Vascular Plant Composition and Diversity of a Coastal Hill Forest in Perak, Malaysia

Abstract

Vascular plant species and diversity of a coastal hill forest in Sungai Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve in Pulau Pangkor at Perak were studied based on the data from five one hectare plots. All vascular plants were enumerated and identified. Importance value index (IVI) was computed to characterize the floristic composition. To capture different aspects of species diversity, we considered five different indices. The mean stem density was 7585 stems per ha. In total 36797 vascular plants representing 348 species belong to 227 genera in 89 families were identified within 5-ha of a coastal hill forest that is comprises 4.2% species, 10.7% genera and 34.7% families of the total taxa found in Peninsular Malaysia. Based on IVI, Agrostistachys longifolia (IVI 1245), Eugeissona tristis (IVI 890), Calophyllum wallichianum (IVI 807), followed by Taenitis blechnoides (IVI 784) were the most dominant species. The most speciose rich families were Rubiaceae having 27 species, followed by Dipterocarpaceae (21 species), Euphorbiaceae (20 species) and Palmae (14 species). According to growth forms, 57% of all species were trees, 13% shrubs, 10% herbs, 9% lianas, 4% palms, 3.5% climbers and 3% ferns. Diversity indices were higher along the stream side and species accumulation curve showed sampling area captured a high proportion of the species richness.

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www.ccsenet.org/jas Journal of Agricultural Science Vol. 3, No. 3; September 2011
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education 111
Vascular Plant Composition and Diversity of a Coastal Hill Forest in
Perak, Malaysia
S. Ghollasimood (Corresponding author), I. Faridah Hanum, M. Nazre, Abd Kudus Kamziah & A.G. Awang
Noor
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Tel: 98-915-756-2704 E-mail: sghollassi@yahoo.com
Received: September 7, 2010 Accepted: September 20, 2010 doi:10.5539/jas.v3n3p111
Abstract
Vascular plant species and diversity of a coastal hill forest in Sungai Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve in Pulau
Pangkor at Perak were studied based on the data from five one hectare plots. All vascular plants were
enumerated and identified. Importance value index (IVI) was computed to characterize the floristic composition.
To capture different aspects of species diversity, we considered five different indices. The mean stem density
was 7585 stems per ha. In total 36797 vascular plants representing 348 species belong to 227 genera in 89
families were identified within 5-ha of a coastal hill forest that is comprises 4.2% species, 10.7% genera and
34.7% families of the total taxa found in Peninsular Malaysia. Based on IVI, Agrostistachys longifolia (IVI
1245), Eugeissona tristis (IVI 890), Calophyllum wallichianum (IVI 807), followed by Taenitis blechnoides (IVI
784) were the most dominant species. The most speciose rich families were Rubiaceae having 27 species,
followed by Dipterocarpaceae (21 species), Euphorbiaceae (20 species) and Palmae (14 species). According to
growth forms, 57% of all species were trees, 13% shrubs, 10% herbs, 9% lianas, 4% palms, 3.5% climbers and 3%
ferns. Diversity indices were higher along the stream side and species accumulation curve showed sampling area
captured a high proportion of the species richness.
Keywords: Coastal hill forest, Diversity indices, Importance value index, Malaysia
1. Introduction
South-east Asian tropical rainforest with its unique and high proportions of endemic plants need greater effort in
studying biodiversity. This unique flora result largely from millions years of independence evolution during the
Tertiary, when wide oceanic barriers made dispersal between regions (Morely 2003), and have survived the
convergence of New Guinea with Southeast Asia (Primack and Corlett 2005). Cataloguing total species richness
in any country or region special in tropical and subtropical region is highly demanding (Villasenor et al. 2005) to
provide information for managers, environmental planners, nature reserve designers and ecologists (Sang 2009)
and a global map of plant diversity will powerfully inform biogeographical and conservation work in many ways.
Bidin and Latiff (1995) estimated about 12500 species of the seed plants in the flora of Malaysia and Turner
(1997) enumerated 8198 species in Peninsular Malaysia including 632 fern species, 27 Gymnosperms, 5529
Dicotyledons, 2010 Monocotyledons within 248 families and 1651 genera. Based on recent updates, the flora has
over 8300 species (Kamarudin and Turner 2004, Latiff and Turner 2002a, 2002b, 2003). Most attempts to
explain the variation in floristic composition of hill and lowland forest in Peninsular Malaysia have focused on
woody stems (≥1 cm) (Abdul Hayat et al. 2010, Okuda et al. 2003, Condit et al. 1996, Awang Noor and Faridah
Hanum 2008) rather than small individuals. Factor causing variation in species richness may differ between life
forms of plants. A comparison of various life forms allows a finer resolution of precise casual factors. Thus, in
the present study, we analysed the richness of different life forms along elevation gradient (45-350 m a.s.l.),
floristic composition and diversity of vascular plants in a coastal hill forest from Pangkor Island in Perak,
Peninsular Malaysia.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Study area
This study was performed in Sungai Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve. Pulau Pangkor (Fig 1) is an island
located on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 04° 13.0’N latitude and 100° 33.0´E longitude. It is
one of the famous and well known islands in Malaysia with area of eight square kilometres and classified as

www.ccsenet.o
r
112
coastal hill f
o
(Meteorology
1820.23 mm
minimum occ
Lumpur). Th
e
mainly sandy
2.2 Methods
a
Five plots of
1
and 152 m
a
vascular plan
sampling, sp
e
Faculty, Univ
and medicin
a
Malaysia (F
R
p
lots and was
= (number of
Relative freq
u
ANOVA test
regressions o
f
commonly u
s
richness is th
e
and the total
conducted us
i
8.2.0. (Colw
e
richness:
Simpson inde
x
1 –
D
1 –
D
n
i
=
N
N
=
T
s =
N
The Shannon
-
H’ =
s =
N
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i
=
P
Alpha Fisher’
S =
S =
T
N
=
T
=
r
g
/
jas
o
rest with a
h
site, Kuala
L
(2000-2010).
urs during Se
p
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elevation of
t
loam.
a
nd data anal
y
1
-ha (each 10
0
a
bove sea lev
e
ts and meas
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ersiti Putra M
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o
calculated as
individuals o
f
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ency = (frequ
e
was used to
f
species ric
h
s
ed diversity
i
e
number of s
number of in
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ng EstimateS
e
ll 2006). The
x
(Krebs 199
9
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= 1 – 

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= Simpson’s
i
N
umber of in
d
T
otal number
o
N
umber of spe
c
-
Wiener index
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
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l
N
umber of spe
c
P
roportion of
t
s index of div
e
log (1+N

)
T
otal number
o
T
otal number
o
=
Index of div
e
Jo
h
igh conservat
i
L
umpur 2010)
The highest
m
p
tember to De
t
he study area
y
sis
0
×100m) wer
e
e
l. Each sub
p
u
ring trees wi
t
p
lants group
s
alaysia (UPM
)
e
recorded an
d
o
rtance value
the sum of th
e
f
a species/tota
l
e
ncy of a spe
c
determine the
h
ness with alt
i
i
ndices were
c
pecies in the
c
dividuals obs
e
(Statistical es
following fo
r
9
):
󰇝 󰇛󰇜
N 󰇛N󰇜 }
index of diver
d
ividuals of sp
e
o
f individuals
c
ies in the sa
m
(Krebs 1999)
:
l
og
2
¡)
c
ies
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otal sample b
e
e
rsity (Magur
r
)
o
f species in t
h
o
f individuals
e
rsity
urnal of Agricu
l
i
on. The cli
m
, February an
m
ean tempera
t
cember (aver
a
ranges from
5
e
established
a
p
lot was syste
t
h height and
s
were collect
e
)
and identifi
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e
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w
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l
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n
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tude were al
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omputed in
o
c
ommunity.
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rved, N, whi
t
imation of s
p
r
mulas were
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sity
e
cies i in the s
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ple
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longing to it
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r
an 2004):
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l
tural Science
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www.ccsenet.org/jas Journal of Agricultural Science Vol. 3, No. 3; September 2011
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education 113
In addition, we tested two more indices, the Chao and Jackknife estimators of species richness that are based on
the incidence (presence/absence) of species.
The Chao index (Chao 1984):
C = S + (S²
S󰇜
C = Chao index
S = Species number
S1 = the total number of species represented by a single individual
S2 = the total number of species represented by two individuals
And the jackknife index (Chao 1984):
J = S + {S 󰇛N󰇜
N – S󰇛N󰇜²
N󰇛N󰇜 }
S = species number
N = individual number
S1 = the total number of species represented by a single individual
S2 = the total number of species represented by two individuals
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Floristic composition
In total 36797 vascular plants representing 348 species belong to 227 genera in 89 families were identified
(Appendix 1), two could only be identified to genus, one climber and three herbs were remained unknown within
five 1-ha of a coastal hill forest that comprises 4.2% species, 10.7% genera and 34.7% families of the total taxa
found in Peninsular Malaysia. Plant density was 7358 individuals per ha. Agrostistachys longifolia (IVI 1245),
Eugeissona tristis (IVI 890), Calophyllum wallichianum (IVI 807), followed by Taenitis blechnoides (IVI 784)
were dominant species (Table 1, 2). The most speciose rich families were Rubiaceae having 27 species, followed
by Dipterocarpaceae (21 species), Euphorbiaceae (20 species) and Palmae (14 species), while more than 23
families were singletons (represented by only one species). Euphorbiaceae had the largest number of individuals
(5.5% of plants), followed by Guttiferae (5%), and Dracaenaceae (4.8%). Table 3 shows the number of species
and individuals according to growth form. Plants were distributed according to growth forms as follows: 57% of
all species were trees, 13% shrubs, 10% herbs, 9% lianas, 4% palms, 3.5% climbers and 3% ferns. Evidently,
trees show more equitable distribution of species across plots and most of them are economically important. Tree
species like Agrostistachys longifolia, Calophyllum wallichianum, Xanthophyllum affine and Swintonia
floribunda were the most populated species.
This island harbours 122 medicinal species (Burkill 1935) in 98 genus and 57 families; Rubiaceae (12 species),
Guttiferae (10 species), Dracaenaceae (7 species), Euphorbiaceae (6 Sspecies), Araceae and Zingiberaceae (4
species each) were the most speciose medicinal families (Appendix 1). The dominant climber and liana species
were Scindapsus scortechinii representing 35% of climbers (74% of individuals) and Dalbergia parviflora
representing 26% of lianas (1.3% of individuals), respectively. Leguminosae, Connaraceae and Araceae were the
most species rich climber families (woody and non-woody). Lianas are dependent on trees for their support, and
thus the availability of suitably sized support is a major factor controlling the abundance and distribution of
lianas (Putz and Holbrook 1991). The common species in herbaceous layer were Globba variabilis and Etlingera
metriocheilos. Eugeissona tristis was a dominant palm, Dracaena pendula a dominant shrub, and Taenitis
blechnoides was a dominant fern.
Table 4 also shows the percentage of medicinal and endemic species according to growth -forms. In Malaysia
there is over 1000 medicinal species (Latiff et al. 1980) and about 13% of these species are found in this forest.

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Species composition and number of individuals differed between plots (Figure 2). Distribution of plant species in
natural vegetation is usually not stochastic. It occurs in patterns that are present at several spatial and temporal
scales. Each species is expected to be most abundant where the environmental conditions are most favorable for
it. In this study variation in plant community structure and composition were attributed to the characteristics of
physical environment. The number of herbs in the first plot were higher than the other plots, simply the presence
of stream was a factor that favoured higher values of diversity (Gazol and Ibanez 2010) and some species located
in streamside environments.
Altitude is a factor which is correlated with resources and regulators of plant growth (Kazakis et al. 2007). In
this study linear regression of plant richness against altitude was significant (Figure 3). Third plot showed a trend
of decreasing richness for most growth forms with increasing altitude and the main reason is altitude. The
negative influence of elevation on diversity has been widely reported in studies (Gazol and Ibanez 2010, Odland
and Birks 1999, Körner 2002, Pickering et al. 2008, Wang 2006). Overall, elevation showed significant linear
regression with herb, liana, fern and tree (Table 5). Although the number of trees reduced with increasing
elevation, the number of trees with dbh ≥5 cm in higher altitude was noteworthy (the details on distribution of
trees species will be published soon in a different paper).
Regression of elevation and palm, climber, epiphyte and shrub richness showed no significant relationship
(Table 5). Daque et al. (2002), Ruokolainen and Vormisto (2000) and Ruokolainen et al. (2002) indicated that
palms are less sensitive to environmental effect and more wide-spread than smaller plants.
Orchidaceae is the most speciose family in the flora of Malay Peninsula with 853 species (Turner 1997). In our
study, however, this family was poorly represented (only 5 species) and most of them appeared in the second and
third plots in upper canopy crowns to get maximum sea breeze.
3.2 Species accumulation curve
Hill and Hamer (2002) believed communities should be sampled adequately (usually assessed with species
accumulation curve). Species accumulation curve shows how species richness increases until eventually the
curve levels off with increasing sample size and the number of individuals inventoried. The graph suggests that
our sampling area captured a high proportion of the species richness; the point at which the curve flattens
indicates a minimum viable sample size on which a diversity or richness index should be based (Magurran 1988).
Figure 4 shows the curve based on the area sampled stabilized in third plot. Tropical ecologists believe species
richness reaches an asymptote at 1-3 ha (Gentry 1988, Tuomisto et al. 1995, McLaren, et al. 2005). Faridah
Hanum et al. (2008) in a case study in a logged-over forest in Ayer Hitam Forest found out increasing the size of
study area more than five hectare did not have any increment on species richness.
3.3 Species Diversity
A variety of diversity measures were computed to describe the heterogeneity of the plots. All diversity indices,
including non-parametric estimators, increased with the number of individuals in a sample (Table 6). The
majority of the 300 species (82% of total species) inventoried appeared in the first plot, and therefore this plot is
characterized by high diversity (215, 146, 182, 154 species found in plots 2 to 5, respectively). The Fisher’s
alpha is low when the number of species is low. This index is less affected by the abundance rarest or
commonest species diversity (α) range from 25.46 to 51.38 and the average for all plots is 35.23. The
Shannon–Winner’s index measures the average degree of ‘‘uncertainty’’ in predicting to what species
individuals chosen at random will belong (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988). Uncertainty may be visualized as being
synonymous with diversity (Krebs 1999), therefore, the higher the degree of uncertainty, the higher the diversity.
Diversity index fell within high range (3.54 to 4.98) while the average for all plots gave H’= 3.99. Simpson
index proposes that diversity is inversely related to the probability that two individuals picked at random from a
sample belong to the same species. Simply stated, if the probability is high the diversity is low. Simpson’s index
varies from 18.09 to 45.43 and the average is 27.62. According to this index the first plot was more diverse than
the others; this could be related to the relatively large number of abundant species. The evenness is considered
high when it varies near value of 1. When all species are abundant, an evenness index would be maximum and
decrease towards zero as the relative abundances increase. In this study area the average of Simpson’s measure
of evenness is low.
4. Conclusion
The quantitative inventory of a coastal hill forest helps to complete the description of biodiversity and plant
composition. Our results indicate this forest with 55 endemics and 13% of medicinal species found in Malaysia
is unique and offer numerous non-tangible benefits such as invaluable storehouse of genetic resources useful for

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Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education 115
indigenous species. Diversity indices are still widely used in plant ecology to evaluate survey and conserve
ecosystems and using richness estimators can improve our evaluation of diversity. Plant diversity is influenced
by a multitude of environmental factors, but in this study area streamside was the main factor in determining
diversity and majority of herb species were found near the stream.
Monitoring studies such as the current one are of utmost importance and provide insights into the responses of
coastal hill forest to climate change and also because this island is a tourist’s attraction place, the future
inspection need to see the changes according to number of species.
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Table 1. The 20 most abundant species in Sungai Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve in Pulau Pangkor, Perak
according to increasing order of IVI
Family Species Growth Forms RDE RF IVI
Olacaceae Strombosia javanica Blume Tree 178.09 4.8 182.89
Juglandaceae Engelhardtia serrata Blume Tree 194.91 5.29 200.2
Palmae Daemonorops calicarpa (Griff.) Mart. Palm 205.83 5.908 211.74
Ebenaceae Diospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern Tree 222 6.69 228.69
Leguminosae Dalbergia parviflora Roxb. Liana 229.36 7.26 236.62
Ulmaceae Girroniera parvifolia Planch. Tree 244.25 6.63 250.88
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea curtisii Dyer ex King Tree 274.83 8.27 283.1
Dracaenaceae Dracaena elliptica Thunb. Shrub 284.44 7.08 291.52
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica pauciflora (Korth.) Blume Tree 286.53 8.12 294.65
Palmae Calamus javensis Blume Palm 288.95 8 296.95
Aristolochiaceae Thottea corymbosa (Griff.) Ding Hou Tree 309.97 7.78 317.75
Leguminosae Fordia unifoliata (Prain) Dasuki & Schot Tree 328.21 9.87 338.08
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica perakensis King Tree 353.7 11.79 365.49
Anacardiaceae Swintonia floribunda Griff. Tree 434.96 15.15 450.11
Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum affine Korthalsia Tree 461.06 13.8 474.86
Dracaenaceae Dracaena graminifolia Wall Shrub 587.53 14.98 602.51
Dracaenaceae Dracaena pendula Ridley Shrub 749.32 20.8 770.12
Polypodiaceae Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw Fern 759.8 23.78 783.58
Guttiferae Calophyllum wallichianum Planch.&Triana Tree 785.78 21.05 806.83
Palmae Eugeissona tristis Griff. Palm 861 29.38 890.38
Euphorbiaceae Agrostistachys longifolia (Wight) Benth. Tree 1202 42.82 1244.82
Table 2. The 20 least abundant species in Sungai Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve in Pulau Pangkor, Perak
according to increasing order of IVI
Family Species Growth form RDE RF IVI
Araceae Alocasia denudata Endl. Herb 0.32 0.007 0.327
Rubiaceae Argostemma oblongum King Herb 0.32 0.007 0.327
Zingiberaceae Globba pendula Roxb. Herb 0.32 0.007 0.327
Araceae Schismatoglottis brevipes Hook.f. Herb 0.32 0.007 0.327
Araceae Schismatoglottis wallichii Hook.f. Herb 0.32 0.007 0.327
Asteraceae Vernonia arborea Buch. Hamrborea Herb 0.32 0.007 0.327
Lauraceae Actinodaphne oleifolia Gamble Shrub 0.32 0.007 0.327
Ochnaceae Euthemis leucocarpa Jack Shrub 0.32 0.007 0.327
Olacaceae Olax imbricata Roxb. Shrub 0.32 0.007 0.327
Meliaceae Chisocheton pauciflorus King Tree 0.32 0.007 0.327
Meliaceae Chukrasia tabularis Ridley Tree 0.32 0.007 0.327
Celastraceae Euonymus javanicus Blume Tree 0.32 0.007 0.327
Moraceae Ficus aurata Miq. Tree 0.32 0.007 0.327
Rhizophoraceae Gynotroches axillaris Blume Tree 0.32 0.007 0.327
Sterculiaceae Pterospermum javanicum Jungh. Tree 0.32 0.007 0.327
Cardiopteridaceae Cardiopteris quinqueloba (Hassk.) Hassk Climber 0.32 0.007 0.327
Annonaceae Ellipeia cuneifolia Hook.f. & Thomson Liana 0.32 0.008 0.328
Anacardiaceae Gluta curtisii (Oliv.) Ding Hou Tree 0.32 0.008 0.328
Poaceae Schizostachyum latifolium Gamble Bamboo 0.42 0.009 0.429
Lauraceae Alseodaphne sp. Tree 0.42 0.009 0.429
Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. Tree 0.42 0.009 0.429
RDE=relative density, RF= Relative frequency, IVI=Importance Value Index

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Table 3. The number of species and individuals according to growth form in five 1-ha plot in Sungai Pinang
Permanent Forest Reserve in Pulau Pangkor, Perak
Growth-forms Species numbers Plants numbers in 5 plots
Epiph
y
te 3 21
Climbe
r
12 745
Herb 31 3420
Liana 32 1634
Terrestrial 12 2354
Pal
m
14 3546
Shrub 44 5477
Tree 200 19600
Total 348 36797
Table 4. The percentage of medicinal and endemic species between growth-forms in five 1-ha plot in Sungai
Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve in Pulau Pangkor, Perak
Growth-forms Medicinal Sp. Percentage Endemic Sp. Percentage
Epiphyte 2 1.65% 1 1.8%
Climber 5 4.10% 1 1.8%
Herb 11 9.10% 7 12.7%
Liana 15 12.30% 4 7.3%
Terrestrial 4 3.30% - -
Palm 1 0.80% 6 10.9%
Shrub 24 20% 8 14.5%
Tree 59 49% 28 51%
Total 127 100 55 100
Table 5. The result of ANOVA and linear regression of growth-forms against elevation
B
0 B
1 R2
G
rowth-form Estimate Std.
Error
Confidence
I
nterval (0.95%)
E
stimate Std. Error
C
onfidence Interval
(0.95%)
P Value
Climber 8.047 30.847 106.215 0.129 0.276 1.008 0.67 0.067
Epiphyte 531.651 153.189 1019.165 -3.78 1.373 0.581 0.07 0.717
Herb 903.451 168.76 1440.54 -6.24 1.51 -1.42 0.02* 0.85
Liana 1509.91 312.95 2505.87 -8.995 2.8 -0.071 0.049* 0.774
Palm 2930.44 639.39 4965.27 -15.85 5.729 2.38 0.07 0.718
Shrub 760.501 348.46 1869.47 -1.351 3.123 8.58 0.69 0.059
Fern 8657.18 1350.96 12956.54 -59.99 12.10 -21.464 0.01* 0.891
Tree 15128.64 2396.95 22756.83 -84.50 21.479 -16.148 0.029* 0.838
Table 6. Species diversity indices based on five 1-ha sampling plots in Sungai Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve
in Pulau Pangkor, Perak
Plot Alpha Fisher Shannon–Wienner Simpson Jack 2 Chao 2 Simpson evenness
Plot 1 51.38 4.98 45.43 329.67 303.11 0.71
Plot 2 35.11 4.01 30.52 234.79 214.73 0.19
Plot 3 25.46 3.54 19.48 167.84 152.22 0.21
Plot 4 30.55 3.84 24.58 208.9 189.84 0.2
Plot 5 33.67 3.57 18.09 161.13 147.66 0.17
Avera
g
e 35.23 3.99 27.62 220.46 201.51 0.3

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y=‐77.41x+14928
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4000.00
6000.00
8000.00
10000.00
12000.00
14000.00
0 50 100 150 200
Elevation(m)a.s.l.
Speciesnumber
Figure 3. The regression of species number trend with elevation in Pulau Pangkor
Figure 4. Species accumulation curve based on a cumulative species count in 10×10 m plots of a five 1-ha plot in
Sungai Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve in Pulau Pangkor, Perak
0
50
100
150
200
250
1
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Appendix 1. Total list of species in five 1-ha plots in Sungai Pinang Permanent Forest Reserve in Pulau Pangkor,
Perak
Family Species Growth–Form ndemic Sp. Medicin
al Sp.
Acanthaceae Gymnostachyum decurrens Stap Herb Medicinal
Acanthaceae Staurogyne merguensis (T. Anderson) Kuntze Herb
Anacardiaceae
B
ouea oppositifolia (Roxb.) Meisn. Tree Medicinal
Anacardiaceae
B
uchanania sessifolia Blume Tree
Anacardiaceae Gluta curtisii (Oliv.) Ding Hou Tree
Anacardiaceae
M
angifera macrocarpa Blume Tree Medicinal
Anacardiaceae
M
angifera sp. Tree Medicinal
Anacardiaceae Swintonia floribunda Griff. Tree Endemic
Anacardiaceae Swintonia spicifera Hook Tree
Anisophylleaceae
A
nisophyllea grandis (Benth.) Burkill Tree Endemic
Anisophylleaceae
A
nisophyllea scortechinii King Tree
Annonaceae Uvaria grandiflora Roxb. ex Hornem Climber Endemic
Annonaceae
A
rtabotrys suaveolens (Blume) Blume Liana Medicinal
Annonaceae
E
llipeia cuneifolia Hook.f. & Thomson Liana
Annonaceae
M
itrella kentii (Blume) Miq. Liana
Annonaceae
P
yramidanthe prismatica (Hook.f. & Thomson) Liana
Annonaceae
P
olyalthia glauca (Hassk.) F. Muell Tree
Annonaceae
P
olyalthia hypoleuca Hook.f. & Thomson Tree Medicinal
Apocynaceae Willughbeia edulis Roxb. Liana
Apocynaceae
A
lstonia angustiloba Miq. Tree
Apocynaceae
D
yera costulata (Miq.) Hook.f. Tree
Araceae
E
pipremnum giganteum (Roxb.) Schott Climber
Araceae
P
othos kingii Hook.f. Climber Medicinal
Araceae Scindapsus perakensis Hook.f. Climber
Araceae
A
glaonema simplex Blume Herb
Araceae Schismatoglottis brevipes Hook Herb
Araceae Schismatoglottis wallichii Hook.f. Herb
Araceae
H
omalomena humilis (Jack) Hook.f. Herb Medicinal
Araceae Scindapsus scortechinii Hook.f. Liana Medicinal
Araceae
A
locasia denudata Endl. var. denudata Shrub Medicinal
Araceaelidiaceae
A
ralidium pinnatifitidum (Jungh. & de Vriese) Miq. Small Tree Medicinal
Araliaceae Schefflera ridleyi (King) R. Vig. Shrub Endemic Medicinal
Araliaceae
A
rthrophyllum diversifolium Blume Tree
Araucariaceae
A
gathis borneensis Warb. Tree
Aristolochiaceae Thottea corymbosa (Griff.) Ding Hou shrub Medicinal
Asteraceae
A
denostemma viscosum J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. Herb
Asteraceae Vernonia arborea Buch. Hamrborea Tree
Blechnaceae
B
lechnum finlaysonianum Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. Fern Medicinal
Blechnaceae
B
lechnum orientale L. Fern
Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma G. Forst. Tree Medicinal
Burseraceae Canarium littorale Blume Tree
Burseraceae Canarium pilosum Benn. Tree
Burseraceae
D
acryodes laxa (Benn.) H.J. Lam Tree
Burseraceae Santiria apiculata Benn. Tree
Cardiopteridaceae Cardiopteris quinqueloba (Hassk.) Hassk Small Tree
Celastraceae
B
hesa paniculata Arn. Tree
Celastraceae
E
uonymus javanicus Blume Tree
Celastraceae
L
ophopetalum sp. Tree
Combretaceae Combretum nigrescens King Liana Medicinal
Combretaceae Combretum sundaicum Miq. Liana Medicinal
Commelinaceae Commelina benghalensis L. Herb
Connaraceae
A
gelaea borneensis (Hook.f.) Merr. Liana
Connaraceae Connarus semidecandrus Jack Shrub
Connaraceae Connarus ferrugineus Jack Small Tree Endemic
Connaraceae Connarus grandis Jack Small tree

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Connaraceae Cnestis palala (Lour.) Merr. Tree
Connaraceae
R
ourea mimosoides (Vahl) Planch. Liana Endemic
Connaraceae
R
ourea rugosa Planch. Liana
Cyperaceae
M
apania cuspidata (Miq.) Uittien Herb
Cyperaceae
M
apania kurzii C.B. Clarke Herb
Cyperaceae
M
apania pa
l
ustris (Hassk. ex Steud.) Herb
Cyperaceae Cyperus haspan L. Herb
Dichapetalaceae
D
ichapetalum laurocerasus (Planch. ex Hook.f.) Liana Endemic
Dilleniaceae Tetracera scandens (L.) Merr. Liana
Dilleniaceae Tetracera indica Merr. Shrub
Dioscoraceae
D
ioscorea bulbifera L. Climber
Dipterocarpaceae
A
nisoptera costata Korth. Tree
Dipterocarpaceae
D
ipterocarpus costulatus Slooten Tree
Dipterocarpaceae
D
ipterocarpus fagineus Vesque Tree
Dipterocarpaceae
D
ipterocarpus grandiflorus (Blanco) Blanco Tree
Dipterocarpaceae
H
opea beccariana Burck Tree
Dipterocarpaceae
H
opea dryobalanoides Miq. Tree
Dipterocarpaceae
H
opea dyeri F. Heim Tree
Dipterocarpaceae
H
opea latifolia Symington Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea balanocarpoides Symington Tree Endemic
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea collina Ridl. Tree Endemic
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea curtisii Dyer ex King Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea glauca King Tree Endemic
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea lumutensis Symington Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea maxwelliana King Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea multiflora (Burck) Symington Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea parvifolia Dyer Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica havilandii Brandis Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica lowii King Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica maingayi Dye Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica pauciflora (Korth.) Blume Tree
Dipterocarpaceae Vatica perakensis King Tree
Dracaenaceae
D
racaena conferta Ridl. Shrub
Dracaenaceae
D
racaena elliptica Thunb. Shrub
Dracaenaceae
D
racaena graminifolia Wall. ex Hook.f. Shrub
Dracaenaceae
D
racaena pendula Ridley Shrub Endemic
Dracaenaceae
D
racaena porteri Baker Shrub Endemic
Dracaenaceae
D
racaena siamica Ridl. Shrub
Dracaenaceae
D
racaena umbratica Ridl. Shrub
Droseraceae
D
rosera indica Linn. Herb
Dryopteridaceae Tectaria crenata Cav. Fern
Dryopteridaceae Tectaria decurrens (C. Presl) Copel. Fernl
Ebenaceae
D
iospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern Tree
Ebenaceae
D
iospyros diepenhorstii Miq. Tree
Ebenaceae
D
iospyros pendula Hasselt ex Hassk. Tree
Ebenaceae
D
iospyros pilosanthera Blanco Tree Endemic
Ebenaceae
D
iospyros rufa King & Gamble Tree Endemic
Elaeocarpaceae
E
laeocarpus nitidus Jack Tree Endemic
Elaeocarpaceae
E
laeocarpus rugosus Roxb. Tree
Elaeocarpaceae
E
laeocarpus stipularis Blume Tree
Erythroxylaceae
E
rythroxylum cuneatum (Miq.) Kurz Tree
Euphorbiaceae
A
lchornea rhodophylla Pax & K. Hoffm., Shrub Endemic
Euphorbiaceae
B
reynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C. Fisch. Shrub
Euphorbiaceae
R
othmannia macrophylla (R.Br. ex Hook.f.) Shrub
Euphorbiaceae
A
grostistachys gaudichaudii Müll.Arg. Small Tree
Euphorbiaceae
A
grostistachys longifolia (Wight) Benth. Small Tree
Euphorbiaceae
A
ntidesma velutinosum Blume Small Tree
Euphorbiaceae
A
porosa benthamiana Hook.f. Small Tree
Euphorbiaceae Glochidion perakense (Müll.Arg.) Airy Shaw Small Tree Endemic

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Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education 123
Euphorbiaceae
A
porosa arborea (Blume) Müll.Arg. Tree
Euphorbiaceae
A
porosa nervosa Hook.f. Tree Endemic
Euphorbiaceae
B
otryophora geniculata (Miq.) Beumée ex Airy Tree
Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus glaucus Jabl. Tree Endemic
Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus hirsutulus Hook.f. Tree
Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus macrophyllus Hook.f. Tree
Euphorbiaceae
E
lateriospermum tapos Blume Tree
Euphorbiaceae
E
ndospermum diadenum (Miq.) Airy Shaw Tree
Euphorbiaceae
M
acaranga hullettii King ex Hook.f. Tree
Euphorbiaceae
M
allotus penangensis Müll.Arg. Tree
Euphorbiaceae
M
allotus subpeltatus (Blume) Müll.Arg. Tree
Euphorbiaceae
P
hyllanthus emblica L. Tree Endemic
Leguminosae
B
auhinia kockiana Korthalsia Liana
Leguminosae
D
albergia parviflora Roxb. Liana
Leguminosae Spatholobus ferrugineus (Zoll. & Moritzi) Benth. Liana
Leguminosae
M
illettia dasyphylla (Miq.) Boerl. Small Tree
Leguminosae
A
denanthera malayana Kosterm. Tree
Leguminosae Callerya atropurpurea (Wall.) Schot Tree
Leguminosae
D
ialium platysepalum Baker Tree
Leguminosae
F
ordia unifoliata (Prain) Dasuki & Schot Tree
Leguminosae Saraca indica L. Tree
Leguminosae
F
ordia pauciflora Dunn Treetlet Endemic
Fagaceae
L
ithocarpus cantleyanus (King ex Hook.f.) Rehder Tree
Fagaceae
L
ithocarpus wallichianus (Lindl. ex Hance) Rehder Tree
Flacourtiaceae Casearia latifolia Ridl. Small Tree
Flacourtiaceae Casearia velutinosa Ridl. Small Tree
Flacourtiaceae Casearia clarkei King Tree Endemic
Flacourtiaceae
F
lacourtia rukam Zoll. & Moritzi Small tree Endemic
Flacourtiaceae
H
ydnocarpus curtisii King Tree
Flacourtiaceae
R
yparosa javanica Kurz ex Koord. Tree
Flacourtiaceae
R
yparosa kunstleri King Tree
Gesneriaceae Cyrtandra cupulata Ridl. Herb Endemic
Gesneriaceae
D
idymocarpus platypus C.B. Clarke Herb
Gesneriaceae
D
idymocarpus sp. Herb Endemic
Gesneriaceae Cyrtandra wallichii (C.B. Clarke) B.L. Burtt Shrub
Gnetaceae Gnetum microcarpum Blume Liana
Gnetaceae Gnetum gnemon L. Shrub
Guttiferae Calophyllum calaba L. Tree Medicinal
Guttiferae Calophyllum molle King Tree Medicinal
Guttiferae Calophyllum wallichianum Planch. & Triana Tree Endemic Medicinal
Guttiferae Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex T. Anderson Tree Medicinal
Guttiferae Garcinia griffithii T. Anderson Tree Medicinal
Guttiferae Garcinia nigrolineata Planch. ex T. Anderson Tree Medicinal
Guttiferae Garcinia scortechinii King Tree Medicinal
Guttiferae
M
esua daphnifolia (Ridl.) Kosterm. Tree Medicinal
Guttiferae
M
esua ferrea L. Tree Medicinal
Hydrocharitaceae
E
nhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle Herb
Hypoxidaceae
M
olineria latifolia (Dryand.) Herb. ex Kurz Herb
Ixonanthaceae
I
xonanthes reticulata Jack Tree
Juglandaceae
E
ngelhardtia serrata Blume Tree
Lauraceae
A
ctinodaphne oleifolia Gamble Shrub
Lauraceae
A
lseodaphne sp. Tree
Lauraceae Cinnamomum iners Reinw Tree
Lauraceae
D
ehaasia cuneata (Blume) Blume Tree
Lauraceae
D
ehaasia polyneura (Miq.) Kosterm Tree
Lauraceae
L
itsea myristicifolia (Wall. ex Nees) Hook.f. Tree
Lauraceae
L
itsea nidularis Gamble Tree
Lauraceae
P
ersea declinata (Blume) Kosterm. Tree
Lecythidaceae
B
arringtonia pendula (Griff.)Kurz Tree

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Linaceae
R
oucheria griffithiana Planch. Liana
Loganiaceae Strychnos axillaris Colebr. Liana
Loganiaceae Strychnos flavescens King &Gamble Liana
Loranthaceae Scurrula parasitica L. - Shrub
Melastomataceae Sonerila caesia Stapf Herb Endemic
Melastomataceae Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don Shrub
Melastomataceae
M
elastoma muticum Ridl., Shrub
Melastomataceae
L
ijndenia laurina Zoll. & Moritzi Small tree
Melastomataceae
M
emecylon minutiflorum Miq. Tree Endemic
Melastomataceae
P
ternandra coerulescens Jack Tree
Meliaceae
A
glaia argentea Blume Tree
Meliaceae
A
glaia leptantha Miq. Tree
Meliaceae
A
glaia leucophylla King Tree
Meliaceae Chisocheton pauciflorus King Tree Endemic
Meliaceae Chukrasia tabularis Ridley Tree
Meliaceae
D
ysoxylum arborescens (Blume) Miq. Tree
Meliaceae
D
ysoxylum rigidum (Ridl.) Mabb. Tree
Meliaceae
P
seudoclausena chrysogyne (Miq.) T.P. Clark Tree
Meliaceae Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr Tree
Meliaceae Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. Tree
Meliaceae Walsura pinnata Hassk Tree
Menispermaceae Coscinium blumeanum Miers ex Hook.f. & Thomson Liana
Menispermaceae Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertner) Colebr. Liana
Menispermaceae
D
iploclisia kunstleri (King) Diels Liana
Menispermaceae
F
ibraurea tinctoria Lour. Liana Endemic
Menispermaceae Tinomiscium petiolare Hook.f. & Thomson Liana
Moraceae
F
icus bracteata Wall. ex Miq. Liana
Moraceae
F
icus punctata Thunb Liana
Moraceae
F
icus au
r
ata Miq. Shrub
Moraceae
A
rtocarpus lanceifolius Roxb. Tree
Moraceae
A
rtocarpus nitidus Trécul Tree
Moraceae Streblus elongatus (Miq.) Corner. Tree
Moraceae Streblus ilicifolius (Vidal) Corner Tree
Myristicaceae
H
orsfieldia polyspherula (Hook.f.) J. Sinclair Tree
Myristicaceae
K
nema furfuracea (Hook.f. & Thomson) Warb. Tree
Myristicaceae
K
nema hookeriana (Wall. ex Hook.f. & Thomson) Tree
Myristicaceae
K
nema malayana Warb Tree
Myristicaceae
M
yristica cinnamomea King Tree
Myristicaceae
M
yristica maxima Warb. Tree
Myrsinaceae
A
rdisia oxyphylla Wall. ex A. DC. Shrub
Myrsinaceae
A
rdisia pachysandra (Wall. ex Roxb.) Mez Shrub
Myrsinaceae
A
rdisia lanceolata Roxb. Tree
Myrtaceae Syzygium chloroleucum (King) Masam. Shrub
Myrtaceae
E
ugenia sp.9 Tree
Myrtaceae Syzygium acuminatissimum (Blume) DC Tree
Myrtaceae Syzygium claviflorum (Roxb.) Wall. ex A.M. Cowan Tree Endemic
Myrtaceae Syzygium linoceroides (King) I.M. Tree Endemic
Myrtaceae
R
hodamnia cinerea Ridl. Tree Medicinal
Ochnaceae
E
uthemis leucocarpa Jack Shrub Medicinal
Ochnaceae Ochna integerrima (Lour.) Merr. Small Tree
Ochnaceae
B
rackenridgea hookeri (Planch.) A. Gray Tree
Ochnaceae Campylospermum serratum (Gaertn.) Bittrich Tree
Ochnaceae Gomphia microphylla Ridl. Tree Medicinal
Olacaceae Olax imbricata Roxb. Climber
Olacaceae
X
imenia americana L. Small Tree Medicinal
Olacaceae Scorodocarpus borneensis (Baill.) Becc. Tree Medicinal
Olacaceae Strombosia ceylanica Gardn. Tree
Olacaceae Strombosia javanica Blume Tree
Olacaceae Strombosia maingayi Whitmore Tree

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Orchidaceae Vanilla griffithii Rchb.f. Climber Medicinal
Orchidaceae
A
ppendicula anceps Blume Epiphyte
Orchidaceae
E
pigeneium zebrinum (J.J.Sm.) Summerh. Epiphyte Medicinal
Orchidaceae Grammatophyllum speciosum Blume Epiphyte Endemic Medicinal
Orchidaceae Cryptostylis arachnites (Blume) Hassk. Herb
Oxalidaceae
A
verrhoa bilimbi L. Tree Medicinal
Oxalidaceae Sarcotheca griffithii (Planch. ex Hook.f.) Hallier f. Tree Endemic
Palmae
A
renga westerhoutii Griff. Palm
Palmae Calamus castaneus Griff. Palm
Palmae Calamus insignis Griff. Palm Endemic
Palmae Calamus javensis Blume Palm
Palmae
D
aemonorops calicarpa (Griff.) Mart. Palm
Palmae
E
ugeissona brachystachys Ridl. Palm Endemic
Palmae
E
ugeissona tristis Griff. Palm Endemic
Palmae
K
orthalsia rigida Blume Palm Endemic
Palmae
K
orthalsia scortechinii Becc. Palm
Palmae
L
icuala kingiana Becc. Palm
Palmae
L
icuala spinosa Wurmb. Verh. Palm
Palmae Oncosperma horridum (Griff.) Scheff.Bayas Palm Medicinal
Palmae
P
inanga perakensis Becc. Palm Endemic
Palmae
P
inanga subruminata Becc. Palm Endemic
Pandaceae
M
icrodesmis caseariifolia Planch. Shrub
Pandaceae
P
andanus humilis Lour. Shrub Endemic Medicinal
Pandaceae
P
andanus prainii Martelli Shrub Medicinal
Pandaceae Galearia fulva (Tul.) Miq. Tree
Passifloraceae
A
denia penangiana (Wall. ex G. Don) W.J. de Wilde Cimber Medicinal
Pentaphragmaceae
P
entaphragma horsfieldii (Miq.) Airy Shaw Herb
Piperaceae
P
iper magnibaccum C. DC. Climber Medicinal
Poaceae Schizostachyum latifolium Gamble Herb
Polygalaceae
P
olygala polifolia Presl Herb Endemic
Polygalaceae
X
anthophyllum affine Korthalsia Tree Medicinal
Polygalaceae
X
anthophyllum amoenum Chodat Tree
Polygalaceae
X
anthophyllum ellipticum Korth. ex Miq. Tree
Polygalaceae
X
anthophyllum eurhynchum Miq. Tree
Polygalaceae
X
anthophyllum flavescens Roxb. Tree
Polygalaceae
X
anthophyllum griffithii Hook.f. ex A.W. Benn Tree
Polypodiaceae Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw Fern
Polypodiaceae Taenitis interrupta Hook. & Grev Fern
Polypodiaceae
P
yrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price Fern
Rhamnaceae Ventilago malaccensis Ridl. Climber
Rhizophoraceae Gynotroches axillaris Blume Small Tree Endemic Medicinal
Rhizophoraceae
P
ellacalyx saccardianus Scort. Tree
Rubiaceae
P
aederia foetida L. Climber Medicinal
Rubiaceae
A
rgostemma oblongum King Herb Endemic
Rubiaceae
A
rgostemma elatostemma Hook.f. Herb Medicinal
Rubiaceae Coptosapelta griffithii Hook.f. Liana Medicinal
Rubiaceae Oxyceros curtisii (King & Gamble) K.M. Wong Liana
Rubiaceae Uncaria cordata cordata (Lour.) Merr. Liana Medicinal
Rubiaceae
I
xora grandifolia Zoll. & Moritzi Shrub Medicinal
Rubiaceae
I
xora umbellata Koord. & Valeton Shrub
Rubiaceae
L
asianthus cyanocarpus Jack Shrub Medicinal
Rubiaceae
L
asianthus densifolius Miq. Shrub Endemic Medicinal
Rubiaceae
P
rismatomeris glabra (Korth.) Valeton Shrub
Rubiaceae
P
sychotria angulata Korth. Shrub Endemic Medicinal
Rubiaceae Saprosma scortechinii King & Gamble Shrub Medicinal
Rubiaceae
I
xora congesta Roxb. Shrub
Rubiaceae
M
ycetia malayana (Wall. ex Ridl.) Craib Shrub
Rubiaceae
P
sychotria griffithii Hook.f. Shrub Medicinal
Rubiaceae Urophyllum blumeanum (Wight) Hook.f. Small Tree

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126
Rubiaceae
A
idia densiflora (Wall.) Masam Tree
Rubiaceae Canthium confertum Korth. Tree
Rubiaceae
D
iplospora malaccensis Hook.f. Tree
Rubiaceae Gardenia tubifera Wall. Tree
Rubiaceae
N
auclea officinalis (Pierre ex Pit.) Merr. & Chun Tree Medicinal
Rubiaceae
N
auclea subdita (Korth.) Steud. Tree
Rubiaceae
P
sydrax maingayi (Hook.f.) Bridson Tree
Rubiaceae Timonius corneri K.M. Wong Tree
Rubiaceae Urophyllum leucophloem Ridl. Tree Endemic Medicinal
Rutaceae
M
aclurodendron porteri (Hook.f.) T.G. Hartley Tree Endemic
Rutaceae Zanthoxylum myriacanthum Wall. Tree Medicinal
Sapindaceae
L
episanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. Small tree Endemic Medicinal
Sapindaceae
L
episan
t
hes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh. Tree Medicinal
Sapindaceae
X
erospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume Tree
Sapindaceae
A
llophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch. Tree Medicinal
Sapotaceae
P
alaquium gutta (Hook.f.) Baill. Tree
Sapotaceae
P
alaquium rostratum (Miq.) Burck Tree
Sapotaceae
P
ayena dasyphylla (Miq.) Pierre Tree
Sapotaceae
P
ayena lucida A. DC. Tree
Sapotaceae
P
outeria maingayi (C.B. Clarke) Baehni Tree
Sapotaceae
P
outeria malaccensis (C.B. Clarke) Baehni Tree
Schizaeaceae
L
ygodium auricu
l
atum (Willd.) Alston. Fern
Scrophulariaceae Cyrtandromoea repens Ridl. Herb Medicinal
Selaginellaceae Selaginella minutifolia Spring Fern Medicinal
Selaginellaceae Selaginella intermedia (Blume) Spring Fern Medicinal
Simarubaceae
B
rucea javanica (L.) Merr. Shrub Medicinal
Simarubaceae
E
urycoma longifolia Jack Treetlet Medicinal
Smilacaceae Smilax calophylla Wall. ex A. DC Shrub Endemic Medicinal
Solanaceae
L
ycianthes laevis (Dunal) Bitter Shrub Medicinal
Sterculiaceae Sterculia cuspidata R.Br. Small Tree
Sterculiaceae
P
terospermum javanicum Jungh. Tree Medicinal
Thelypteridaceae
P
ronephrium repandum (Fée) Holttum Fern
Thymelaeaceae
A
quilaria sp. Tree Medicinal
Thymelaeaceae Gonystylus affinis Radlk. Tree Medicinal
Tiliaceae
P
entace macrophylla King Tree Endemic
Tiliaceae
P
entace strychnoidea King Tree
Tiliaceae Schoutenia accrescens (Mast.) Curtis Tree
Ulmaceae Gironniera parvifolia Planch Tree
Ulmaceae Girroniera subaequalis Planch. Tree Endemic
Verbenaceae Clerodendrum deflexum Wall. Shrub Medicinal
Verbenaceae Clerodendrum laevifolium Blume Shrub
Verbenaceae Teijsmanniodendron hollrungii (Warb.) Kosterm. Small Tree
Verbenaceae Teijsmanniodendron coriaceum (C.B. Clarke) Tree
Verbenaceae Vitex pinnata L. Tree Medicinal
Violaceae
R
inorea anguifera (Lour.) Kuntze Tree Medicinal
Violaceae
R
inorea sclerocarpa (Burgersd.) M. Jacobs Tree
Vitaceae Tetrastigma lawsoni (King) Burkill ex A.W. Hill Liana Endemic
Vittariaceae
A
nthrophyum callifolium Blume Epiphyte
Woodsiaceae
D
iplazium bantamense Blume Fern Medicinal
Zigiberaceae Zingiber curtisii Holttum Herb Endemic Medicinal
Zingiberaceae
E
tlingera metriocheilos (Griff.) R.M. Sm. Herb Medicinal
Zingiberaceae Globba pendula Roxb. Herb Endemic Medicinal
Zingiberaceae Globba variabilis Ridl. Herb Medicinal
Zingiberaceae
A
lpinia scabra (Blume) Baker Herb