecological disturbance and the underlying anthropocentric/utilitarian view of the natural world. In this perspective, we outline a critique of NBHT literature and offer positive suggestions for how better-quality research can be conducted and implemented by focusing on local environmental, social, and political factors. We conclude by outlining a set of critical considerations that healthcare professionals might use to develop and implement NBHT programmes in their specific regional contexts.
... Numerous empirical studies have demonstrated that nature-based interventions reduce physiological stress markers-including blood pressure, heart rate, and cortisol levels -regardless of the mode of interaction with nature (active, passive, or virtual) (Jimenez et al., 2021;Shuda et al., 2020). Positive emotional changes are also consistently associated with psychological recovery from stress (Corazon et al., 2019;Bratman et al., 2015;Neill and Arbuthnott, 2019). Fredrickson's broaden-and-build theory of posits that positive affect broadens cognitive and behavioral repertoires, enhancing mental flexibility and meaning-based coping, which leads to the construction of long-term psychological and social resources (Fredrickson, 2004;Conway et al., 2013). ...
Article
Background and objective: This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a Self-compassion-based forest meditation therapy program in reducing daily stress and enhancing coping resources. Based on growing evidence supporting nature-based interventions for mental health, this program was designed to explore the effects of forest meditation therapy on stress, connectedness to nature, and self-compassion.Methods: Thirty participants (2 males, 28 females) recruited as adults (mean age 60 years) living in Seoul and Gyeonggi were assigned to experimental and control groups based on the order of enrollment. Two forest meditation therapy sessions were held between October and November 2023, with a two-week interval between sessions. Data were collected at three time points: before the intervention, after the first session, and after the second session. The primary measures included perceived stress, positive and negative affect, salivary cortisol levels, connectedness to nature, and self-compassion.Results: The experimental group showed significant reductions in perceived stress (F = 6.213, p = .007) and increases in positive affect compared to the control group (F = 3.556, p =.036). While negative affect significantly decreased in the experimental group (F = 5.509, p = .024), no significant difference was observed between the two groups. Cortisol levels significantly decreased in the experimental group post-intervention (z = -2.341, p = .019). Furthermore, the experimental group showed significant improvements in connectedness to nature (F = 6.205, p = .007) and a significant positive trend toward increased self-compassion compared to the control group (F = 4.046, p = .023).Conclusion: The Self-compassion-based Forest Meditation Therapy Program appears to be effective in managing stress and enhancing key coping resources such as connectedness to nature and self-compassion. These findings suggest that forest meditation therapy could serve as a valuable public health intervention for stress reduction. Future research with larger samples and extended follow-up periods is recommended to further explore its long-term benefits.
... Research indicates that being exposed to natural elements, such as vegetation and sunlight, might decrease stress levels, decrease blood pressure, and improve mood [8]. In addition, studies have shown that natural surroundings can facilitate recovery from mental exhaustion [9] and enhance cognitive abilities [10]. In the context of hospitality settings, providing an environment that fosters attention restoration is of the highest significance. ...
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Natural environments have been discovered to promote restoration from mental fatigue and improve cognitive performance. In hotels, patrons creating these restorative environments is of great importance to ensure a truly rejuvenating stay for patrons. However, luxury hotels in Nigeria often struggle to effectively incorporate restorative elements that cater to their diverse international clientele, which leads to suboptimal guest experiences. This study examines the impact of biophilic design strategies on creating restorative spaces in luxury hotels in Abuja, Nigeria, and how demographic variables moderate these effects. It adopts Attention Restoration Theory (ART) as a conceptual framework and employs a quantitative approach to evaluate the influence of biophilic elements on perceived restorativeness. Data was gathered from a survey of 415 hotel guests in Abuja. Major findings indicate that visual connections with nature, spacious environments, and a balance of complexity and order significantly contribute to attention restoration. Age and cultural background were identified as significant moderators, with older adults and non-Nigerian guests perceiving higher levels of restoration in certain aspects. In contrast, gender did not substantially affect the association between biophilic elements and perceived restorativeness. The study therefore highlights the importance of tailoring hotel environments to diverse demographic needs to enhance guest well-being. The findings provide a practical framework for hotel designers to integrate biophilic design principles efficiently and it emphasizes the design of environments that cater to the distinctive preferences of different age groups and cultural backgrounds. Recommendations include strategic placement of natural elements, advocating for sustainable design policies, and further research into optimizing biophilic interventions for various hotel types.
... • Improved health and well-being: A fundamental specific benefit category of NbS is the positive effect on physiological and psychological outcomes. Studies have identified improved public health and well-being through stress relief (Roe et al. 2013), reduced depression (Bratman et al., 2015), improved mental health (Hartig et al., 2014), more opportunities for physical activity (Sugiyama & Thompson, 2007), reduced cardiovascular morbidity and mortality (Gascon et al., 2016), reduced obesity (Kim et al., 2014), reduced diabetes (Maas et al., 2009), and improved functioning of children's immune system (Lynch et al., 2014). Moreover, NbS involving tree plantings and vegetation can reduce heat-related morbidity and mortality (D. ...
... Interestingly, our study's findings showed that participants experienced minimal anxiety levels when exposed to trees with flowers or foliage, but moderate anxiety when viewing the bare trees. Recent research has established a connection between exposure to natural environments and reduced anxiety levels (Bratman et al., 2015). Furthermore, previous studies have highlighted that individual with higher connections to nature tend to exhibit significantly lower anxiety levels (Martyn & Brymer, 2014). ...
Article
Despite extensive research on the impact of landscape perception on well-being, the influence of urban trees across different seasons remains largely unexplored. This study employed a between-subjects design to assess psychophysiological responses through electrophysiological measurements and surveys. A total of 75 participants observed Sakura trees in three distinct seasonal stages—bare, foliage, and floral—for 3 min. The results showed that viewing Sakura trees with flowers or foliage elicited significantly higher alpha wave activity and parasympathetic nervous system responses compared to bare trees. Additionally, participants in the floral and foliage conditions reported higher levels of well-being compared to those exposed to bare trees. These findings emphasize the importance of incorporating flowering trees into urban planning initiatives to enhance public well-being and highlight the critical role that tree species play in promoting mental and emotional health in urban landscapes.
... Forest therapy, for example, has been shown to have relaxation effects by reducing cortisol levels and improving mood (Tyrväinen et al., 2014). Similarly, river and waterfall activities can provide a sense of tranquility and rejuvenation through the use of hot springs and thermal baths (Bratman et al., 2015). ...
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The research aims to develop Curug Wadas Malang in Mangkang as a wellness tourism destination within Semarang City. Utilizing field research, the study involved direct observation and interaction with individuals in their natural environment, as outlined by Sugiyono (2018). Observations were conducted in the Curug Wadas Malang forest area, alongside interviews with forest rangers, local residents, and Indonesian Red Cross (PMI) officers. This dual approach of simultaneous observations and interviews facilitated comprehensive data collection.In addition to fieldwork, a thorough literature review was undertaken to explore existing health tourism examples that incorporate natural elements such as forests, rivers, and waterfalls. The data gathered from both the literature and field research were thematically analyzed following the methodology proposed by Braun, Clarke & Hayfield (2022). The analysis revealed four key themes: the potential for wellness tourism at Curug Wadas Malang, the advantages of integrating forest, river, and waterfall elements in wellness tourism, a case study of Hoshinoya Karuizawa in Japan, and another case study from Kaua'i in Hawaii.The findings indicate that Curug Wadas Malang possesses significant natural resources and social capital through Community-Based Disaster Preparedness (CBDP) initiatives led by local communities. Therefore, a community-based tourism approach is recommended. This strategy emphasizes involving local populations in planning and implementing health tourism initiatives, enhancing disaster preparedness efforts while promoting sustainable tourism that benefits the community economically and socially
... Thus, interventions to promote the wellbeing of young people are needed. Examining the effects of nature on wellbeing is a promising area of research (Berman et al., 2012;Bowler et al., 2010;Bratman et al., 2015;Cox et al., 2017;Menardo et al., 2021). ...
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Promoting children’s and adolescents’ mental, physical, and social wellbeing is highly important to help them learn, create social connections, and stay healthy. Nature has the potential to restore cognition, reduce stress and mental fatigue, and improve wellbeing, all factors that are conducive to learning. There is growing interest in understanding the effects of nature on the wellbeing of children and adolescents, particularly in the school context. This paper presents a PRISMA-guided systematic review of the literature examining the effects of school-led nature interventions on the mental, physical, and social wellbeing of school children and adolescents aged 5 to 19 years. Examples of school-led nature interventions include outdoor learning, walks in nature and green schoolyards. Experimental and quasi-experimental studies employing quantitative measures were selected, yielding 19 studies from 17 papers. Included studies were rated as being of high (n = 6) and moderate quality (n = 13). The results provide some evidence that nature exposure in the school context can improve the wellbeing of children and adolescents, particularly their positive affect, physical activity, and social relationships/interactions. The wellbeing effects of school-led nature interventions were also examined according to age and gender, with results indicating a gender effect, but inconclusive findings for age. Findings from this review support the integration of nature in schools to enhance the mental, physical and social wellbeing of children and adolescents.
... The World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that a quarter of the global population will experience varying degrees of hearing impairment by 2050 (World Health Organization, 2021). Studies confirm that urban tranquil areas effectively mitigate noise pollution (World Health Organization, 2018), promote public health (Bratman et al., 2015), and provide substantial ecological (Tsaligopoulos et al., 2021), economic (Campaign to Protect Rural England, 2006), and social benefits . Consequently, urban tranquil areas have become a major focus of recent research in urban sound environments. ...
... Gerade im hochschulischen Kontext, in dem Lernen den Studierenden viel Aufmerksamkeit abverlangt, kann Natur bewusst zur Förderung kognitiver Funktionen eingesetzt werden. Zahlreiche Studien weisen auf deren Zusammenhang mit Naturkontakten hin: So scheint etwa ein Spaziergang in der Natur im Gegensatz zu einem Spaziergang in städtischer Umgebung zu Verbesserungen im verbalen Arbeitsgedächtnis zu führen (Bratman et al., 2015). Der Blick aus dem Fenster auf Natur kann Studierenden bei der Wiederherstellung von Aufmerksamkeit helfen (Yusli et al., 2021). ...
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Der Zusammenhang zwischen Natur, Gesundheit und Lernen ist für Hochschulen relevant. Stressreduzierende und lernförderliche Wirkungen von Naturerfahrungen werden im Bildungskontext diskutiert. Im Wintersemester 2023 hat an der Fachhochschule Kärnten unter erstsemestrigen Studierenden gesundheitswissenschaftlicher Studiengänge eine Online-Befragung stattgefunden. Die 177 Teilnehmer:innen wurden zu ihren bisherigen schulischen Lernerfahrungen in der Natur und deren Wunsch nach Naturerfahrungen im Hochschulkontext befragt. Ebenso wurde ihre Naturverbundenheit erhoben. Mehr als die Hälfte (52.5 %) der Studierenden konnten nie bzw. selten direkte Naturerfahrungen und 37.8 % nie bzw. selten indirekte Naturerfahrungen in ihrer bisherigen schulischen Bildung sammeln. Knapp Dreiviertel der Befragten empfinden direkte bzw. indirekte Natur-erfahrungen im Bildungskontext (73.5 % bzw. 75.7 %) als sehr wichtig bzw. wichtig. 60.4 % der Studierenden sind der Meinung, dass Naturerfahrungen fixer Bestandteil eines Hochschulstudiums sein müssen. Die Studienergebnisse belegen ein hohes Ausmaß an studentischer Bereitschaft für Naturerfahrungen an der Hochschule. Handlungsempfehlungen, wie etwa die Sensibilisierung und Professionalisierung der Lehrenden, curriculare Einbindung, strukturelle Maßnahmen sowie didaktische Überlegungen werden diskutiert. Schlüsselwörter: Naturbasiertes Lernen; Naturverbundenheit; Studierende; Gesundheitsförderung
... This study revisits the role of forest therapy, not merely as a tool for stress reduction but also as a vital intervention for improving sleep quality among professionals navigating the pandemic-induced changes in work patterns. 17,21 Forest environments, inherently capable of engaging all five human senses, provide a distinctive therapeutic setting to enhance mental and physical health. 22 Our research specifically 17,23,24 our investigation broadens to assess its impact on sleep enhancements across varied professional demographics, such as healthcare workers, IT specialists, and educators. ...
Article
Objective The coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic radically shifted occupational patterns, leading to increased telecommuting and related stressors. Healthcare providers, among the most impacted group, faced heightened risks and workplace changes. Our study examined the efficacy of forest therapy in alleviating work-induced stress across various professions, exploring the need for profession-specific stress-relief strategies in the post-pandemic workplace.Methods To examine the impact of COVID-19 on professionals, 62 participants were recruited, consisting of 20 healthcare providers, 21 information technology (IT) specialists, and 21 teachers. Instruments such as Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, along with salivary tests for cortisol and melatonin, were used to assess the participants’ sleep and stress levels. A specialized forest healing program was implemented among these participants. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS Win Ver. 22.0, utilizing paired t-tests and a repeated measures analysis of variance.Results Significant improvements were observed in the participants’ sleep metrics, depression scales, and stress levels after the forest healing program. Physiological measures indicated an increase in melatonin and a decline in cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels, with only cortisol changes being statistically significant. Teachers, participating during school vacations, exhibited minimal stress-related physiological changes. Overall, the program demonstrated widespread health benefits regardless of occupation or gender.Conclusion This study showed that forest therapy reduced stress equally across professions, including healthcare providers, IT specialists, and teachers. Individual physiological responses may play a greater role in stress relief than the specific occupation.
... Tranquil outdoor spaces play a crucial role in urban environments, particularly in educational settings such as university campuses. These spaces offer numerous benefits, including reduced anxiety, cognitive improvements, and heightened engagement [1][2][3]. Moreover, they provide restorative experiences that are essential for mental well-being [4]. ...
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The relationship between architectural design and outdoor acoustic environments remains underexplored, particularly in educational spaces where noise levels impact comfort and usability. This study investigates the impact of building facade height on the outdoor acoustic environment in university courtyards. Acoustic measurements were conducted in two courtyards at Batna 1 University, each surrounded by buildings with distinct facade heights. Key acoustic parameters, including reverberation time (RT), early decay time (EDT), rapid speech transmission index (RaSTI), Definition (D50), and sound pressure level (SPL) attenuation were evaluated at specified source–receiver distances. The results reveal a strong correlation between RT20 and distance at higher frequencies due to building facade reflections, while lower frequencies are more influenced by geometric configuration and material absorption properties. The results demonstrate that RT and EDT increase logarithmically or polynomially with distance, especially at higher frequencies (2000–4000 Hz), due to the decrease in direct sound energy and increase in reflected sound amplitude. Taller building facades lead to longer RT and EDT values compared to lower heights. D50 and RaSTI decrease polynomially with increasing source–receiver distance, with lower values observed in the courtyard with taller facades, indicating reduced speech clarity. The SPL attenuation is influenced by surrounding geometry, with the least reduction in the courtyard with lower facade heights, followed by the taller facade courtyard, contrasting with semi-free field conditions. These findings highlight the significant role of building facade height and architectural elements in shaping the acoustic characteristics of outdoor spaces, providing valuable insights for designing acoustically comfortable urban environments, particularly in educational settings.
... Another key aspect of our investigation was the influence of the view content (nature versus urban) and time of day (daytime, sunset, and night) on the experiences of the participants. In terms of the view content, the urban landscapes elicited a stronger sense of presence than natural settings, unlike previous real-world studies [61][62][63][64]. A possible explanation for this contrast is the influence of user characteristics on the perceptions in virtual environments [13]. ...
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As virtual classrooms, traditional physical classroom environments are transformed into flexible virtual environments, allowing customization of environmental elements to enhance student learning. This study explored the effects of window settings in virtual classrooms on learning experiences of students. Utilizing a within-subjects design, we simulated a virtual classroom environment with seven unique window settings and varied its view content (nature vs. urban) and time of day (daytime, sunset, and night). We also simulated a windowless condition. Thirty-five university students participated in the study and performed subjective evaluations and cognitive tasks. Moreover, their physiological responses were recorded using electroencephalogram measurements. The results indicated that environments with windows increased the perception of spaciousness and promoted a state of relaxed alertness, as evidenced by increased fast alpha brainwave activity. In contrast, settings without windows or with urban views increased the sense of presence. Daytime views positively affected valence, motivation, spaciousness, and concentration, whereas nighttime views were the least preferred. No significant differences were observed in cognitive task performance across the different conditions. These findings underscore the necessity of customizing virtual learning environments to meet individual user needs. By allowing students to adjust their virtual environments, educators and space designers can create more flexible and personalized virtual-reality educational spaces, ultimately improving learning outcomes.
... For instance, in a study investigating the impact of nature experience on affect and cognition, participants were randomly assigned to nature and urban environments and asked to take a 50-minute walk. The study found that walking in nature provided cognitive benefits (particularly enhancing verbal working memory performance) compared to urban walking, and it also reduced anxiety and rumination (Bratman et al., 2015). Similarly, in a study conducted by Gidlow et al. (2016), it was stated that walking in a natural environment provides greater restorative benefits compared to walking in an urban environment and that the restorative benefits continued for an additional 30 minutes after departing from the natural environment. ...
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This study, aiming to address environmental, ecological, and eco-literacy within the paradigms of multiple intelligences or multiple literacies on a relational-contextual level and with a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach, reveals a problematic situation concerning the insufficient adoption of these literacies in educational environments. The aim of this research is to contribute to the development of the above mentioned literacies, create social awareness for their widespread implementation in educational environments, and facilitate sustainable development and pedagogical well being. The study deals with a critical discourse analysis concerning the historical background of these concepts in the literature, relying on a plethora of data obtained from the literature. The methodology of the study conducted in line with this purpose includes a combination of mixed, theoretical, conceptual, documentary, phenomenological, and qualitative methods based on complementary and interdisciplinary assessments. These methodological postulates envision an integrated approach to addressing the concepts of environmental literacy, ecological literacy, and eco-literacy.
... Thus, in the context of an unresolved problem, exposure to nature could improve self-esteem by encouraging reflection and problem-solving abilities. Furthermore, researches has demonstrated that walking in a natural setting can diminish ruminations (Bratman et al., 2015a;2015b). These observations are particularly noteworthy in light of the causal role of rumination in variations in self-esteem and in the emergence or maintenance of various disorders (Harvey et al., 2004). ...
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It is widely acknowledged that exposure to natural environments offers emotional, cognitive, and behavioural benefits. However, some individuals may face difficulties in accessing these areas frequently and conveniently due to urbanisation, disability, or a lack of time. As a result, research has explored the advantages of nature substitutes, such as photographs, videos, or virtual reality (VR), and has demonstrated their ability to provide psychological benefits. Therefore, our study aims to examine the impact of these substitutes on enhancing individuals’ self-esteem. The study involved 236 participants, who were divided into six experimental groups based on the type of exposure (photographs, video, or virtual reality) and the environment (natural or urban). A control group was also exposed to geometric shapes. The participants completed the French version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale three times: upon arrival at the experimental room (baseline), after the rumination induction task (post-induction), and after exposure (post-exposure). The analysis focused on changes in self-esteem scores during the experimental study, considering the type of exposure and its content. The results suggest that exposure to nature, in any form, enhances self-esteem more than exposure to urban environments or geometric shapes. Additionally, it was found that virtual reality or video exposure to nature produced greater benefits than natural photographs. In the future, alternative tools may serve as valuable support for individuals who are unable to experience direct contact with nature. However, it is important to recognise that they should be considered as supplementary options rather than exclusive substitutes.
... Also, "naturalness", a term used to identify "structural" morphological properties of our environment, has attracted particular attention; for review, see: (Bowler et al., 2010). Starting with the famous finding of improved recovery from surgery (Ulrich, 1984), natural surroundings have been shown to exert positive effects (sometimes by mere image viewing) on mood (Barton & Pretty, 2010), stress reduction (Valtchanov et al., 2010), concentration and working memory improvement (Berman et al., 2008;Berman et al., 2012;Berto, 2005;Bratman et al., 2015;Kaplan, 1995), self-perceived health (Kardan et al., 2015), self-esteem (Barton & Pretty, 2010;Pretty et al., 2007) and occurrence of criminal behavior (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001a, 2001b. ...
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Biometrics is the collection, measurement, and analysis of both physical and behavioral attributes in individuals. While the evaluation of physical traits is commonly employed for authentication purposes, the investigation of quantifiable behavioral characteristics is utilized to observe and measure how individuals react to their environment. Depending on the focus of a study, there may also be a gathering of valence data to be correlated with the physical response data. Biometric measurements can serve as a solid foundation for architects and designers to make data-driven decisions throughout the design process. In cases involving existing structures, biometric data can be applied for post-occupancy analysis, in conjunction with standard methods.
... Contemporary scientific evidence affirms the connection between nature and human health, and actionable understandings of these links are advancing in diverse disciplines [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. For example, nature exposure can impact health through boosted immune response, improved air quality, reduced urban heat island effect, lowered stress, enhanced mental health and child development, increased physical activity, improved affect and cognition, and the development of social connections [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]. Nature exposure has also been proposed as a tool to reduce entrenched geographic and socioeconomic health inequities [29][30][31][32]. ...
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Background Human relationships with and connections to nature and the “land” are a commonly accepted Social Determinant of Health. Greater knowledge about these relationships can inform public health policies and interventions focused on health equity among Indigenous populations. Two research questions were explored: (1) what are the experiences of meaningful human-nature relationships among Indigenous youth within central Canada; and (2) how do these relationships function as a determinant of health and wellness within their lives. Methods Drawing from three community-based participatory research (CBPR) projects within two urban centers in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, the integrated qualitative findings presented here involved 92 interviews with 52 Indigenous youth that occurred over a period of nine years (2014–2023). Informed by “two-eyed seeing,” this analysis combined Indigenous Methodologies and a Constructivist Grounded Theory approach. Results Our integrative analysis revealed three cross-cutting themes about meaningful human-nature relationships: (1) promoting cultural belonging and positive identity; (2) connecting to community and family; and (3) supporting spiritual health and relationships. The experiences of young people also emphasized barriers to land and nature access within their local environments. Discussion Policies, practices, and interventions aimed at strengthening urban Indigenous young peoples’ relationships to and connections with nature and the land can have a positive impact on their health and wellness. Public Health systems and healthcare providers can learn about leveraging the health benefits of human-nature relationships at individual and community levels, and this is particularly vital for those working to advance health equity among Indigenous populations.
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Purpose This study aims to investigate the impact of viewing different types of digital environment images on college students’ positive emotions, nature relatedness and environmental preference. This aimed to address the gap in empirical studies regarding the effects of digital environment images on these psychological constructs. Design/methodology/approach This study used a three-group experimental between-subjects design. Participants (48 undergraduate students) were divided into three groups, each viewing a different set of digital images (nature, city or object). Pre- and posttest measures assessed positive emotions and nature relatedness, whereas environmental preference was measured after image viewing. One-way analysis of variance and post hoc Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) tests were used to analyze the data. Findings Viewing digital nature images elicited significantly higher positive emotions, nature relatedness and environmental preference compared to viewing city or object images. In addition, environmental preference for the digital object group was marginally higher than the city group. Research limitations/implications This study was limited by its relatively small sample size. Although further research is needed to investigate the underlying mechanisms behind the observed effects, this study provides valuable implications for education, economic dimensions and public policy initiatives, encouraging the development of pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors. Practical implications The findings suggest that incorporating digital nature images into learning activities can promote positive emotions, nature relatedness and environmental preference among college students. This has implications for the design of digital learning environments, especially for those with limited access to natural environments. Social implications By promoting positive emotions and nature relatedness, digital nature experiences can contribute to emotional well-being and potentially foster pro-environmental behaviors. This can have implications for promoting sustainable lifestyles and environmental conservation efforts. Originality/value This study provides original empirical evidence on the impact of viewing digital environment images on several psychological constructs. It highlights the potential of digital nature experiences as a complement to direct nature exposure, particularly for those with limited access to natural environments. These findings contribute to the growing body of literature on the benefits of digital nature experiences and have implications for various fields, including education, environmental psychology and human–computer interaction.
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Introduction: Guided contact with nature has positive effects on well-being. Little is known about the effectiveness of adding nature-based interventions to inpatient treatment for depression. Therefore, we evaluated a mindfulness- and relaxation-based nature intervention for depressed patients in psychosomatic rehabilitation treatment. Method: Psychosomatic rehabilitation inpatients with depression were allocated to either a Greencare mindfulness- and relaxation-based nature intervention (n = 116) or to treatment as usual plus waitlist control group (TAU+WL) (n = 111) in two centres. All patients received questionnaires on admission (T1) and discharge (T2). Greencare patients received follow-up questionnaires three months after the intervention (T3). Main outcome was mood, assessed by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Secondary outcomes were depression, mindfulness, state self-compassion, and contact with nature. Data were analysed as intent-to-treat using mixed models for repeated measures, adjusted for propensity score and centre. Patients’ ratings of the effectiveness of the sessions and their well-being, and situational aspects of each session, were recorded. Results: We found significant interactions of time*group for PANAS, showing greater positive affect (Cohen’s d at T2 = 0.48) and lower negative affect (Cohen’s d at T2 = 0.52) in the Greencare group compared to the TAU+WL group at T2. At follow-up (T3), the effects in the Greencare group decreased, but remained significant compared to T1. Significant results for self-compassion and non-significant effects for depression and mindfulness were found. The groups did not differ in the amount of contact with nature. Sensitivity analyses revealed more favourable follow-up effects for patients with higher levels of depression. Patients reported high ratings of effectiveness and well-being for each session, and these ratings were not related to the weather conditions. No adverse events were reported. Discussion: Depressed inpatients benefitted from a Greencare mindfulness- and relaxation-based nature intervention by improving positive and negative affect. The effects were slightly reduced after three months, but less in patients with higher levels of depression on admission. Results show that the intervention is feasible and effective even for patients with higher symptom burden. Trial Registration: German Clinical Trials Register (trial registration number: DRKS00023369, universal trial registration number: U1111-1260-7305) Keywords: depression; inpatients; nature-based intervention; mindfulness; relaxation; controlled clinical trial
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Test anxiety is a pervasive problem related to the evaluative of educational programs. It is necessary to learn about the nature, causes, effects, and treatment so it is important to give the interventions to reduce test anxiety the students can show their best performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of aromatherapy to students who will take the exam. The participants were 17 students of 8th Grade. This experimental research design is a time series control group design with a pre-test and post-test group models. A scale of Test Anxiety based on the aspects by Cassady and Johnson (2002) was used to measure anxiety levels with a reliability value of 0.944. The analytical method used is the Friedman and Kruskal-Wallis test. This study found that aromatherapy was effective in reducing calculations in the test using the Kruskal-Wallis test with the Asymp value.Sig p <0.05, the test scores for participants between group KK, KE1, and KE2 based on the pre-test results with p = 0.450 , post-test 1 with p = 0.025, post-test 2 with p = 0.019, and post-test 3 with p = 0.011. Aromatherapy can be used to reduce test anxiety as an effective independent therapy.
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This study highlights the importance of social sustainability in the context of urban parks and evaluates its performance using a specific case study. It proposes a comprehensive measurement scale focused on eight dimensions: identity, sense of place, social cohesion, security and safety, equity, facilities, comfort, and accessibility, applied to Alaeddin Hill Park in Konya, Türkiye. Using a quantitative research approach and data collected from 120 participants, this study investigates these dimensions to understand their impact on the park’s social sustainability. The findings of this study reveal that, while Alaeddin Hill Park is highly valued for its identity, facilities, and social cohesion, it requires significant improvements in areas such as security and safety, sense of place, and comfort. Another finding indicates that lower-income respondents report higher levels of comfort and a stronger sense of identification with the park. This study offers practical recommendations for urban park design to improve user satisfaction and social sustainability.
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On United States public lands, large-scale structural capitalocentric valuations are at odds with the embodied non-monetary valuations expressed by nature-based recreators. Valuing United States Forest Service lands through a capitalocentric lens does not account for the more-than-capitalist (MtC) valuations occurring within these sites, and has facilitated large-scale selloffs and reduction of these lands for commercial and extractive purposes. Capitalocentric valuations often fail to express the local, embodied, and intimate valuations of nature in these spaces. These lands are covered by the US public lands multiple-use mandate which defines recreational access as equal in importance to that of natural resource extraction. However, in practice, recreational and non-extractive (ie. non-monetary) access is not well represented in valuation methods, and its true value is not reported and recognized as equally valuable against corporate and national capitalocentric monetary valuations. So recreational, non-monetary, and local valuations of US public lands are un-accounted for or under- represented in large-scale structural valuations of US public lands. This article argues that nature-based trail recreators actually value US public lands via non-monetary visceral value – valuation strategies that are rooted in intimate and embodied interactions with nature – directly challenging the strictly monetary value given to these lands by national and corporate entities. The article develops the concept of visceral value in MtC valuations, using the embodied experiences of nature-based recreators using USFS trails. Rescaling the assessment of value to the site of the individual recreator body directly confronts capitalocentric urges to universalize all used, usable and potential resources into monetary, extractive, production or labor use-values.
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Purpose College student wellbeing and mental health can be negatively impacted due to roles intrinsic to being and becoming a student in higher education. Active engagement in natural environments has been shown to have benefits for wellbeing. The purpose of this paper is to examine collegiate students’ utilization of a therapeutic garden on a college campus and the impact on their quality of life. Design/methodology/approach A case series mixed-methods design was used to track self-reported measures of quality of life. Participants were instructed to spend at least 1 h per week over four weeks in the therapeutic sensory garden on campus. Student participants were assessed using the EUROHIS-QOL-8, Positive and Negative Affect Scale and a semi-structured interview. Findings Pre-post quantitative measures of quality of life show significant improvement in quality of life of 12 graduate and undergraduate students. These results are triangulated with reduction in negative affect immediately following garden visits, and rich qualitative illustrations of the value of nature engagement on self-care and occupational balance. Small sample size and convenience sampling limits the generalizability of results. Originality/value Institutions of higher education recognize the value of green space on campus; however, they may lack the intentionality of designing a nature-based space to support student wellbeing. An intentionally designed campus-based therapeutic sensory garden may provide a novel opportunity to support overall student mental health and wellness.
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This study aims to investigate how urban residents interact with Urban Green Spaces (UGSs) in Nagpur, India, specifically focusing on the patterns of visitation and engagement. Data were collected via a face-to-face questionnaire survey using the Survey 123 app. The analysis included interaction (types of UGSs, visitation frequency, and UGS availability); engagement (activities); demographics (age, gender, and work status); and nature connection (self-reported) aspects. Using data from 2002 participants, the study employs statistical analyses using R software (4.3.2) to explore the correlations between these variables. The results revealed key factors influencing UGS usage, highlighting the interplay between environmental and social aspects. Neighborhood UGSs, proximity, and accessibility were found to be pivotal in promoting frequent visitation, while physical activity emerged as the most common activity among daily visitors. Older adults visited UGSs less frequently, suggesting potential barriers, while employed individuals visited more often. A strong association between nature connection and UGS interaction was highlighted, emphasizing the psychological and emotional aspects of UGS usage. For example, individuals who felt more connected to nature reported using UGSs for physical activities, mental relaxation, and socializing. These findings underscore the need for integrating UGSs within broader urban social-ecological systems, which means recognizing these spaces as vital components contributing to overall health and resilience and catering to the population’s diverse needs, ensuring that these spaces are accessible and enjoyable for all community members, including those from different cultural, age, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Additionally, fostering nature connectedness through education and exposure to natural environments is recommended to enhance UGS usage, supporting broader urban planning strategies to create sustainable and healthy urban environments.
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In this chapter, we explore the fundamentals of the field of environmental neuroscience. We start by defining the field of environmental neuroscience and then proceed to describing its roots and outlining some of its distinguishing features. We define what we mean by an environment, including those factors that are considered in this work, focus on the effects of natural environments, and note why many researchers do the same. We then discuss some of the mechanisms through which natural environments may affect brain processing through the perception of different visual and acoustic features and the centrality of attentional processes. We close by discussing some of the pitfalls and challenges that environmental neuroscientists face and how those challenges may be overcome in the future.
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A distinction between ruminative and reflective types of private self-attentiveness is introduced and evaluated with respect to L. R. Goldberg's (1982) list of 1,710 English trait adjectives (Study 1), the five-factor model of personality (FFM) and A. Fenigstein, M. F. Scheier, and A. Buss's(1975) Self-Consciousness Scales (Study 2), and previously reported correlates and effects of private self-consciousness (PrSC; Studies 3 and 4). Results suggest that the PrSC scale confounds two unrelated motivationally distinct disposition-rumination and reflection-and that this confounding may account for the "self-absorption paradox" implicit in PrSC research findings: Higher PrSC sources are associated with more accurate and extensive self-knowledge yet higher levels of psychological distress. The potential of the FFM to provide a comprehensive Framework for conceptualizing self-attentive dispositions, and to order and integrate research findings within this domain, is discussed.
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Failures to replicate published psychological research findings have contributed to a "crisis of confidence." Several reasons for these failures have been proposed, the most notable being questionable research practices and data fraud. We examine replication from a different perspective and illustrate that current intuitive expectations for replication are unreasonable. We used computer simulations to create thousands of ideal replications, with the same participants, wherein the only difference across replications was random measurement error. In the first set of simulations, study results differed substantially across replications as a result of measurement error alone. This raises questions about how researchers should interpret failed replication attempts, given the large impact that even modest amounts of measurement error can have on observed associations. In the second set of simulations, we illustrated the difficulties that researchers face when trying to interpret and replicate a published finding. We also assessed the relative importance of both sampling error and measurement error in producing variability in replications. Conventionally, replication attempts are viewed through the lens of verifying or falsifying published findings. We suggest that this is a flawed perspective and that researchers should adjust their expectations concerning replications and shift to a meta-analytic mind-set. © The Author(s) 2014.
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Two studies on the use of nature for emotion regulation were conducted. Study 1 (N = 35) ran over two weeks and was an experimental investigation. Participants in the experimental condition were asked to use a picture of nature actively as environmental stimuli for emotion regulation in their everyday life, while two control groups simply looked at a picture of nature or a picture of balloons each evening. A significant effect of the manipulation was found on positive mood, but the effect was complex with an initial increase and then a decrease. There were no findings on negative mood. Study 2 (N = 473) explored the motivational tendency to seek out nature when the participants were happy or sad. A novel concept (expectancy construct) was introduced to measure the perception of the emotion regulatory potential of different environments. The classical natural environment was rated highest on emotional potential of all environments tested here. Perceiving a higher emotional potential in nature was related to a higher intention to seek out nature when happy or sad. Personality and mood were also related to these concepts. Higher positive mood was related to the intention to seek out nature when happy. Conscientiousness was related to a more positive perception of nature. The studies support the notion that using nature may be an effective strategy for regulating one's emotions.
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There is growing appreciation for the advantages of experimentation in the social sciences. Policy-relevant claims that in the past were backed by theoretical arguments and inconclusive correlations are now being investigated using more credible methods. Changes have been particularly pronounced in development economics, where hundreds of randomized trials have been carried out over the last decade. When experimentation is difficult or impossible, researchers are using quasi-experimental designs. Governments and advocacy groups display a growing appetite for evidence-based policy-making. In 2005, Mexico established an independent government agency to rigorously evaluate social programs, and in 2012, the U.S. Office of Management and Budget advised federal agencies to present evidence from randomized program evaluations in budget requests (1, 2).
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Green space has been associated with a wide range of health benefits, including stress reduction, but much pertinent evidence has relied on self-reported health indicators or experiments in artificially controlled environmental conditions. Little research has been reported using ecologically valid objective measures with participants in their everyday, residential settings. This paper describes the results of an exploratory study (n = 25) to establish whether salivary cortisol can act as a biomarker for variation in stress levels which may be associated with varying levels of exposure to green spaces, and whether recruitment and adherence to the required, unsupervised, salivary cortisol sampling protocol within the domestic setting could be achieved in a highly deprived urban population. Self-reported measures of stress and general wellbeing were also captured, allowing exploration of relationships between cortisol, wellbeing and exposure to green space close to home. Results indicate significant relationships between self-reported stress (P < 0.01), diurnal patterns of cortisol secretion (P < 0.05), and quantity of green space in the living environment. Regression analysis indicates percentage of green space in the living environment is a significant (P < 0.05) and independent predictor of the circadian cortisol cycle, in addition to self-reported physical activity (P < 0.02). Results also show that compliance with the study protocol was good. We conclude that salivary cortisol measurement offers considerable potential for exploring relationships between wellbeing and green space and discuss how this ecologically valid methodology can be developed to confirm and extend findings in deprived city areas to illuminate why provision of green space close to home might enhance health.
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Background The Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 (GBD 2010) identified mental and substance use disorders as the 5th leading contributor of burden in 2010, measured by disability adjusted life years (DALYs). This estimate was incomplete as it excluded burden resulting from the increased risk of suicide captured elsewhere in GBD 2010's mutually exclusive list of diseases and injuries. Here, we estimate suicide DALYs attributable to mental and substance use disorders. Methods Relative-risk estimates of suicide due to mental and substance use disorders and the global prevalence of each disorder were used to estimate population attributable fractions. These were adjusted for global differences in the proportion of suicide due to mental and substance use disorders compared to other causes then multiplied by suicide DALYs reported in GBD 2010 to estimate attributable DALYs (with 95% uncertainty). Results Mental and substance use disorders were responsible for 22.5 million (14.8–29.8 million) of the 36.2 million (26.5–44.3 million) DALYs allocated to suicide in 2010. Depression was responsible for the largest proportion of suicide DALYs (46.1% (28.0%–60.8%)) and anorexia nervosa the lowest (0.2% (0.02%–0.5%)). DALYs occurred throughout the lifespan, with the largest proportion found in Eastern Europe and Asia, and males aged 20–30 years. The inclusion of attributable suicide DALYs would have increased the overall burden of mental and substance use disorders (assigned to them in GBD 2010 as a direct cause) from 7.4% (6.2%–8.6%) to 8.3% (7.1%–9.6%) of global DALYs, and would have changed the global ranking from 5th to 3rd leading cause of burden. Conclusions Capturing the suicide burden attributable to mental and substance use disorders allows for more accurate estimates of burden. More consideration needs to be given to interventions targeted to populations with, or at risk for, mental and substance use disorders as an effective strategy for suicide prevention.
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The findings suggest that stressed individuals feel significantly better after exposure to nature scenes rather than to American urban scenes lacking nature elements. Compared to the influences of the urban scenes, the salient effect of the nature exposures was to increase Positive Affect — including feelings of affection friendliness, playfulness, and elation. The increase in positive affect produced by the nature scenes is consistent with the finding that the nature exposures also significantly reduced Fear Arousal. According to psychological theories, a reduction in arousal or activation produces pleasurable feelings if an individual is experiencing stress or excessive arousal (Berlyne, 1971, pp. 81–82). In contrast to the nature scenes, the urban views tended to work against emotional well‐being. The major effect of the urban scenes was to significantly increase Sadness. There was also a consistent but non‐significant tendency for the urban scenes to‐aggravate feelings of Anger/Aggression, and for the nature scenes to reduce such feelings. The urban exposures also held the attention of subjects somewhat less effectively than the nature exposures. These findings were stable across sexes, and applied to subjects who had grown up in either rural or urban environments.
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S. Kaplan suggested that one outcome of mental fatigue may be an increased propensity for outbursts of anger and even violence. If so, contact with nature, which appears to mitigate mental fatigue, may reduce aggression and violence. This study investigated that possibility in a setting and population with relatively high rates of aggression: inner-city urban public housing residents. Levels of aggression were compared for 145 urban public housing residents randomly assigned to buildings with varying levels of nearby nature (trees and grass). Attentional functioning was assessed as an index of mental fatigue. Residents living in relatively barren buildings reported more aggression and violence than did their counterparts in greener buildings. Moreover, levels of mental fatigue were higher in barren buildings, and aggression accompanied mental fatigue. Tests for the proposed mechanism and for alternative mechanisms indicated that the relationship between nearby nature and aggression was fully mediated through attentional functioning.
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In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
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The Distinctiveness of Environmental PsychologyTheoretical BasesEnvironmental Perception and Spatial CognitionManaging Social SpaceEncouraging Proenvironmental BehaviorThe Psychology of Resource ManagementResidential Environmental PsychologyThe Environmental Psychology of Neighborhoods and CitiesEducational Environmental PsychologyWorkplace Environmental PsychologyNatural Environmental PsychologyThe Social Construction of Nature, the Environment, and Environmental ProblemsEnvironmental Psychology and Architectural DesignInformation and Communication Technologies and EnvironmentsConclusion - Changing Contexts, Horizons, and ChallengesReferences
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Five studies assessed the validity and reliability of the connectedness to nature scale (CNS), a new measure of individuals’ trait levels of feeling emotionally connected to the natural world. Data from two community and three college samples demonstrated that the CNS has good psychometric properties, correlates with related variables (the new environmental paradigm scale, identity as an environmentalist), and is uncorrelated with potential confounds (verbal ability, social desirability). This paper supports ecopsychologists’ contention that connection to nature is an important predictor of ecological behavior and subjective well-being. It also extends social psychological research on self–other overlap, perspective taking, and altruistic behavior to the overlap between self and nature. The CNS promises to be a useful empirical tool for research on the relationship between humans and the natural world.
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We know that children need nature … or do we? There are certainly many reasons to think that nature plays an important role in child development. For many of us, intuition emphatically asserts that nature is good for children. We hold intuitions such as, ‘every kid needs a dog’, ‘children need a nice yard to play in’, and ‘children need “fresh air”’. Beyond these intuitions, there are also well-reasoned theoretical arguments as to why humans in general – and therefore children – might have an inborn need for contact with nature (e.g., S. Kaplan, 1995; Wilson, 1984). And there is a growing body of qualitative research consistent with this idea (Bardill, 1997; Hart, 1979; R. Moore, 1989; R. C. Moore, 1986; Nabhan, 1994; Sebba, 1991; Sobel, 1993; Titman, 1994). But what do we really know about the value of nature in promoting child development? What systematic evidence is there for or against this possibility? Is children's need for nature established fact, yet-to-be-substantiated folk theory, or simply myth? The question of nature's role in healthy child development is increasingly urgent. A consistent concern among the researchers studying children and nature is that children's access to nature is rapidly diminishing (e.g., Kahn, 2002; Kellert, 2002; Pyle, 2002; Rivkin, 2000). Not only may there be less nature for children to access, but children's access of what remains may be increasingly sporadic.
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A growing body of empirical research suggests that brief contact with natural environments improves emotional well-being. The current study synthesizes this body of research using meta-analytic techniques and assesses the mean effect size of exposure to natural environments on both positive and negative affect. Thirty-two studies with a total of 2356 participants were included. Across these studies, exposure to natural environments was associated with a moderate increase in positive affect and a smaller, yet consistent, decrease in negative affect relative to comparison conditions. Significant heterogeneity was found for the effect of nature on positive affect, and type of emotion assessment, type of exposure to nature, location of study, and mean age of sample were found to moderate this effect. The implications of these findings for existing theory and research are discussed, with particular emphasis placed on potential avenues for fruitful future research examining the effects of nature on well-being.
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Urbanization, resource exploitation, and lifestyle changes have diminished possibilities for human contact with nature in urbanized societies. Concern about the loss has helped motivate research on the health benefits of contact with nature. Reviewing that research here, we focus on nature as represented by aspects of the physical environment relevant to planning, design, and policy measures that serve broad segments of urbanized societies. We discuss difficulties in defining "nature" and reasons for the current expansion of the research field, and we assess available reviews. We then consider research on pathways between nature and health involving air quality, physical activity, social cohesion, and stress reduction. Finally, we discuss methodological issues and priorities for future research. The extant research does describe an array of benefits of contact with nature, and evidence regarding some benefits is strong; however, some findings indicate caution is needed in applying beliefs about those benefits, and substantial gaps in knowledge remain. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Public Health Volume 35 is March 18, 2014. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
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This study investigated the psychological (perceived restorativeness, subjective vitality, mood, creativity) and physiological (salivary cortisol concentration) effects of short-term visits to urban nature environments. Seventy-seven participants visited three different types of urban areas; a built-up city centre (as a control environment), an urban park, and urban woodland located in Helsinki, the capital of Finland. Our results show that the large urban park and extensively managed urban woodland had almost the same positive influence, but the overall perceived restorativeness was higher in the woodland after the experiment. The findings suggest that even short-term visits to nature areas have positive effects on perceived stress relief compared to built-up environment. The salivary cortisol level decreased in a similar fashion in all three urban environments during the experiment. The relations between psychological measures and physiological measures, as well as the influence of nature exposure on different groups of people, need to be studied further.
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The complex span measure of working memory is a word/digit span measured while performing a secondary task. Two experiments investigated whether correlations between the complex span and reading comprehension depend on the nature of the secondary task and individual skill in that task. The secondary task did not have to be reading related for the span to predict reading comprehension. An arithmetic-related secondary task led to correlations with reading comprehension similar to those found when the secondary task was reading. The relationship remained significant when quantitative skills were factored out of the complex span/comprehension correlations. Simple digit and word spans (measured without a background task) did not correlate with reading comprehension and SAT scores. The second experiment showed that the complex span/comprehension correlations were a function of the difficulty of the background task. When the difficulty level of the reading-related or arithmetic-related background tasks was moderate, the span/comprehension correlations were higher in magnitude than when the background tasks were very simple, or, were very difficult.
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This article investigates the direct and indirect effects of windows in the workplace onjob satisfaction, intention to quit, and general well-being. The impact of three specific influencing mechanisms are examined: general level of illumination, sunlight penetration, and view. The extent to which these environmental features might moderate the negative consequences of job stress is investigated. The sample consisted of 100 white-and blue-collar workers who were employed in a large wine-producing organization in the Mediterranean region of Southern Europe. The results showed a significant direct effect for sunlight penetration on job satisfaction, intention to quit, and general well-being. A view of natural elements (i.e., trees, vegetation, plants, and foliage) was found to buffer the negative impact of job stress on intention to quit and to have a similar, albeit marginal, effect on general well-being. No effects for general level of illumination were found.
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The utility of different theoretical models of restorative experience was explored in a quasi-experimental field study and a true experiment. The former included wilderness backpacking and nonwilderness vacation conditions, as well as a control condition in which participants continued with their daily routines. The latter had urban environment, natural environment, and passive relaxation conditions. Multimethod assessments of restoration consisted of self-reports of affective states, cognitive performance, and, in the latter study, physiological measures. Convergent self-report and performance results obtained in both studies offer evidence of greater restorative effects arising from experiences in nature. Implications for theory, methodology, and design are discussed.
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Three experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that exposure to restorative environments facilitates recovery from mental fatigue. To this end, participants were first mentally fatigued by performing a sustained attention test; then they viewed photographs of restorative environments, nonrestorative environments or geometrical patterns; and finally they performed the sustained attention test again. Only participants exposed to the restorative environments improved their performance on the final attention test, and this improvement occurred whether they viewed the scenes in the standardized time condition or in the self-paced time condition. Results are in agreement with Kaplan's [(1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182] attention restoration theory, and support the idea that restorative environments help maintain and restore the capacity to direct attention.
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Urbanization is a potential threat to mental health and well-being. Cross-sectional evidence suggests that living closer to urban green spaces, such as parks, is associated with lower mental distress. However, earlier research was unable to control for time-invariant heterogeneity (e.g., personality) and focused on indicators of poor psychological health. The current research advances the field by using panel data from over 10,000 individuals to explore the relation between urban green space and well-being (indexed by ratings of life satisfaction) and between urban green space and mental distress (indexed by General Health Questionnaire scores) for the same people over time. Controlling for individual and regional covariates, we found that, on average, individuals have both lower mental distress and higher well-being when living in urban areas with more green space. Although effects at the individual level were small, the potential cumulative benefit at the community level highlights the importance of policies to protect and promote urban green spaces for well-being.
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The authors report further evidence bearing on the relations among restorative experiences, self-regulation, and place attachment. University students (n = 101) described their favorite places and experiences in them, and 98 other students described unpleasant places. Natural settings were overrepresented among favorite places and underrepresented among the unpleasant places. In open-ended accounts, frequent mention of being relaxed, being away from everyday life, forgetting worries, and reflecting on personal matters indicated a link between favorite places and restorative experience. Restoration was particularly typical of natural favorite places. Structured evaluations of being away, fascination, coherence, and compatibility indicated they were experienced to a high degree in the favorite places, although fascination to a lesser degree than compatibility. The favorite and unpleasant places differed substantially in all four restorative qualities but especially in being away and compatibility. Self-referencing appears to be more characteristic of favorite place experiences than engaging or interesting environmental properties.
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To date, research on the effects of urbanization, which include reduced biodiversity, has focused on changes at particular sites or along gradients of urbanization. Comparatively little work has investigated changes in biodiversity at any citywide—much less global—scale, and no attempt has been made to quantify such changes in human terms. We have developed a novel data set that reveals a systematic pattern of biodiversity: Within cities worldwide, most residents are concentrated in neighborhoods of impoverished biodiversity. This pattern exists despite substantial biodiversity present in cities overall, and becomes more severe when only native species are considered. As humanity becomes increasingly urban, these findings have a tragic and seldom-considered consequence: Billions of people may lose the opportunity to benefit from or develop an appreciation of nature. Because nearby surroundings shape people's baselines of ecological health, our findings suggest adverse consequences for conservation in general as well as for humans' quality of life if the problem remains uncorrected.
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The nearby natural environment plays a far more significant role in the well-being of children residing in poor urban environments than has previously been recognized. Using a premove/postmove longitudinal design, this research explores the linkage between the naturalness or restorativeness of the home environment and the cognitive functioning of 17 low-income urban children (aged 7–12 yrs). Both before and after relocation, objective measures of naturalness were used along with a standardized instrument (the Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale) measuring the children's cognitive functioning. Results show that children whose homes improved the most in terms of greenness following relocation also tended to have the highest levels of cognitive functioning following the move. The implications with respect to policy and design are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
We compared psychophysiological stress recovery and directed attention restoration in natural and urban field settings using repeated measures of ambulatory blood pressure, emotion, and attention collected from 112 randomly assigned young adults. To vary restoration needs, we had half of the subjects begin the environmental treatment directly after driving to the field site. The other half completed attentionally demanding tasks just before the treatment. After the drive or the tasks, sitting in a room with tree views promoted more rapid decline in diastolic blood pressure than sitting in a viewless room. Subsequently walking in a nature reserve initially fostered blood pressure change that indicated greater stress reduction than afforded by walking in the urban surroundings. Performance on an attentional test improved slightly from the pretest to the midpoint of the walk in the nature reserve, while it declined in the urban setting. This opened a performance gap that persisted after the walk. Positive affect increased and anger decreased in the nature reserve by the end of the walk; the opposite pattern emerged in the urban environment. The task manipulation affected emotional self-reports. We discuss implications of the results for theories about restorative environments and environmental health promotion measures.
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Detection of change when one display of familiar objects replaces another display might be based purely upon visual codes, or also on identity information (i.e., knowingwhat was presentwhere in the initial display). Displays of 10 alphanumeric characters were presented and, after a brief offset, were presented again in the same position, with or without a change in a single character. Subjects’ accuracy in change detection did not suggest preservation of any more information than is usually available in whole report, except with the briefest of offsets (under 50 msec). Stimulus duration had only modest effects. The interaction of masking with offset duration followed the pattern previously observed with unfamiliar visual stimuli (Phillips, 1974). Accuracy was not reduced by reflection of the characters about a horizontal axis, suggesting that categorical information contributed negligibly. Detection of change appears to depend upon capacity-limited visual memory; (putative) knowledge of what identities are present in different display locations does not seem to contribute.