Sociological Aspects of Meat in Meals - Cultural Impacts and Meal Patterns

Abstract

PS10.01 Sociological aspects of meat in meals-Cultural impacts and meal patterns 434.00 Katherine O'Doherty Jensen (1) koj@life.ku.dk (1 Abstract-Health professionals and environmental experts advocate reduced consumption of meat in industrialized regions. On this background, and in light of a number of sociological studies of food practices and meal formats among consumers, this paper examines some aspects of the cultural entrenchment and vulnerability of meat consumption. Tacit meanings of meat products are seen as arising from the human tendency to rank and grade objects relative to each other, a process that is intrinsic to consumption practices. Examples of the ways in which gradient meanings of meat products are entrenched in food practices and of ways in which this consumption is vulnerable to change, are presented. On this basis, the likelihood that current levels of meat consumption in industrialized societies will remain relatively stable or tend to decrease are briefly discussed.

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Proceedings: 1626
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Parallel session 10: Meals
PS10.01 Sociological aspects of meat in meals - Cultural impacts and meal patterns 434.00
Katherine O'Doherty Jensen (1) koj@life.ku.dk
(1)Sociology of Food Research Group at the Department of Human Nutrition, University of Copenhagen,
Copenhagen, Denmark
Abstract- Health professionals and
environmental experts advocate reduced
consumption of meat in industrialized regions.
On this background, and in light of a number of
sociological studies of food practices and meal
formats among consumers, this paper examines
some aspects of the cultural entrenchment and
vulnerability of meat consumption. Tacit
meanings of meat products are seen as arising
from the human tendency to rank and grade
objects relative to each other, a process that is
intrinsic to consumption practices. Examples of
the ways in which gradient meanings of meat
products are entrenched in food practices and of
ways in which this consumption is vulnerable to
change, are presented. On this basis, the
likelihood that current levels of meat
consumption in industrialized societies will
remain relatively stable or tend to decrease are
briefly discussed.
The author is with the Sociology of Food Research Group at the
Department of Human Nutrition, University of Copenhagen,
Copenhagen, Denmark (phone: +45 35 28 24 88; fax: +45 35 28
24 83; e-mail: koj@ life.ku.dk).
Index Terms- cultural entrenchment, cultural
change, gradient meaning, meat consumption,
meal formats.
INTRODUCTION
CONSUMERS accord pride of place to meat as
being the most highly prized of all food products.
The evidence for this is neither recent nor local. It
does not primarily rely upon what consumers claim
to be the case, as reported in surveys. Rather, it
rests upon observed patterns of global, regional and
local demand over time [1, 2]. It also rests on the
observed place of meat in the meal formats of more
affluent societies, as documented by
anthropological and sociological research during
the last three decades of the 20th century [3, 4, 5,
6]. These food practices have been challenged in
recent years by dietary recommendations put
forward by health professionals, environmentalists
and others, highlighting the need to reduce levels of
meat consumption in industrialized societies. In the
light of a number of studies carried out by members
of the Sociology of Food Research Group at the
University of Copenhagen, the objective of this
paper is to examine the cultural entrenchment and
vulnerability of meat consumption with reference to
industrialized societies.
Cultural 'entrenchment' here refers to the manner in
which the consumption of meat functions as a
carrier of tacitly accepted meanings that are taken
for granted in the routine food practices of
consumers. Cultural 'vulnerability' refers to the
likelihood that such tacitly accepted meanings are
subject to change, for example in the light of
recommendations advocated by experts.
One instance of recent recommendations is the
public health goal formulated in 2007 by the World
Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute
of Cancer Research. These bodies suggest that the
average population intake of red meat should not
exceed 300g per week. The personal
recommendation to people who eat red meat is to
consume less than 500g per week. In each case it is
recommended that very little if any of this intake
should include preserved or processed meat
products [7]. Reaching these goals would entail that
world per capita consumption of beef, pork and
other red meats would be re-distributed between
developed and developing countries, and reduced
by one third to two thirds of current consumption
levels in industrialized regions [cf.8].
Environmentalists also call for a worldwide
transformation of typical diets with a particular
focus upon levels of meat consumption in
industrialized societies. Reduced consumption is
called for with reference to the inherent inefficiency
of converting feed into meat, which entails that
meat production is responsible for a
disproportionate share of environmental burdens [9,
10]. It has been estimated that the cereal and
leguminous grain consumed annually by animals
contain enough energy to feed more than three
billion people [11]. The environmental impacts of
modern animal husbandry are identified as
including inefficient use of land resources to
produce feed, inefficient use of water resources,
reduction of biodiversity, and pollution due to the
eutrophication of land and waterways as well as
CO2 generated by the combustion of fossil fuels in
these production systems. Although the reduction
of meat consumption has been called for in the
industrialized West, it has hitherto not been
predicted as likely to occur. While more than 80%
of world growth of meat consumption is expected
to occur in developing countries within the coming
decade, per capita consumption in industrialized

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countries is also expected to increase, if only
marginally [8]. Several reasons may account for
this including lack of interest in the dietary
recommendations of experts among producers and
consumers. A closer look at the character of cultural
controls on food practices should enable us to better
envisage the likelihood that meat consumption in
industrialized societies will remain relatively stable
or possibly tend to decrease within the foreseeable
future.
FOOD PRACTICES AND THEIR MEANINGS
Food practices are culture-bound insofar as they are
dependent on shared categorizations of food
products and shared rules that govern their usage
[12, 13]. Traditional cuisines are or have been
formerly location-dependent insofar as land and
water resources and local climate limit the range of
available products. This factor is no longer
generally seen as limiting the range of products
consumed in industrialized regions. Another factor
that distinguishes these societies is the extent to
which demand and choice are income-dependent.
Since the middle of the last century it has been
found that income, as such, explains consumer
choices in the industrialized world to a lesser and
lesser extent [1]. The price elasticity of meat is high
in low-income countries, but remains relatively
inelastic in higher income industrialized countries
[2]. In both cases this reflects the high priority
accorded to meat products, but only in
industrialized regions is this demand not markedly
limited by household income.
A focus upon shared categorizations and dietary
rules in anthropological and sociological research
has underlain the notion that each food culture is
unique and that the meanings of any particular set
of food practices must be interpreted in relation to
their specific cultural setting. This focus has
obscured two central characteristics of food
practices.
Firstly, many basic food categories (such as 'beef'
and 'pork') are in fact fully transcultural [cf. 14],
which is to say: precisely the same objects are
designated by different terms in different languages.
This also applies to more abstract categories, such
as the distinction between 'vegetable' and 'animal'
foods. The transcultural or global character of many
food categories undermines the view that each
cuisine is correctly regarded as being unique in all
important respects. Indeed, if this were not the case,
it would make little sense to estimate actual and
expected global demand for meat or any other
product category.
Secondly, and much more importantly from the
viewpoint of understanding the meanings of food
practices, people not only categorize products, they
also rank them relative to each other. The order in
which food products are commonly ranked in the
Western world was identified 25 years ago as
follows [15]. Meat products were seen as having
the highest status at the top of the culinary scale,
fruit and vegetables as occupying a mid-point, and
cereal products as having the least status at the
bottom of the scale. Further graded distinctions
within these categories were also identified. For
example, red meats were seen as having relatively
more status than the white meats of poultry or fish,
and the latter in turn as having relatively more
status than other animal products such as eggs,
cheese or milk products. Similarly, consumers rank
variants within a single product category. Thus,
fresh products are generally accorded a higher
status than processed variants. Even among fresh
products, however, one variant as compared to
another is likely to be assessed as being juicier,
larger, cheaper, or perhaps as being quite simply
better (on the grounds that it is locally produced,
free-range, organic, salmonella-free or something
else). The particular criteria (size, price, etc.)
according to which such gradient ('more or less')
distinctions are made differ to some extent from
one person, social class or region to another.
Nevertheless, a shared understanding of gradient
differences between products is intrinsic to the
shared rules that implicitly govern their usage in
any given culture or sub-culture. Familiar variants,
products, dishes and meals are each located at a
particular point on such gradient scales [16].
Any such continuum or 'scale' can be described as
occupying the space between two endpoints, each
of which is commonly named by means of binary
distinctions. Examples are: cheap - expensive,
meager - copious, healthy - unhealthy, ordinary -
special, important - unimportant, etc. The issue to
be resolved by the consumer in any instance might
be: just how (relatively) expensive or unhealthy a
given product is or just how important a particular
ingredient is to a given dish. Mastery of the cultural
rules depends on the ability to locate just where
precisely on such continua a given item fits in,
assessed according to the criteria that count in a
given milieu. According to this view of
consumption practices, all products that enter the
food system of a given milieu are accorded gradient
meanings in this manner.
Shared categorizations underlie explicit dietary
rules. Thus, pork is forbidden to Muslims and Jews,
and all meat products are eschewed by vegetarians.
Rules of this kind serve important social functions,
particularly regarding the distinction and
segregation of social groups. The identification of
categories and explicit rules, however, tells us
relatively little about the complex food practices
that constitute a particular cuisine. Implicit dietary
rules, in contrast, are followed in practice, but are
not put into words. Keeping the rules is a matter of
knowing when it is appropriate for whom to eat
and/or drink what, when, and in the company of

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whom. The cultural grammar that underlies rules of
this kind is one that distinguishes gradient
differences between events and persons as well as
food products. It takes time to master such a
grammar, but it is exceedingly simple in its day-
today operation. The key to appropriate usage of
food and drink in any given situation rests upon the
ability to attune the location of items on gradient
scales in the culinary domain to the corresponding
location of events and persons on gradient scales in
the social domain. It is for this reason we tend to
move up the culinary scale when important guests
are coming to dinner, until the point is reached at
which our options are deemed to be fitting [17].
The difficulty in practice is always that of hitting
the nail on the head.
This account of the scalar dimensions of
consumption practices is one that attributes a
central role to items of food and drink as carriers of
gradient meanings that are tacitly understood. It
recognizes that products constitute the medium of
communication by which gradient distinctions in
the social sphere are expressed. This is the
perspective that is needed in order to understand the
extent to which the use of any particular consumer
product is entrenched within a given cultural
setting.
THE CULTURAL ENTRENCHMENT OF MEAT
Food products (and other consumer goods) are
culturally entrenched when they serve as a medium
of analogical communication regarding the relative
status of social occasions, including eating events,
as well as that of persons. Not all of the household
the meals of the day, the week, the calendar year or
of a lifetime are accorded equal importance. Their
relative importance is indicated by a number of
gradient features: the use of more (or less)
household time, money and skill, expectations
regarding a greater (or smaller) number of
participants, as well as the relative length of time
devoted to the occasion. On this basis it can be said
that 'dinner' is usually accorded more importance
than 'lunch', while least importance is commonly
attributed to the first meal of the day: 'breakfast'.
The role of meat at the top of the culinary scale is
indicated by the fact that meat is traditionally the
main ingredient of the main course of the main
meal of the day. Since more status is generally
accorded to hot than to cold dishes, this course is
also served hot [cf. 3]. Among meat products as we
have seen, more status has been traditionally
accorded to red meat as compared to the white
meats of poultry or fish. But there are also gradient
differences between cuts of meat, which in turn
serve as indicators of the relative status of a
particular meal. [18]. Thus, ground or chopped
meat is generally accorded less status than are
whole pieces, such as a chop or steak. The latter in
turn have relatively less status than that of a joint of
meat, and a joint less than that a whole animal.
Some ambiguity is introduced to this gradient scale
due to relative differences regarding animal size.
Thus a whole roast chicken may occupy a location
on the culinary scale that approximates that of a
joint of beef, lamb or pork, while the same might be
said of a joint of chicken as compared, let us say, to
a pork chop. Differences of this kind are in turn
reflected on a different gradient scale: that of retail
prices. The manner in which meat products are
culturally entrenched in Western food practices is
revealed by considering some examples of the place
usually accorded to these products in courses and
meals of more and less importance, respectively.
Thinly sliced cold cuts of preserved or otherwise
processed meat are a familiar feature of lunch
formats in most parts of the industrialized world.
Given the relatively lower status of breakfast as
compared to lunch, however, their presence there
serves to raise the relative status of such a
breakfast. Cold cuts are therefore likely to be
included in the breakfast buffet of more expensive
hotels, serving (alongside fresh fruit salad) as one
of several indicators of a superior breakfast. Their
presence as the main ingredient of the main course
of the main meal of the day has a correspondingly
different gradient meaning. Such products will tend
to render that higher status meal an inferior variant
of dinner - both by reason of being cold and by
reason of being a processed product. Products
located at a higher point on the culinary scale
appropriately belong to the more important meal of
the day. It can be noted that in cultures in which
cold cuts are a feature of the main meal, they
function as a first course, not a main course. In
Italian cuisine, for example, cold cuts are a
treasured feature of the antipasti, not the main
course.
Given their lower status on the culinary scale
relative to fresh products, preserved and processed
meat products also serve as markers of lower status
meals - even when cooked and served as a hot dish.
The 'full breakfast' in British cuisine and elsewhere
includes sausages and bacon among other items,
and is traditionally regarded as a breakfast of a
superior kind, but only as compared to other
breakfasts. These products also serve as welcome
snacks and constitute appropriate ingredients of a
sandwich lunch. Cooked sausages serve these
functions in many societies, but are nevertheless a
marker of an inferior variant of dinner should they
appear as the main ingredient of the main course.
The same might be said of the ubiquitous burger -
not because the meat ingredient is a processed
product, but because minced meat is lower on the
culinary scale relative to other cuts of meat. Used as
a topping on otherwise meatless main dishes,
however, a product such as 'bacon bits' serves to

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raise the relative status of such dishes as a pizza,
omelet or salad.
Research in the UK during the 1970s and 1980s
identified the ingredients of a 'proper dinner', as
seen by consumers and as compared to all other
dinners [3, 4, 5]. Unsurprisingly, the main
ingredient of the main course was a whole piece of
meat such as a chop, steak or joint of chicken. The
serving was done in the proper manner when the
plate served to each participant also included one
helping of cooked green vegetables and small
boiled potatoes, over which gravy was poured. The
most important meal of the week, Sunday dinner,
was marked by the presentation of a joint of roast
red meat and by roasting the potatoes in the juice of
this meat. The presentation of a whole roast animal
of larger dimensions than that of a chicken is,
however, commonly reserved for occasions of even
greater importance on the social scale. Thus, a
whole roast turkey is the marker of Thanksgiving in
USA and of Christmas in the UK and elsewhere.
The phenomenon of gendered food practices serves
as one example of the ways in which gradient scales
in the culinary domain are commonly mapped onto
gradient scales in the social domain. Men's well-
documented preference for meat and women's
preference for vegetables has been said to rest on
some form of metaphorical understanding [19].
According to the view presented here, consumer
perceptions of items of food and drink as being
respectively 'masculine' or 'feminine' rest on the
same form of analogical cognition as that which
underlies all consumer practices, by which one
gradient scale is compared to another. We can
better understand why preferences for white meat as
compared to red, for vegetarian as compared to
meat dishes, for tea or coffee as compared to
alcohol, are regarded as 'feminine' preferences,
given the premise that men are regarded as having
more social status than women. All of the food
products commonly identified as 'masculine' have a
common characteristic: each of them occupies a
location on the culinary scale that is a step higher
than the corresponding items perceived as being
feminine. [21]. Similarly, on the premise that
children rank lower than adults, there will be social
occasions that are appropriately celebrated by
servings of relatively low ranking items on the
culinary scale, such as sausages or hamburgers.
These occasions are children's parties.
CHANGING FOOD PRACTICES
The cuisines of industrialized regions continually
undergo adaptations, the range of options being
widened by global sourcing and distribution
systems, migration, travel and innovations in the
manufacturing, retail and food service sectors,
although simultaneously narrowed on a global scale
by decreasing biodiversity. A point that remains
constant is the need of consumers to be able to
locate precisely where on an already familiar
culinary scale new products, dishes and meal
formats can be regarded as fitting in, and which
products, dishes or formats can be regarded as
appropriate substitutions for existing options. For
the most part this adaptive task can be
accomplished tacitly by observing who eats and
drinks what, when, where, and in the company of
whom. The question at issue here, however, regards
the likelihood that consumers will make reflective
decisions about changing their dietary practices on
the basis of recommendations from experts.
We can briefly consider the falling popularity of the
'proper dinner' as one example of a change that has
occurred tacitly and the rising popularity of
'organic' foods as one example of a trend in which
reflective decisions do play a part in changing
consumption practices.
The 'proper dinner' comprises one item from the top
of the culinary scale, one item from its mid-point
and an indefinite number of items from a slightly
lower position again. As such it serves as a perfect
analogue for the 'proper' family, but only insofar
as such a family is perceived as comprising a unit in
which superior status is attributed to one (male)
adult, somewhat lower status to one (female) adult
and least status to an indefinite number of other
beings (children) [16]. The increasing recognition
of gender equality during the last 40 years has
rendered this format a less than perfect analogue of
the nuclear family and other households. For this
reason alone we would expect to find this meal
format less frequently among couples who regard
each other as equals.
The case of increasing demand for organic foods
has a quite different character. Given the
availability of these products, the selection of
organic as compared to conventional variants at a
premium price may be supported by the assumption
that higher prices indicate better products. It may
also be supported by the observation of a trend - for
example, that people with relatively higher social
status are buying these products. However, research
documents that reflective decisions with respect to
health, the environment and a range of ethical
issues do underlie this demand on the part of
frequent buyers. Food safety concerns with respect
to health and animal welfare also play a role, as
does distrust of the conventional food industry [20].
It should be noted that insofar as these purchasing
decisions rest upon the substitution of conventional
by organic variants, they do not necessarily entail
changes in the dishes and meal formats of a given
cuisine.
The dietary recommendations of experts are likely
to be acceptable or unacceptable to consumers
precisely in the measure that specific
recommendations, if followed, would disrupt the
medium by which gradient distinctions are

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currently recognized and communicated. In this
light it can be seen that a recommendation to
eliminate preserved and processed meat products
and a recommendation to reduce the consumption
of fresh, red meat products represent two challenges
to consumers of quite different character.
Because processed products are generally accorded
a lower status than fresh products, the former
function as signifying markers of secondary status
at all points within the meal system. Their
elimination would wreck havoc with the system by
which inferior, acceptably appropriate and superior
variants of a variety of dishes, courses and meals
are currently distinguished. On this basis, it would
seem highly unlikely that consumers would or
could accept this challenge in the foreseeable
future. Changes of this kind, insofar as they are
made, would in all likelihood occur very gradually
indeed.
The situation is somewhat different with respect to
a challenge to decrease the consumption of fresh
red meat products on an everyday basis. Decisions
on this point largely rest on the acceptability of
appropriate substitutes for the main ingredient of
the main meal (poultry, fish, meat substitutes, etc.)
or, alternatively, the acceptability of meal formats
that obscure the role of ranked ingredients. A recent
survey among Danish consumers reveals that 38%
express a preference for a 'traditional' main course
in which meat is the main ingredient, 29% prefer
'modern' dishes such as a stir-fry or pasta dish,
while the remaining 33% are equally pleased with
either option. Almost two-thirds (64%) of those
with traditional preferences declare that they would
find a hot meal that did not include meat as 'a meal
that is missing something', whereas only one
quarter of those with 'modern' preferences do so
[21]. These findings indicate the likelihood that
consumers would have strongly divided opinions
about the prospect of reducing their meat
consumption. Nevertheless, it would seem that a
majority of Danish consumers would be open to
this possibility. Recent surveys of organic
consumption among Danes reveal that a tendency
to purchase organic foods with relatively greater
frequency is positively correlated with a preference
for 'modern' dishes [22], and with a tendency to eat
less meat [23]. The fact that concerns about health
and the environment are widely reported among
consumers of organic products in industrialized
regions, and the fact that demand for these products
is rising are among the indicators that these
concerns do function as criteria by which gradient
distinctions in the culinary domain are increasingly
made by consumers. On this basis it can be said that
a decreasing consumption of red meat products in
industrialized countries is a possible and even likely
development within the foreseeable future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Grateful acknowledgement is made to my
colleagues Lotte Holm, Jesper Lassen, Thomas
Bøker Lund and Sara Korzen, and to Hanna
Schlöser, Department for Environmental Policy
Analysis, Vrije Universiteit, for their input to this
paper, as well as to the Danish Research Council
and Danish Meat Association for funding research
regarding gradient meanings of food practices.
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PS10.02 Texture and satiety; Simulation of gastrointestinal digestion for the development of novel
satiety concepts 84.00
Tim Lambers (1) tim.lambers@nizo.nl, W Den Bosch (1), S de Jong(1)
(1)NIZO food research B.V., Ede, The Netherlands
The epidemic of overweight and obesity
necessitates the design of foods that suppress
appetite to guard the balance between energy
consumption and expenditure. A
multidisciplinary approach, combining
principles from sensory science of flavors and
textures, gastrointestinal physiology, ingredient
technology, and texture design enables the
engineering of such food products. This lecture
will focuses on the textural properties of proteins
and polysaccharides during gastrointestinal
transit and their concomitant effects on satiety.
An in-vitro digestion method in combination
with rheometry has been developed to enable
fast screening of textural effects under
physiological conditions. Examples will be given
of fast and slow proteins and gelling
polysaccharides from different sources.
Keywords: Satiety, texture, protein, rheometry,
in-vitro digestion
I. INTRODUCTION
The war against overweight and obesity requires
multiple approaches. One of the possibilities for
food industry is to develop products that affect food
intake, either by directly terminating food intake
(termed satiation) or - on a longer timescale – by
prolonging inter-meal intervals (satiety). There are
several ways by which food influences the satiating
feeling and meal termination (see Fig. 1). There are
sensory effects induced by flavour and mouth feel,
a full feeling by stomach distension, hormone
release and post-absorptive appearance of food
metabolites in the blood circulation due to intestinal
nutrient absorption [1-3].
It is known from several studies [4-5] that there is a
correlation between texture and satiety. From a
food technological point of view there is, however,
little room to alter food texture in existing products
unnoticeably. Since minor textural changes will not
have a profound effect on satiety, the focus of this
study is on textural changes during gastrointestinal
passage. Stomach distension and delayed gastric
emptying may be induced by high gelling
ingredients such as proteins and polysaccharides.
On the other hand, moving downstream from the
stomach, the appearance of peptides and amino
acids may induce satiety by specialized sensing
mechanisms and/or transport of nutrients (amino
acids) into the blood. Hence, in this area there are
two protein technological solutions of influencing
satiety by engineered textures: “fast roteins” will
travel with high speed through the stomach
delivering their peptides and amino acids in the
small intestine, while “slow proteins” will remain in
the stomach for a longer period [6]. Ultimately slow
proteins, in analogy to gelling polysaccharides [7],
can induce satiety by increasing the resistance
during gastric grinding. Measuring satiety properly
requires extensive human and sensory trials. To
accelerate product development, a fast in-vitro
method has been designed that enables the
monitoring of hysicalchemical properties of
ingredients and food structures under
gastrointestinal conditions. It is based on an in-vitro
model simulating gastrointestinal digestion (termed
SIMPHYD) combined with in-line measurements
of the physical parameters using a controlled stress
rheometer with vane geometry operating under
physiological conditions.
The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the well
known satiating effects of proteins and alginates
from human studies in a model in-vitro system by
measuring their physical properties under gastric
conditions. Moreover, understanding the
relationship between results from human studies
and in-vitro studies will provide tools for
engineering of textural properties that contribute to
satiation during gastrointestinal passage of food
(ingredients).
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
II.1 Equipment
An in-vitro digestion model SIMPHYD (simulation
of physiological digestion) has been adapted for
texture measurements during the simulated
digestion process. The viscosity measurements
were performed using a controlled stress rheometer
(TA Instruments, AR-2000) equipped with a
stainless steel vane geometry (stator inner radius
26.85 mm, rotor outer diameter 24.50 mm, height,

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Proceedings: 1633
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
73.00 mm), which was operated under
physiological parameters present in the stomach
(presence of enzymes, salts, dynamics of
acidification, enzyme secretion, mixing, etc.).
Protein samples were tested under steady shear
conditions (continuous ramp, 37°C, 3h at 75 s-1),
whereas alginates were tested under dynamic
conditions (37°C, 135 min at 50% strain, 1 Hz).
Within the first 15 min. of the experiment the
solution was acidified from pH 7
towards gastric pH (i.e. ~ pH 2), after which gastric
enzymes were added. For the dynamic tests an
initial 5 min. delay time was applied before starting
acidification.
II.2 Materials
The typical fast and slow proteins whey (WPI) and
casein (Na-caseinate), respectively and alginates
(Manucol DM) were used to validate the methods
developed. A commercially available casein
hydrolysate was utilized in this study to determine
the effects of casein hydrolysis. Furthermore, casein
was modified by using coupling of food grade
biopolymers. Whey protein was aggregated
rendering a more viscous whey product that is able
to gel upon reduction of pH.[8].
III. RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Fig. 2 shows the results of viscosity measurements
using the controlled stress rheometer operated
under simulated gastric conditions. Clearly, casein
showed a higher viscosity under these conditions
than whey protein. Where whey remained soluble,
casein coagulated and precipitated under gastric
conditions (see insert in Fig. 2) giving rise to an
increase in viscosity during and after acidification
in the first 15 min. of the experiment.
Physiologically, these differences would result in
an altered gastric transit as previously reported in
human trials [6]. After obtaining maximum
viscosity, a decrease in viscosity was evident, most
likely as a result of proteolysis of the
aggregates/lumps by proteolytic enzymes present in
the simulated gastric fluids. On the other hand, the
fast whey protein gave a clear solution, in which all
proteins were dissolved, making them well
accessible for proteases. No viscosity changes were
observed during acidification of the whey protein
even while proteolysis of the whey proteins may
induce minute changes in viscosity.
In Fig. 3 two examples are given displaying the
effect of modifications of casein on its behavior
under gastric conditions. Fig 3a shows the viscosity
pattern for untreated casein and for the casein
hydrolysate. Hydrolysis resulted in a profile
associated with typical fast proteins (whey) most
likely because coagulation and aggregation was
prevented. Fig 3b shows casein modified by
addition of food grade polymers. This modification
rendered an ingredient that had an intermediate
viscosity pattern between that of casein and whey.
Fig. 4 shows the viscosity pattern for whey protein,
both native and modified by controlled heat-
induced aggregation [8]. This particular form of
whey modification resulted in a profile representing
a slower protein. Alginates have been reported to
induce a feeling of fullness in human studies [7].
The underlying mechanism likely includes gellation
under gastric conditions, leading to an increased
resistance during gastric grinding.
Fig. 5 shows the gelling behaviour of alginates
under gastric conditions. Clearly, a plateau in G’
and tanδ was reached soon after acidification, and a
completely gelled rheometer content was observed.

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The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
No breakdown was observed, since, tuned to in vivo
specification, the simulated gastric fluid did not
contain enzymes that hydrolyse polysaccharides.
IV. CONCLUSION
The results in this study clearly demonstrate that the
in-vitro digestion method combined with rheometry
provides an efficient tool to screen ingredients and
food products with various textures for their
potential satiety effects. It will therefore facilitate
the engineering of weight management products.
Although the total satiety cascade is influenced by
many factors, including sensory aspects and
nutritional composition, novel approaches may
include the modification of ingredients (proteins or
others) to tune their properties to the desired effect
during gastrointestinal transit.
REFERENCES
[1] Blundell JE, King NA: The origins and consequences of
obesity, Chichester Wiley (1996) 138-158.
[2] Ruijschop RMAJ et al: Designing functional foods,
Woodhead Publishing, in Press.
[3] Cummings DE, Overduin J: Gastrointestinal regulation of
food intake, Clin. Invest. 117 (2007), 13-23.
[4] Marciani L et al: Effect of meal viscosity and nutrients on
satiety, intragastric dilution, and emptying assessed by
MRI, Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver. Physiol. 280 (2001)
1227-1233.
[5] Mattes RD, Rothacker D: Beverage viscosity is inversely
related to postprandial hunger in humans, Physiol. Behav. 74
(2001) 551-557.
[6] Hall WL et al: Casein and whey exert different effects on
plasma amino acid profiles, gastrointestinal hormone secretion
and appetite, Br. J. Nutr. 89 (2003) 239-248.
[7] Hoad CL et al: In vivo imaging of intragastric gelation and
its effect on satiety in humans, J. Nutr. 134 (2004) 2293-2300.
[8] Alting AC et al: Acid-induced cold gelation of globular
proteins: effect of protein aggregates characteristics and disulfide
bonding on rheological properties, J. Agric. Food Chem. 52
(2004)623-631.

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Proceedings: 1635
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
PS10.03 Towards an effective spreading of the nutritional value of meat based dishes. 329.00
L D'Evoli (1), Massimo Lucarini lucarini@inran.it (1), G Lombardi Boccia (1)
(1)INRAN, Italy
Abstract— The book presented “Nutritional
value of traditional Italian meat-based dishes”
provides a picture of the compositional figure
and nutritional value of meat based dishes
typical of Italian culinary tradition. Recipes
were selected among the most widespread ones
in Italy. Total fat and cholesterol content varied
depending on the ingredients utilised (extra-
virgin olive oil, parmesan, egg). Meat based
dishes which utilised extra-virgin olive oil
showed a significant reduction in palmitic and
stearic acids and a parallel increase in oleic acid
compared to raw meat, furthermore the ratio
among SFA, MUFA and PUFA shifted in favour
of MUFA. B-vitamins were affected at different
extent by heating, by contrast vitamin E content
increased because of the richness of ingredients
(olive oil) in this vitamin which masked losses
due to heating. Ingredients (parmesan,
discretionary salt) induced also significant
increases in Ca and Na concentration compared
to raw meat. Total iron content did not show
marked differences in most of the meat based
dishes compared to raw meat, by contrast losses
in heme-iron concentration were detected
depending on the severity of heating treatments.
Our findings suggested that heme-iron, because
of its important health aspects, might be a useful
index of nutritional quality of cooked meats.
The Authors are with the - National Research Institute on Food
and Nutrition – Via Ardeatina 546, 00178 Roma (Italy).
Corrisponding author: Lombardi-Boccia G. (phone:+39-06-
51494446;fax:+390651494550;email:lombardiboccia@inran.it)
Index Terms— meat-based dishes, fatty acids,
cholesterol, heme-iron, minerals. vitamin E, B-
vitamins.
I. INTRODUCTION
Meat represents an important part of the daily food
consumption in developed countries. Data on the
composition of the Italian Total Diet (1) reported an
average daily intake of meat and meat products of
130.6 g/person/day. Bovine meat is the most
consumed meat in Italy: it (beef plus veal) accounts
for 39.4% of the total meat and meat products daily
consumption (2). The increased awareness of the
close relationship between food and health (3, 4)
has led the interest of consumers towards the
acquisition of more detailed information on quality
characteristics of foods and also on their safety,
with a clear demand to know the entire production
chain of foods from farm to fork. The first step to
meet these demands is to make available and easily
accessible data on the composition of the foods
which enter in the daily diet of consumers.
Preparation and cooking methods of food,
especially for complex meals, lead to a
modification of its basic composition (5, 6). It may
indeed occurr a loss in some nutrients induced by
heat treatment, as well as a formation of new
molecules coming from ingredients which make up
the recipe. This leads to changes in the
composition, information necessary for consumers
or nutritionists for the formulation of balanced diets
or special diets.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Meat samples Steer and veal were reared in Italy
and raised on commercial pellets (UNIFEED) a
mixture of maize, wheat flour, hay, ensilage, and
slaughtered conventionally at 21 months. The
carcasses were prepared into retail cuts (fillet,
sirloin-steak, eye-round, top-side, knuckle),
trimmed away of external fat, packaged in vacuum
pack and delivered to laboratory. In order to obtain
representative meat samples for analyses, the meat
cuts were subdivided in several equal aliquots:
some aliquots were immediately taken for the
analysis of raw meat, others were prepared to be
cooked following a variey of recipes. Recipes The
recipes utilised in this study were selected among
those typical of the Italian culinary tradition (in
pan, hamburger, pizzaiola, cutlet, meat ball,
escalope, saltimbocca, broiled, roasted with bacon,
fillet with green pepper, stew, vitel tonnè). After
cooking the meat based dishes were homogenised
and some aliquots were immediately analysed, the
others were frozen at -30°C and stored for
subsequent analyses, each being carried out in
triplicate. Analyses Moisture,ash, protein: analyses
were performed following the AOAC method (7).
Lipid: Intramuscular fat was extracted by means of
a modification of the method of Folch, et al. (8)
using chloroform/methanol (2/1, v/v). Fatty acids:
Fatty acids were esterified using boron trifluoride in
methanol as esterification reagents (9). The
esterified fatty acids were quantified by gas-
chromatography (HP 5890 II series,equipped with
FID). Cholesterol: cholesterol content in the
samples was quantified by enzymatic assay
(Boehringer Mannheim/R-Biopharm). Minerals:
Samples were analysed for macro elements (Ca,
Mg, Na, K, P) and trace elements (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn)
content. Aliquots of the samples were liquid ashed
(4ml HNO3+1ml H2O2) in a microwave digestion
system. Analyses were performed by ICP-Plasma
on a Perkin-Elmer (Norwalk, CT 06859, USA)
Optima 3200XL. Standard Reference Material:
Bovine muscle (BCR 184, Community Bureau of

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Proceedings: 1636
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Reference, Brussels) and Bovine liver (NBS 1577°;
National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD,
USA) were analysed as a check on the accuracy of
the analysis. Heme-iron: heme iron in the samples
analysed was determined following the method
described by Lombardi-Boccia et al. (10). B
Vitamins: thiamine and riboflavin were separated
and quantified by HPLC after acidic and enzymatic
(Takadiastase) hydrolysis of the samples, following
the procedure described by Arella et al. (11). Niacin
was quantified following the method described by
Lahély et al. (12). Vitamin E, t-retinol: were
separated and quantified by HPLC following the
method by Albalà-Hurtado et al. (13).
III. CONCLUSION
The book presented here, “Nutritional value of
traditional Italian meat-based dishes”, was designed
to disclose in a clear but scientific way,
experimental data of a study aimed to evaluate the
composition and the nutritional value of a variety of
culinary preparations based on bovine meat (beef
and veal) selected among the most widespread
Italian recipes (Tab.1). Data on macro-nutrients
and micro-nutrients, heme iron, cholesterol and
caloric value were reported, as well as informations
on the influence of cooking methods and recipe
formulation (ingredients) on the concentration in
those molecules more susceptible to heating, such
as vitamins and heme-iron. One of the nutritional
strategies addressed to improve the knowledge of
the cosumers on their daily food consumption
should be to disseminate data on the nutritional
composition of foods as daily consumed (in this
case of meat-based dishes). The first step to meet
this goal is to make available and easily accessible
to consumers, as well as to the various stakeholders,
data on the nutrient composition of foods, this will
allow consumers to make more careful choices of
foods that constitute the overall daily diet.
Furthermore data on the composition of cooked
foods can offer reliable information on nutrient
intake and can represent a proper and useful tool to
guide consumers and nutritionists in the
formulation of more accurate diets. The knowledge
of the changes occurring in foods after cooking,
especially in micronutrients content, in fact allows a
correct calculation of the actual nutrient intake at
consumer level. Losses in nutrients during food
preparation and cooking procedures can affect
calculation of theoretical nutrient intake, therefore it
is of importance to include in Food Composition
Data Bases experimental values of nutrient and
energy content of composite recipes, that is the way
in which foods are generally consumed. Finally,
some micronutrients can be used as a biochemical
index predictive of the nutritional quality of cooked
foods. In this study data on heme-iron content in
meat based dishes pointed out that heme-iron
concentration varied greatly among the recipes
analysed and that the knowledge of the degree of
heme-iron degradation in cooked meats is
determinant for accurately predicting the level of
iron availability.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by MiPAAF in the frame
of the Project “QUALIFU”.
REFERENCES
[1] Turrini, A. and Lombardi-Boccia, G. (2002).
The formulation of the market basket for evaluating the Italian
total diet 1994-96. Nutr. Res. 22(10): 1151.
[2] Lombardi-Boccia, G., Lanzi, S., Lucarini,
M., Di Lullo, G. (2004). Meat and meat Products Consumption
in Italy: Contribution to Trace Elements and selected B Vitamins
Supply. Int. J. Vit. and Nutr. Res. 74(4): 247.
[3] Norat, T. & Riboli, R. (2001). Meat
consumption and colorectal cancer: a review of epidemiologic
evidence. Nutr. Rev. 59(2): 37.
[4] Wiseman, M.J. (1997). Fat and fatty acids in
relation to cardiovascular disease: an overview. Br. J. Nutr. 78
(Suppl.1): 3.
[5] Lombardi-Boccia, G., Lanzi, S., Aguzzi, A.
(2005). Aspects of Meat Quality: Trace Elements and B
Vitamins in Raw and Cooked Meats J. Food Comp. Anal.18: 39.
[6] Lombardi-Boccia, G., Martínez-Domínguez,
B., Aguzzi, A. 2002. Total, Heme and Non-heme iron in raw
and cooked meats. J. Food Sci. 67(5): 1738.
[7] AOAC (1997). Official Methods of
Analysis, 16th Edn. 3rd Rev., Arlington, Virginia. Association of
Official Analytical Chemists.
[8] Folch, J., Lees, M., Stanley, G.H.A. (1957).
A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipids
from animal tissues. J. Biol. Chem. 226: 497
[9] Metcalfe, L.D., Schmitz, A.A., Pelka, J. R.
(1966.) Rapid preparation of fatty acid esters from lipids for gas
chromatographic analysis. Anal. Chem. 38 (3): 514.
[10] Lombardi-Boccia, G., Martínez-Domínguez,
B., Aguzzi, A., Rincón-León, F. (2002). Optimization of heme
iron analysis in raw and cooked red meat. Food Chem. 78 (4):
505.
[11] Arella, F., Lahély, S., Bourguignon, J.B. &
Hasselmann, C. (1996). Liquid chromatographic determination
of vitamins B1 and B2 in foods. A collaborative study. Food
Chem 56 (1): 81-86.
[12] Lahély, S., Bergaentzlé, M., Hasselmann, C.
(1999). Fluorimetric determination of niacin in foods by high-
performance liquid chromatography with post-column
derivatization. Food Chem. 65: 129.
[13] Albalà-Hurtado, S,. Novella-Rodriguez, S.,
Veciana-Nogués, M.T., Mariné-Font, A. (1997). Determinations
of vitamins A and E in infant milk formulae by high-
performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr. 778: 243.

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Proceedings: 1637
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Recipes composition and cooking methods
In pan ( in padella)
I. INGREDIENTS: 850 G MEAT. COOKING METHOD: IN PAN, 3-5 MIN
A. Broiling (alla griglia)
B. Ingredients: 850 g meat. Cooking method: on grill, 6 min.
C. Fillet with green pepper (filetto al pepe nero)
Ingredients: 900 g meat, 30 g butter, 110 g cream, 5 g salt, 5 g green pepper, 100 ml brandy. Cooking method: in pan,
5min.
D. Roasted with bacon (arrosto)
Ingredients: 510 g meat (fillet), 25 g bacon, 30 ml extra-virgin olive oil, 3 g rosemary, 2 g salt, 0.4 g black pepper.
Cooking method: in pan,10 min
Cutlet (cotoletta)
Ingredients: 750 meat, 140g breadcrumb, 1 egg, 100 ml extra-virgin olive oil, 5g oreiganum, 5g salt. Cooking method:
deep fried in pan, 6 min
Hamburger
Ingredients: 830 g meat, 5 g salt. Cooking method: in pan, 10 min
Escalope with white wine or lemon (scaloppina)
Ingredients: 850 g meat (top-side), 45 g wheat flour, 50 ml extra-virgin olive oil, 150 ml white wine, 5 g salt. Cooking
method: in casserole, 10-15 min
E. Saltimbocca roman style
Ingredients: 450 g meat (top-side), 100 g ham, 25 g butter, 25 g wheat flour, 2.3 g salt, 0.3 g black pepper, 65 ml white
wine, 4.5 g sauge (8 leaves). Cooking method: in casserole, 10-15 min
Stew (spezzatino)
Ingredients: 1 kg carne, 15 g wheat flour, 1 onion, 30 ml extra virgin olive oil, 50 g butt, er 270 ml rewined , 6 g salt, 0,5
g black pepper. Cooking method: in casserole, 45 min
Pizzaiola
Ingredients: 850 g meat (top-side), garlic (1clove), 410 g canned tomatoes, 50 ml extra-virgin olive oil, 5 g oregan, 5 g
salt, 0,6 g black pepper. Cooking method: in pan,10 min
Meat ball (polpette)
Ingredients: 810 g meat, 2 eggs, 80 g parmesan, 170 g bread, 140 g breadcrumbs, garlic (1clove), 50 g wheat, 150 ml red
wine, 85 ml extra-virgin olive oil, 5 g salt, 0,5 g black pepper. Cooking method: in casserole, 45 min
Vitel tonnè
Ingredients: 600 g meat, 4 g salt. Cooking method: in casserole, 40 min.
Maionnaise sauce: 1 egg (60 g), 180 ml extra-virgin olive oil, 160 g canned tuna, 33 g capperi, 6 anchovies (7.5 g), 1.2 g
salt, 20 g lemon juice.

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Proceedings: 1638
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
PS10.04 Extending the Shelf Life of Fresh Ready-to-Cook Chicken Meals by using Lingonberry
Marination and Low Oxygen Packaging 213.00
Oddvin Sørheim (1) oddvin.sorheim@nofima.no, Aud Espedal (1), Karin Solgaard (1), Martin Høy (1)
(1)Nofima Mat AS
Abstract — The aim of the study was to achieve a
microbiological shelf life of at least 10 days at 4
ºC for a fresh ready-to-cook chicken meal. The
meal consisted of raw chicken breast fillets, a
mixture of raw cut vegetables of broccoli,
cauliflower and carrots, pre-cooked rice and
pasteurized sauce. Meals with marinated and
non-marinated chicken meat were compared.
Before packaging, the chicken meat was
marinated in a lingonberry juice for 10 minutes
to reduce surface bacteria. The meals were
packaged in transparent one-compartment
trays, and stored at 4 ºC. Microperforated top
films were applied for sufficient penetration of
O2 for obtaining a gas equilibrium of appr. 5 %
O2 and 20 % CO2 for much of the storage
period. The marinated chicken meal had a shelf
life of 12 days, as assessed by off-odour detection
and a total plate count up to log 7. The shelf life
of the non-marinated chicken meal was 7 days.
In addition to the antimicrobiologial effect, the
lingonberry juice marination improved colour
stability, but increased drip loss during modified
atmosphere storage. The extended shelf life of
the chicken ready-to-cook meal obtained in this
experiment facilitates a more widespread
distribution in the market and reduced losses in
food stores.
All authors are with Nofima Mat AS, Osloveien 1, NO-1430
Ås, Norway (phone: +47-64970100; fax: +47-64970333; e-mail:
oddvin.sorheim @nofima.no).
Index Terms — chicken meat, lingonberry juice
marination, low oxygen packaging,
microbiological shelf life, ready-to-cook meals.
I. INTRODUCTION
The demand for ready-to-eat meals of high quality
is growing world-wide. In Europe, complete chilled
ready-to-cook meals consisting of raw cut
vegetables, raw meat or fish, pre-cooked rice,
potatoes or pasta, and sauce have been introduced.
However, the sale of these meals is limited due to a
microbiological shelf life of only 5 – 6 days and
rapid quality deterioration. Ready-to-cook meals
are cooked only once by the consumers. A valve for
releasing steam during microwave heating is often
placed in the top film of the packages. The EU
funded project DoubleFresh is seeking to improve
shelf life and quality of these meals by using
selected pre-treatments of individual ingredients
and suitable modified atmosphere packaging.
Furthermore, the project aims at producing tasty,
safe and healthy meals in a viable business concept.
Pre-treatment can include marination of raw meat
with antimicrobiological berry juices.
Lingonberries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), found in
Eurasia and North America, contain various acids,
flavonoids and other antimicrobiologial
compounds. The content of benzoic acid in juices
of Finnish lingonberries was 0.72 g/l (1). The
concentration of juices and contact time in the
marinade must be balanced against effects on taste,
drip loss and colour stability during storage.
Respiring vegetables and non-respiring foods
like meat have different requirements for modified
atmosphere packaging. In general, vegetables need
access to oxygen (O2) in levels of at least 2 – 3 %
and below 15 – 20 % CO2 during storage for
maximizing shelf life and quality (2). Therefore,
using laser-perforated films with a high O2
penetration is a necessity. Vegetables differ greatly
in their rate of respiration and need for supply of
O2. In contrast, the shelf life and quality of meat is
best maintained under anaerobic storage and high
concentrations of CO2 (3,4). In the ready-to-cook
meal concept with a microwaveable package with
one compartment for all ingredients, it is a
challenge to find suitable packaging materials and
gas compositions.
As a part of the DoubleFresh project, we have
worked on improving the shelf life and quality of a
ready-to-cook chicken meal. The aim of the present
experiment was to achieve a microbiological shelf
life of this meal of a minimum of 10 days at 4 ºC by
using a lingonberry juice marinade for the meat and
suitable gas packaging with a low concentration of
O2.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The meal consisted of raw chicken breast fillets (M.
pectoralis superficialis et profundus) (Nortura,
Hærland, Norway), raw cut vegetables (Spanish
broccoli florets, Spanish cauliflower and
Norwegian carrots slices), precooked white rice
(Ardo Geer, Ardooie, Belgium) and pasteurized red
bell pepper sauce (Fjordland, Oslo, Norway). Total
weight of the meal was appr. 470 g.
Marination of the chicken meat was performed two
days post mortem with a pasteurized, filtered and
unsweetened juice of lingonberries (Askim Frukt-
og Bærpresseri, Askim, Norway) at a ratio of
marinade: meat of 1:1, immersed for 10 minutes.
The cut vegetables were washed in water and

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centrifuged to remove excess water. The ingredients
were placed in trays starting in the bottom with
sauce, followed by rice, vegetables and meat at the
top. The packages were flushed with a gas mixture
of 5% O2/ 5 % CO2/ 90 % N2 (Yara Praxair,
Porsgrunn, Norway) on a Promens 511VG tray
sealing machine (Promens, Kristiansand, Norway).
The trays were of type transparent Færch
polypropylene 1221-1G (Færch Plast, Holstebro,
Denmark) containing 1150 cm3. The top film was a
microperforated polyethylene film type 52LD
(Amcor Flexible, Ledbury, UK). The meals were
stored at 4 º for up to 15 days. Analyses included
composition of O2 and CO2 in headspace, total plate
count of the meat surface on Plate Count Agar
incubated at 30 ºC for 3 days (PCA), evaluation of
off-odour using a 5 member trained panel, a*
redness values of the meat surface (Minolta Chroma
Meter CR-400 (Minolta Camera Co., Osaka, Japan)
with 8 mm viewing port and illuminant D65, weight
loss and pH of the marinade. The analyses were
performed in triplicate at all sampling times.
Statistical analysis and graphics were prepared by
using Minitab v15 (Minitab Inc., State College,
Pennsylvania, USA).
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The concentration of O2 in the packages is a good
indicator of the condition and quality of the meal.
Data in Figure 1, show that there was slight
decrease from the appr. initial 7 to 5 % O2 at day 9
of storage. At day 12, the concentration of O2 in
non-marinated meal packages was appr. 0.5 %
compared to 2.5 % in the marinated meal packages
(p < 0.05). Up to day 9, the vegetables, in particular
broccoli, were mainly responsible for the
consumption of O2. At later storage, bacteria on the
chicken meat were likely to contribute to additional
O2 depletion. The slower rate of O2 depletion in the
marinated meals indicated less bacterial growth on
the meat, in agreement with microbiological data in
Figure 2.
The concentration of CO2 increased from initially
4 % to appr. 25 % at the end of storage for both
meals (results not shown). The increase in CO2 was
more rapid at the later stage of storage in the non-
marinated than the marinated meal.
Figure 2 demonstrates that the marinated chicken
meat had nearly 1 log lower total plate counts than
the non-marinated control at the time of packaging
(p < 0.05). At 8 days of storage the difference in
counts was log 3.5 (p < 0.05). Then the non-
marinated meat had unacceptable high counts of log
7.8, and storage for these meals was discontinued.
At day 12, the marinated chicken had counts of log
7.2.
Supporting the results of the total plate counts,
data for off-odour in Figure 3 shows that the non-
marinated meal was unacceptable with a score of 4
at 8 days storage, caused by off-odour from the
chicken meat. In contrast, the marinated meal was
still acceptable with a score of 2.5 at day 12.
Instrumental colour was affected by marination,
as demonstrated in Figure 4. a* redness values were
about 1 unit higher in marinated than non-
marinated meat at the time of packaging (p < 0.05).
While the a* values of marinated meat increased
slightly from day 0 to days 9 and 12, the a* of non-
marinated meat decreased from day 0 to 9, probably
due to exposure to low concentrations of O2,
inducing formation of gray to brown metmyoglobin
at the surface (4). Discoloration was effectively
hindered by marination of the meat by making a red
bluish colour of the surface.
The weight increase by the marination of chicken
breast muscles was appr. 1 %, leading to an impact
of the marinade only 1 – 2 mm into the surface, but
not in the inner parts of the fillet. However, the drip
loss averaged over the storage period was 5.8 % for
the marinated meat compared to 2.4 % for the non-
marinated meat (p < 0.05). Due to the low pH of the
lingonberry marinade (2.9), we suggest that the
increased drip loss is caused by partial protein
denaturation at the meat surface, inducing release of
liquid. Further studies are needed to explain the
mechanisms for drip loss by lingonberry juice
marination.
The vegetables chosen for this meal, that were
broccoli, cauliflower and carrots, had no or minor
decay at 12 days storage, probably a consequence
of exposure to a favourable atmosphere of appr. 5
% O2 and 20 % CO2 for most of the storage period.
Likewise, the rice and sauce both had a high quality
and were unspoiled at 12 days storage. Therefore,
the chicken meat was the ingredient that was
limiting the shelf life of the meal. The headspace
composition of the meal was not ideal for the meat
fraction, but was a compromise to reduce decay and
quality loss for the vegetables.
The effects of the lingonberry juice marination
on reducing microbiological growth and extending
shelf life were considerable. In this experiment, the
targeted shelf life of 10 days would have been
difficult to obtain without the lingonberry
marinade. The causes for the high
antimicrobiological effect of the marinade are not
clear. In addition the low pH, the influence of
bioactive compounds like benzoic and other acids,
flavonoids etc. are possible causes (1). Lingonberry
juice may have interesting applications for muscle
foods beyond the use for chicken meat in fresh
ready-to-cook meals.
IV. CONCLUSION
A shelf life of 12 days at 4 ºC for the fresh ready-
to-cook chicken meal was obtained by selecting
high quality raw materials with low bacterial counts
and marinating the chicken meat with a lingonberry
juice, in addition to applying microperforated
packaging materials yielding low O2 atmospheres

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Proceedings: 1640
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
suitable for the vegetable fraction of the meal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors highly appreciate research funding
from the European Union in the project
DoubleFresh STREP FR6 PL 023182. The support
from Fjordland and Nortura, both Oslo, Norway, in
developing the meal is highly acknowledged. Drs.
Gunnar Bengtsson and Nina Veflen Olsen at
Nofima Mat are thanked for valuable advice on
vegetable technology and meal composition.
REFERENCES
[1] Viljakainen, S., Visti, A., & Laakso, S. (2002).
Concentrations of organic acids and soluble sugars in
juices from Nordic berries. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica
Section B, Soil and Plant Science, 52 (2/3), 101 – 109.
[2] University of California, Davis.
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu (assessed on 14 May 2009).
[3] Rotabakk, B.T., Birkeland, S., Jeksrud, W., & Sivertsvik,
M. (2006). Effect of modified atmosphere packaging and
soluble gas stabilization on the shelf life of skinless
chicken breast fillets. Journal of Food Science, 71, S124 –
S131.
[4] McMillin, K.W. (2008). Where is MAP going? A review
of future potential of modified atmosphere packaging for
meat. Meat Science, 80, 43 – 65.
Days 151296420
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Oxygen (%)
0
Fig. 1. Concentration of O2during storage of marinated and non-marinated
chicken ready-to-cook meals at 4 ºC.
Symbols: ■marinated with lingonberry juice, □non-marinated.

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Proceedings: 1641
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Fig. 2. Total plate counts on meat during storage of marinated and non-
marinated chicken ready-to-cook meals at 4 ºC. Symbols as in Fig. 1.
Days 1280
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Bacteria (log CFU/g)
0
Fig. 3. Off-odour score during storage of marinated and non-marinated chicken
ready-to-cook meals at 4 ºC. Scale: 1 = none, 3 = slight and 5 = extreme.
Acceptable at scores < 3. Symbols as in Fig. 1.
Days 1296
5
4
3
2
1
Score off-odour
Fig. 4. a* redness values of meat during storage of marinated and non-
marinated chicken ready-to-cook meals at 4 ºC. Symbols as in Fig. 1.
Days 1290
5
4
3
2
1
a* value

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Proceedings: 1642
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
PE10.01 Development of soft sausage for the elderly 49.00
Ryoichi Sakata (1) sakata@azabu-u.ac.jp, Okatani, A.T., Tanabe, H. and Yano, S.
(1)Azabu University, Japan
Abstract— Soft sausage prepared by steam
heating was examined for rheological properties
and microbial characteristics. Maximum force,
breaking strain and other parameters were
found to be less in fresh soft sausage and to
increase with refrigeration and freezing. This
sausage manifested flat wave, while the waves
for refrigerated and frozen samples rose and fell
with consequent hardening of structure.
Rheological properties of the sausage were
essentially the same as for tsumire. No
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus or
Salmonella could be detected. Aerobic bacterial
count was considerably less than the standard,
this likely being due to steam heating in the
present study.
Sakata, R. is with Laboratory of Food Science, School of
Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara 229-8501,
Japan (corresponding author to provided phone: +81-42-754-
7111; fax: +81-42-754-7661; e-mail: sakata@azabu-u.ac.jp).
Okatani, A.T. is with Laboratory of Public Health II, School
of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara 229-
8501, Japan (e-mail: okatani@l azabu-u.ac.jp).
Tanabe, H. was with Gifu Woman’s University, 80
Taromaru, Gifu 501-2592, Japan. She is now with School of
Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara 229-8501,
Japan (e-mail: htanab@nifty.com ).
Yano, S. is with Japanese Society for Meat Research, 3-9-9
Shiroganedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-0071, Japan (e-mail:
jsmr@lapis.plala.or.jp).
Index Terms—soft sausage, the elderly, texture,
microbiology
I. INTRODUCTION
Recently, consumer trends in food selection, based
on health considerations, have come to be noted.
This is especially the case for the steadily
increasing elderly segment of the population, which
requires special care in food choice. For such
persons, soft foods which can be easily chewed
should thus be made readily available for wide
distribution. Three years ago in this country
(Japan), Tanabe and Yano (2006) published a
research paper, “Meat Hanpen” which is concerned
with meat products especially suited for the elderly.
Hanpen is basically a Japanese traditional fish
meatball with soft texture to facilitate chewing.
This research has provided basis for preparing
delicious meals easily consumable by the elderly.
There are also available meals containing pork and
egg white but no other meat (Tanabe, 2003; Tanabe
and Nakamura, 2005). These meals are prepared by
steam-cooking to ensure soft pork texture. In their
research, Tanabe and Imai (2006) used a steam
convection oven to prepare pork meal which they
designated “Soft Sausage” whose fat content is
quite low, but with its sensory characteristic
juiciness and smoothness was still retained.
The present study examines soft sausage prepared
by steam heating with respect to the following: 1)
Features of the sausage prepared with a steamer
(stainless container) instead of a steam convection
oven and 2) the rheological and microbiological
properties of the sausage.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample preparation
Soft sausage was prepared using pork thigh with
chicken leg meat, white egg powder etc in a
steamer at 80°C for 30 min as follows: (1) 3.5 g
NaCl were rubbed into 175 g of pork which was
then vacuum-packed and maintained overnight at
4◦C.→ (2) Following the procedure for salted pork
(1), 75 g of chicken treated with 1.5 g NaCl were
mixed by a processor with 10 g water for 10 min.
→ (3) 20 g dogtooth violet starch swelled with 20g
water, 20 g crumbs, 20 g suger and 1.5g baking
soda which had been added to the meat mixture
followed by stirring for 30 sec to yield a meat paste.
→ (4) 20g dried powder of egg white were added to
140 g water. The system was allowed to swell and
then stirred with a mechanical mixture to produce a
meringue. → (5) The meringue and meat paste
were mixed and stirred for 10 sec to obtain a paste
which was then introduced into a small stainless
container (Fig.1), followed by steam heating at
80°C for 30 min.
Rheological measurement
The soft sausage samples (Fig.2) obtained above
were grouped as follows: 1) the control (fresh)
group just after cooking, 2) the refrigerated group
(vacuum-packed and kept at 4°C for 1 week) and 3)

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Proceedings: 1643
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
the frozen group (vacuum-packed and frozen at -
20°C for 1 week). Each groups, 15×15mm3, was
examined for rheological properties using a Creep
Meter (RE2-33005s, YAMADEN, Japan) (Fig.3) at
room temperature, under the following conditions:
load cell, 20N; press rate, 1 mm/sec; plunger,
wedge type (No.49, YAMADEN) (Fig.4); moving,
1 time press cut and clearance, 0.75 mm (strain
95%). Auto analysis software (RAS-3305,
YAMADEN) was used to determine maximum
force (g) and braking strain (%). For comparison
with commercial products, pork sausage and
steamed fish paste products, such as hanpen,
tsumire and kamaboko, all traditional Japanese
foods, were examined in the same manner as above.
Microbiological measurement
Aerobic bacteria count of the soft sausage was
determined using plate agar and that of E. coli, with
a BGLB fermentation tube. Staphylococcus aureus
was detected by mannitol salt agar with egg
yolk. Salmonella determination was conducted by
BPW in a pre-enrichment culture, using Ha j n a
tetrathionate medium for selective
enrichment and MLCB agar for isolation.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Rheological properties
Maximum force, breaking force, breaking stress,
breaking strain and breaking energy of the soft
sausage were noted to decrease in the order, control
(fresh), refrigerated and frozen groups (data not
shown). The control group exhibited a flat-wave
form with no clearly defined breaking point. The
refrigerated and frozen groups manifested rising
and falling wave patterns subsequent to mechanical
breaking up of the sausage (Fig.5). In contrast to
the control, the other two groups displayed various
values for breaking strength, possibly owing to the
tightly knit internal structure created by vacuum
packing or ice crystal formation subsequent to
swelling caused by baking soda and steaming of the
meat paste. The sausage, hanpen, tsumire and
kamaboko were all examined for the same
properties specified above (Table 1). Breaking
stress, lowest for hanpen, increased in the order,
tsumire, soft sausage, pork sausage and kamaboko.
Breaking strain was lowest for tsumire, followed by
soft sausage, pork sausage, kamaboko and hanpen.
Hanpen showed the lowest maximum force. This
parameter increased in the order, tsumire, soft
sausage and kamaboko. The highest value was
noted for pork sausage (data not shown). Soft
sausage was seen to show essentially the same
parameter values as tsumire. Breaking wave
patterns were basically the same in both cases.
Microbiological properties
Aerobic bacterial count for the three groups was
found less than that specified by the standard
guideline in Japan. For two samples of soft sausage
the same experiment was repeated 3 times to ensure
value reliability. The incubated plate agar showed
only one colony for a 10-times diluted sample. No
other plates exhibited a colony. The average count
was computed to be 0.5×10 CFU/g, a value quite
considerably less than 104 CFU/g, the limit of the
standard for meat products of the packed type after
heating. Heating at 80°C for 30 min is thus shown
to effectively destroy microbes.
[E. coli] In this study, the possibility of detecting
E. coli was considered small and consequently,
MPN using a BGLB fermentation tube was
conducted with incubation at 35 ± 1°C for a
maximum of 48 hr. For no sample was any gas
formation noted in the tube and thus all the samples
were concluded to be E. coli negative.
[S. aureus] Some colonies could be seen on
mannitol salt agar with egg yolk but no S. aureus
colony was found. These bacteria are always
present on the surface of human skin and within the
nostrils and may possibly come in contact with and
contaminate food. But, in this study, no .S. aureus
was detected in any sample.
[Salmonella] In no case could Salmonella be
found and this possibly would be due to proper and
thorough heating and packing of sausage.
The present results for sausage preparation by
stainless steamer were found quite satisfactory, thus
clearly demonstrating the steam convection oven
need not always be used to produce soft sausage.
The soft sausage prepared was found, by actual
eating, to be considerably more tender than
commercial pork sausage. Rheological and sensory
data were virtually the same for tsumire. Vacuum-
packing would have essentially the same effect on
hardening as refrigeration. Frozen samples were
hard and sensory texture was not satisfactory, this
possibly being due to ice crystal formation and
dripping with thawing to bring about low binding
capacity with subsequently brittle texture. Better
means for the storage of soft sausage may possibly
be found through histological study using electron
microscopy. Microbiological examination

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Proceedings: 1644
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
confirmed the absence of E. coli, S. aureus and
Salmonella and aerobic bacterial count was
considerably below the Japanese standard. This
would appear possible indication of microbe
sterilization by steam heating at 80°C for 30min.
Soft sausage was prepared in this study using pork
and chicken whose amounts constituted 45% of the
total ingredients. But general sausage contains
meat at more than 50%. Further research should
direct careful attention to meat volume in sausage
production. Plant oil and egg shell calcium are to be
used in the future production of soft sausage and
this should lead better taste, texture and nutritional
value.
IV. CONCLUSION
The soft sausage prepared by steam heating was
much more tender than commercial pork sausage.
Rheological and sensory data were virtually the
same for tsumire, a traditional Japanese fish paste
product. Aerobic bacterial count was considerably
less than the standard. No E. coli, S. aureus or
Salmonella could be detected in the sausage. Under
the conditions of the present study, heating at 80°C
for 30 min is thus shown to effectively destroy
microbes.
.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was performed through a grant from
Azabu University for the Graduate School, fiscal
year 2007, and partial support from the Japan
Society of the Promotion of Science.
REFERENCES
[1] Tanabe, H. and Sachio Yano (2006). Newly developed and
nutritional food, Meat-Hanpen, Meeting of Japanese Society
for Meat Research, Tokyo.
[2] Tanabe, H. (2003) Development of a new sausage-type
product with pork and egg white. Final Reports for
Research Grants for Meat and Meat Products 21, 211-215.
[3] Tanabe, H. and Nakamura, T. (2005). A novel type low fat
pork sausage. Animal Science Journal 76, 415-422.
[4] Tanabe, H. and Imai, E. (2006). Physical and sensory scores
for the evaluation of new type pork sausage for elders. Final
Reports for Research Grants for Meat and Meat Products 24,
348-353.

Fig. 1 Stainless
container filled with
meat paste.
Fig. 2 Soft sausage sample.
Fig. 3 Creep Meter
used to measure
rheological property
examination.
Fig. 4 Wedge type
plunger for sausage
sample study.

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Proceedings: 1645
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
0
Fig.5 Strength wave patterns for soft sausage.
Breaking strain (%)
15
0 1
Maximum force (gf)
○：frozen
▵：refrigerated
Table 1 Rheological features of sausage type
p
roducts as determined with the rheomete
r
Sample Breaking stress (Pa) Breaking strain (%)
Soft sausage 3.844×105 34.40
Pork sausage 1.059×106 43.75
Hanpen 3.531×105 73.23
Tsumire 3.547×105 28.02
Kamaboko 1.256×106 69.03

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Proceedings: 1646
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
PE10.02 The effect of dietary supplementation of the mixture of gallic and linoleic acid on broiler
breast meat quality 61.00
Samooel Jung (1) cheorun@cnu.ac.kr, JH Choe (1), B Kim(1), H Yun (1) C Jo (1)
(1)Chungnam National University, South Korea
Abstract- Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)
are well known for the element which has the
beneficial effects on human health. However,
PUFAs are prone to oxidation. In the present
study, we studied the effect of mixture of gallic
and linoleic acid (MGL) dietary supplement on
the breast meat quality of broiler. A total of 90
broilers were assigned to 3 groups with 3
replications. Broilers received 3 dietary
treatments (d 22-36): 1) commercial finisher diet
(CFD, control diet), 2) CFD + MGL (0.5%/CFD,
1:1, M:M, 0.5% MGL diet), 3) CFD + MGL
(1.0%/CFD, 1:1, M:M, 1.0% MGL diet). Lipid
oxidation of the breast meat was inhibited by
1.0% MGL diet (p<0.05). In the fatty acid
composition of the breast meat, arachidonic acid
and docosahexaenoic acid was higher in both
MGL diets than that of control diet (p<0.05). In
addition, water holding capacity of the breast
meat from 1.0% MGL diet was higher than that
of control diet (p<0.05). In conclusion, 1.0%
MGL diet may improve the quality of the breast
meat of broiler.
S. Jung, Chungnam National University, 220 Gung-dong,
Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea (e-mail:
sniper1126@nate.com).
J. H. Choe, Chungnam National University, 220 Gung-dong,
Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea (e-mail:
jjune0506@naver.com).
B. Kim, Chungnam National University, 220 Gung-dong,
Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea (e-mail:
rome94@naver.com).
H. Yun, Chungnam National University, 220 Gung-dong,
Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea (e-mail:
yhj1217@nate.com).
C. Jo, Chungnam National University, 220 Gung-dong,
Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Republic of Korea
(corresponding author tel: +82-42-821-5774; fax: +82—42-825-
9754; e-mail: cheorun@cnu.ac.kr).
Index Terms—Dietary supplementatoin, Gallic acid,
Linoleic acid, Meat quality.
I. INTRODUCTION
ecently there has been an increased interest
in food containing high amount of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) because
PUFAs have shown the beneficial effects on human
health such as the prevention of coronary heart
disease and other chronic diseases [1]. Linoleic acid
(LA) is converted to arachidonic acid and has anti-
inflammatory effect by decreasing the secretion of
interleukin (IL)-6 and -1β, and the tumor necrosis
factor α [2]. Previous study reported that high levels
of dietary LA suppressed lymphocyte proliferation
in rats [3]. However, PUFAs are prone to oxidation
and their oxidation products are leading to
deterioration of meat quality such as flavor, color,
texture and nutritional value.
The negative outcome of lipid oxidation in
chicken meat can be subdued by the use of diet
containing antioxidants such as medicinal herb mix
and grape pomace, which are natural antioxidant
with rich polyphenols. The interest in natural
antioxidant was increased because they are usually
considered safer than synthetic antioxidant, and
have greater application potential for consumer
acceptability, palatability, stability and shelf-life of
meat products [4]. Gallic acid (GA) is a
representative natural polyphenol which shows a
strong antioxidant activity and possesses anti-
carcinogenic, anti-mutagenic, anti-allergic, and
anti-inflammatiry activities [5]. The objective of
this study was to evaluate the effect of dietary
supplementation of the mixture of GA and LA on
the quality and antioxidative potential of the breast
meat of broiler.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animal and experimental design
A total of 90 one-day old male and female broilers
(Ross strain) were obtained from a commercial
hatchery. Broilers were free accessed to water and
diet. After 3 week, broilers were weighed and
reassigned according to average weight. Each
groups containing 10 broilers, to receive 3 dietary
treatments (d 22-36) with 3 replicates of each
treatment: 1) commercial finisher diet (CFD,
control diet), 2) CFD + M (0.5%/diet, 1:1, M:M,
0.5% MGL diet), 3) CFD + mixture of GA and LA
(1.0%/diet, 1:1, M:M, 1.0% MGL diet). At the end
of the experimental period (d 36 of age), 21 broilers
from each treatment were killed in the stable by the
carotid amputation and vacuum packed carcasses
R

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Proceedings: 1647
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
were stored by deep freezer at -50° until the use of
each analysis.
Measurement of antioxidative potential
Total phenolic content
Each meat sample (3 g) in distilled water (15 mL)
was homogenized (T25b, Ika Works (Asia)., Sdn,
Bhd, Malaysia) at 1,130 × g for 1 min. Chloroform
(10 mL) was added to the homogenates and the
mixture was shaken vigorously 2 to 3 times to
separate the lipids and the aqueous supernatant was
separated by centrifuge (Hanil) at 2,090 × g for 15
min, which was used for measurement of total
phenolic content, 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) radical scavenging activity.
Total phenols content in the aqueous supernatant
was estimated by the Folin-Ciocalteu method [6]. A
0.1 mL aqueous supernatant was added to the
Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (0.2 mL), followed by the
addition of 3 mL sodium carbonate solution (5%).
The reaction mixture was vortexed and the
absorbance was measured with a spectrophotometer
(DU 530, Beckman Instruments Inc., Fullerton, CA,
USA) at 765 nm after incubation for 1 h at 23℃.
Quantification was done based on the standard
curve generated with gallic acid and expressed
gallic acid equivalent.
DPPH radical-scavenging assay
DPPH radical scavenging activity was estimated
according to the method of Blois (1958) with slight
modifications. A 200 μL quantity of aqueous
supernatant was added to 800 μL distilled water and
1 mL methanolic DPPH solution (0.2 mM). The
mixture was vortexed and left to stand at room
temperature (20-22°) for 30 min. A tube containing
1 mL distilled water and 1 mL methanolic DPPH
solution (0.2 mM) served as the control. The
absorbance of the solution was measured at 517 nm
using a spectrophotometer (Beckman). The
percentage of DPPH radical scavenging was
obtained from the following equation:
Radical scavenging activity = [1 − (absorbance of
sample / absorbance of control)] × 100.
2-Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS)
Each meat sample (5 g) in 15 mL distilled water
was homogenized (Ika Works) at 1,130 × g for 1
min. Sample homogenate (1 mL) was transferred to
a test tube and lipid oxidation was determined as
the TBARS value by using the method described
by Ahn et al. (1999). Briefly, 50 μL butylated
hydroxyanisol (7.2%) and 2 mL TBA-
trichloroacetic acid solution (20 mM TBA in 15%
trichloroacetic acid) were added to the test tube.
Tubes were heated in a boiling water bath for 30
min, cooled, and then centrifuged at 2,090 × g for
15 min. Absorbance of the supernatant was
measured at 532 nm with a spectrophotometer
(Beckman). The increase in absorbance at 532 nm
was taken into consideration to calculate the
TBARS values. Lipid oxidation development was
reported as milligrams of malondialdehyde per
kilogram of meat.
Fatty acid composition
Total lipids of samples were extracted by using
chloroform-metananol (2:1, v/v) according to the
procedure of Folch et al, (1957). The fatty acid
methyl esters were prepared from the extracted
lipids with BF3-methanol (Sigma-aldrich). The fatty
acid methyl esters were separated on a gas
chromatograph (Agillent GC 6890N, Palo Alto,
CA, USA) equipped with a mass selective detector
(MSD). A split inlet (split ratio, 50:1) was used to
inject samples into a HP-5MS capillary column (30
m×0.25 mm×0.25°), and ramped oven temperature
was used (150° for 3 min, increased to 180° at
2.5°/min and maintained for 5 min, increased to
220°at 2.5°/min and maintained for 25 min). Inlet
temperature was 210°. Helium was the carrier gas at
constant flow of 0.7 mL/min. The temperature of
the mass spectrometer (MS) source, MS
quadrupole, and the transfer line into the MS were
230, 150, and 280° respectively. The fatty acid
composition was identified by a mass spectrum
database (NIST Library, mass spectral search
program, version 5.0, Ringoes, NJ, USA).
Proximate analysis and water holding capacity
(WHC)
The moisture, crude fat, crude protein, and crude
ash composition of the breast meat was determined
according to AOAC (1999) methods. WHC
analysis was following to this procedure. One gram
of the minced breast meat of broiler was placed on
a round filter paper (NO.4, Whatman Ltd. Kent,
UK)). The filter paper with meat was into
centrifuge tube and then this tube centrifuged (CR
20B2, Hitachi koki Co., Ltd. Fukuoka, Japan) at
6,710 × g for 10 min. The released water content
was measured and calculated as a percentage of the
initial moisture of meat.

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The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Statistical analysis
All experiments were duplicated with three
observation numbers adapted for each experiment.
Analysis of the variance was performed using the
raw data, and the mean values and standard
deviation were calculated by the Statistical Analysis
System (SAS, 2000). Differences among the mean
values were determined by the Duncan’s multiple
range test with a significance defined at p<0.05.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Antioxidant activity
The DPPH radical scavenging activity of the breast
meat from broiler fed 1% MGL diet was
significantly higher than that of the broiler fed
control diet during whole storage period (Table 1),
whereas no significant difference was found in the
breast meat between the control and 0.5 % MGL
diet. MGL diet (1.0%) was appeared to delay the
lipid oxidation of the breast meat during whole
storage period (Table 2), and 0.5% MGL diet
inhibited the lipid oxidation of the breast meat until
storage d 2. Meat from broiler fed MGL diet
produced low levels of TBARS in spite of the fact
that MGL diet contained LA, which is PUFA that
generated several types of free radicals and then
accelerate lipid peroxidation [11]. The breast meat
of broiler fed 1.0% MGL diet had significantly
higher polyphenol content than that of control
(Table 3), but that of 0.5% MGL diet was not
significantly different with that of control except
for the sample stored 2 days. In the presented study,
various analysis of antioxidant activity were
conducted to elucidate the potential antioxidant
effect of dietary MGL, which is containing GA
with LA. Previous study reported that GA is a
polyphenyl natural product from gallnut, green tea,
and grape and may directly combine with free
radicals and lead to inactivate them which may
decrease the intracellular concentration of free
radicals [12]. Schwarz et al. (2009) reported that
reactive oxygen species, including free radicals
play a key role in the oxidation process that can
damage cells, whereas polyphenols have been
shown to scavenge free radicals such as superoxide,
peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals, and hence influence
on the redox mechanisms that may lead to
degenerative diseased conditions such as
alzheimer’s, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and certain
cancers [14].
Fatty acid composition
The concentrations of palmitic acid and oleic acid
in the breast meat were significantly lower in the
broiler fed 1.0% MGL diet than that of the control
diet (Table 4). These results were probably due to
the endogenous synthesis in the broiler tissue. The
saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in bird tissues rely
upon their presence in the diet and their synthesis in
the liver and the SFAs synthesis are inhibited in the
liver in greater during digestion of unsaturated fats
than saturated fats [15]. The increase of PUFAs
decreased the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty
acids (MUFAs) by inhibiting the activity of the 9-
desaturase complex which is the key enzyme need
to convert SFAs to MUFAs [16]. Arachidonic acid
(AA) in the breast meat was significantly increased
by 1.0% MGL diet that could be due to LA in MGL
diet, and LA is precursor of AA. Docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA) is responsible for hypolipidemic and
neuroprotective effect [17]. However, DHA is very
sensitive to oxidative compounds that can change
their pharmacological properties [18]. In the present
study, DHA levels of both MGL diet in the breast
meat were significantly higher than that of control
diet. These results may be due to predominant
antioxidative effect of GA in MGL diet. Results
obtained in this experiment showed that PUFAs
ratio in the breast meat was increased by both MGL
diet compared to that of control diet. It can be
attracted to consumers on human nutritional
requirements, because high PUFAs ratio can give
beneficial effect to human, mainly in the protection
against cardiovascular disease [1].
Proximate composition and water holding capacity
(WHC)
Crude fat of the breast meat from broiler fed 1.0%
MGL was significantly higher than that of control
(Table 5). The WHC of the breast meat was
significantly improved by dietary 1.0% MGL.
Previous study reported that the WHC in the raw
meat was especially affected by the content and
distribution of intramuscular fat, since the presence
of intramuscular fat inhibits moisture diffusivity
coefficient [19], and may be correlated to the
tenderness of meat [20]. These results suggested
that the breast meat of 1.0% MGL diet may be
more tender than that of control.
IV. CONCLUSION
Lipid oxidation of the breast meat was inhibited by
1.0% MGL diet, although PUFAs ratio of the breast
meat was increased by both MGL diets. The
composition of AA and DHA in the breast meat


Proceedings: 1649
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
was higher in both MGL diets than that of control
diet. In addition, WHC of the breast meat from
1.0% MGL diet was higher than that of control diet.
These results suggested that 1.0% MGL diet may
improve the quality of the breast meat of broiler.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Korea Science and
Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) grant funded by
the Korea government (MOST) (no. RO1-2007-
000-10753-0).
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73(4), 162-168.

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Proceedings: 1650
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Table 1 DPPH radical scavenging activity of the breast meat from broiler fed mixture of gallic and linoleic acid during
storage at 4 °.
Treatment Storage (day)
0 2 4 7 SEM1
Control 67.77ay 68.18ay 66.60aby 64.49by 0.716
0.5 % 70.01axy 69.00axy 68.28ay 64.48by 0.718
1 % 72.21ax 70.19bx 70.48bx 67.99cx 0.480
SEM2 0.738 0.362 0.564 0.827
1Standard errors of mean (n=12). 2(n=9).
a-cDifferent letters within the same row differ significantly (p<0.05).
x,yDifferent letters within the same column differ significantly (p<0.05).
Table 2 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value of the breast meat from broiler fed mixture of gallic and
linoleic acid during storage at 4 °
Treatment Storage (day)
0 2 4 7 SEM1
Control 0.29cx 0.32cx 0.39bx 0.49ax 0.019
0.5 % 0.23by 0.27by 0.43ax 0.47ax 0.013
1 % 0.23cy 0.26by 0.33ay 0.35ay 0.009
SEM2 0.017 0.012 0.014 0.014
1Standard errors of mean (n=12). 2(n=9).
a-cDifferent letters within the same row differ significantly (p<0.05).
x,yDifferent letters within the same column differ significantly (p<0.05).
Table 3 Total phenolic content (mg GAE/g meat) of the breast meat from broiler fed mixture of gallic and linoleic acid
during storage at 4 °.
Treatment Storage (day)
0 2 4 7 SEM1
Control 1.48by 1.53ay 1.51aby 1.52ay 0.010
0.5% MGL 1.50bxy 1.58ax 1.58axy 1.54aby 0.019
1.0% MGL 1.54bx 1.60ax 1.60ax 1.62ax 0.014
SEM2 0.011 0.007 0.019 0.017
1Standard errors of mean (n=12). 2(n=9).
a,bDifferent letters within the same row differ significantly (p<0.05).
x-zDifferent letters within the same column differ significantly (p<0.05).


Proceedings: 1651
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Table 4 Profile of fatty acids (% of total fatty acids) found in the breast meat from broiler fed mixture of gallic and linoleic
acid after 35 days
Fatty acids Breast meat
Control 0.5% MGL 1.0% MGL SEM1
C16:0 23.12a 22.93ab 22.31b 0.150
C16:1 2.56 2.11 2.30 0.175
C18:0 15.04 14.88 14.73 0.096
C18:1 33.42a 32.66ab 32.36b 0.261
C18:2 16.46 16.16 16.03 0.123
C18:3 0.51b 0.49b 0.75a 0.029
C20:4 6.88b 8.06a 8.52a 0.138
C22:6 2.00b 2.70a 2.99a 0.081
Saturated 38.16a 37.81ab 37.04b 0.236
Monounsaturated 35.98 34.77 34.66 0.368
Polyunsaturated 25.86b 27.42a 28.29a 0.269
Unsaturated : saturated 1.62b 1.64ab 1.70a 0.014
1Standard errors of mean (n=9).
a,bDifferent letters within the same row differ significantly (p<0.05).
Table 5 Proximate composition (%) and water holding capacity (%) in the breast meat from broiler fed mixture of gallic and
linoleic acid after 36 days
Treatment Moisture Crude protein Crude fat Crude ash Water holding capacity
Control 73.23 20.80 1.08y 1.04 51.66y
0.5% MGL 73.00 20.67 1.30y 0.82 54.74y
1.0% MGL 73.36 20.77 2.44x 0.82 60.40x
SEM1 0.213 0.085 0.191 0.087 1.194
1Standard errors of mean (n=9).
x,yDifferent letters within the same column differ significantly (p<0.05).



Proceedings: 1652
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
PE10.04 The Effect of Broccoli Puree on Some Quality Characteristics of Beef Meatballs 215.00
Meltem Serdaroglu (1) meltem.serdaroglu@ege.edu.tr, haluk ergezer (1)
(1)Ege university department of food engineering
Abstract— Different amounts of broccoli puree
(10%, 15% and 20%) was used for meatball
preparation in this study. Control samples were
formulated with 10% rusk. Meatballs were
analyzed for moisture, fat, protein, ash and
energy value and pH. Cooking properties were
also evaluated. Incorporation of broccoli puree
increased moisture content and decreased
protein, fat and ash contents of meatballs
significantly. Utilization of broccoli decreased
the energy value of meatballs in comparison to
control. The pH values of raw and cooked
meatballs ranged between respectively 5.80 to
5.85 and 6.06 to 6.12. The highest cooking yield
value obtained from control group. All the
broccoli puree treatments achieved higher fat
retention than control.
Index Terms— meatball, broccoli puree,
cooking parameters
I. INTRODUCTION
Meat and meat products are essential in the diet.
Their principal components, besides water, are
proteins and fats, with a substantial contribution of
vitamins and minerals of a high degree of
bioavailability. Both meat and its associated
products can be modified by adding ingredients
considered beneficial for health or by eliminating or
reducing components that are considered harmful.
There are various possible strategies for developing
healthier meats and meat products, including
functional foods. One of the most important of
these strategies is to design foods that will reduce
the concentration of some unhealthy compounds
(fat or sodium) and promote the presence of healthy
compounds [1, 2]. To achieve this, various non-
meat ingredients have been used in the formulation
of meat-based functional foods.
Epidemiological studies have pointed out that the
consumption of fruits and vegetables has health
benefits, e.g. reduced risk of coronary heart disease
and stroke, as well as certain types of cancer [3].
Like other species of the Brassica family, broccoli
is a rich source of health promoting phytochemicals
[4, 5]. Broccoli is becoming increasingly popular as
a fresh vegetable and is a significant source of
nutritional antioxidants, such as vitamins and
carotenoids, as well as biologically active dietary
components, such as the flavonol glycosides [6],
hydroxycinnamic acids [7] and sulphur-containing
compounds, such as the glucosinolates [8]. Broccoli
is also a good source for dietary fiber.
The objective of this research was to evaluate the
effects of broccoli as a binder and extender on
proximate composition, energy value and cooking
parameters of meatballs.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The minced lean beef (ground through a 3 mm
plate) was mixed with 7% minced beef fat, 0.3%
onion powder, 0.2% black pepper, 0.2% red pepper,
0.1% white pepper, and 1.5% salt and kneaded for
15min by hand. Dough was divided into four equal
portions. Four different meatball samples were
prepared with respectively 10% moistened rusk,
10%, 15% and 20% broccoli puree. Each portion
was kneaded for 15min to obtain homogeneous
dough and processed into meatballs (1 cm thick and
80 mm diameter) by using a metal shaper.
Meatballs were placed on plastic trays and wrapped
with polyethylene film and frozen at -18 oC until
further analysis. Moisture, protein, fat, and ash
contents measurements were done according to the
methods described by AOAC [9]. pH of meatballs
was determined by blending 10 g of sample with
100 ml of distilled water for 1 min. Total calories
(kcal) were calculated in relation to 100-g samples
using the Atwater values for fat (9 kcal g_1),
protein (4.02 kcal g_1) and carbohydrates (3.87
kcal g_1).
Cooking yield and fat retention [10], moisture
retention [11] and reduction in meatball diameter
were calculated. The data obtained from two
replications were analyzed by one way ANOVA
using the MINITAB statistical package program
[12].
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mean values for the proximate composition, pH
and energy values of raw meatballs are given in
Table 1. Incorporation of broccoli puree with an
increased portions (10% to 20%) also increased
moisture content and decreased protein, fat and ash
contents of meatballs significantly (p<0.05). The
higher moisture content of broccoli treatments
could be depending on higher water retention
ability of their fibers.
Protein levels in meatballs ranged from 18.91% to
16.16%. Protein levels decreased as the broccoli
content increased (p<0.05) and this could be to the
decrease in red meat content. Similar results were
reported by Candogan [13] for beef patties with
added tomato paste. The fat contents of control
meatballs were 10.17% and ranged between 9.36%
and 8.91% for meatballs with added broccoli. Ash
contents of meatballs ranged from 1.89% to 2.19%

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Proceedings: 1653
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
(p<0.05). Broccoli treatment did not change the
carbohydrate value of meatballs (p>0.05). Similarly
adding up to 15% of rice bran significantly
decreased protein and fat content of emulsified pork
meatballs [14]. Eim et al. [15] found similar results
with the use of carrot dietary fiber in fermented
sausages. The highest energy values were obtained
from control samples (173.81 kcal/100g). The
energy values for broccoli puree added meatballs
ranged between 151.68 and 165.38 kcal/100 g.
Energy reduction with respect to control could
depend on fat reduction because fats are most
concentrated dietary energy source, providing 9
kcal/100 g, more than twice that supplied by
proteins or carbohydrates.
The pH values of raw and cooked meatballs ranged
between respectively 5.80 to 5.85 (p>0.05) and 6.06
to 6.12 (p<0.05).The addition of broccoli did not
change raw meat pH (p>0.05). As similar Porcella
et al. [16] reported that addition of soy protein
isolate did not change the pH significantly
compared to control samples. The highest pH
values (6.12) were obtained from the 20% broccoli
puree added for cooked sample. Similar results
were reported by Candogan [13] for beef patties
with added tomato paste. The increase in pH value
of cooked meatballs is probably caused by a
reduction in available carboxylic groups on proteins
and also through the liberation of calcium and
magnesium ions from proteins, as proposed by
Medynski et al. [17].
Cooking properties of the meatballs are given in
Table 2. The meatballs tend to shrink during the
cooking process, due to the denaturation of the
meat proteins and loss of water and fat also
contribute to the shrinking process. Although it is
expected to obtain higher cooking yield values from
broccoli groups however it is not realized. The
highest cooking yield value obtained from control
group. This result can be related to the high
moisture content of broccoli puree and in contrast
to some researchers [18]. All the broccoli puree
treatments achieved higher (p<0.05) fat retention
than control. There are no significant differences
(p>0.05) for moisture retention values among
treatments. Diameter reduction was lowest for B10
treatment (22.48%). However, all the differences in
size reduction of samples with broccoli during
cooking were relatively minor. These results
supported the findings of Mansour and Khalil [19]
in low fat burgers made with various types of wheat
fibres.
IV. CONCLUSION
The addition of broccoli puree into the meatballs at
the levels of 10%, 15% and 20%, respectively
would improve their nutritional value and health
benefits. According to above results 15-20% of
broccoli puree addition can be recommended in
meatball production.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Gizem Laik and Gülçin
Öçalan for their valuable technical help.
REFERENCES
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meat products. Meat Science, 74(1), 219–229.
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[12] Minitab. (2003). Minitab version 14.10 Statistical software
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[13 ] Candogan, K. (2002). The effect of tomato paste on some
quality characteristics of beef patties during refrigerated storage.
European Food Research and Technology, 215, 305–309.
[14] Huang, S. C., Shiau, C.Y., Liu, T.E., Chu, C.L. and Hwang,
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[15] Eim, V.S., Simal, S., Rosello C., Femenia, A. (2008).
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of a dry fermented sausage (sobrassada). Meat Science, 80, 173-
182.
[16] Porcella, M. I., Sanchez, G., Vaudagna, S. R., Zenelli, M.
L., Descalzo, A. M., Meichtri, L. H., & Lasta, J. A. (2001). Soy

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Proceedings: 1654
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
protein isolate added to vacuum-packaged chorizos: Effect on
drip loss, quality characterization and stability during
refrigerated storage. Meat Science, 57, 437–443.
[17] Medynski, A., Pospiech, E., & Kniat, R. (2000). Effect of
various concentrations of lactic acid and sodium chloride on
selected physicochemical meat traits. Meat Science, 55, 285-290.
[18] Anderson, E. T., & Berry, B. W. (2001). Effects of inner
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beef. Food Researh International, 34, 689–694.
[19] Mansour, E. H., & Khalil, A. H. (1997). Characteristics of
low-fat beefburger as influenced by various types of wheat
fibers. Food Research International, 30, 199–205.


Proceedings: 1655
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
PE10.05 Effect of Cooking Temperature on the Quality Characteristics of Soy Sauce-Seasoned
Chicken Meat 385.00
Sung Ki Lee (1) skilee@kangwon.ac.kr, Sun Moon Kang( 2), Won Hee Choi (3), Hee Ju Kim (4), Cheon Jei Kim
(5)
(1)Dept. of Animal Products and Food Science, Kangwon National University
(2)Dept. of Animal Products and Food Science, Kangwon National University
(3)Dept. of Animal Products and Food Science, Kangwon National University
(4)Reaserch Center, Meatbank Co., Ltd. Dept. of Food Science and Biotechnology of Animal Resources, Konkuk
University
Abstract—The purpose of this study was to
investigate the effect of cooking temperature
(75℃ [IT75], 90℃ [IT90] of internal
temperatures and autoclave [AC]) on the quality
characteristics of soy sauce-seasoned chicken
meat. The pH was higher (P<0.05) in IT75 and
IT90 groups than in AC group. The ORP was
lower (P<0.05) in IT75 group than in AC group,
but the TRA was higher (P<0.05) in IT75 group
than in AC group. With regard to color, IT75
group had the highest (P<0.05) L* value and
IT90 group had the highest (P<0.05) a* and b*
values. The aroma pattern with electronic nose
showed the difference between IT75, IT90
groups and AC group.
Sung Ki Lee is with Dept. of Animal Products and Food
Science, Kangwon National University, Chucheon, 200701
South Korea (corresponding author to provide phone: +82-33-
250-8646; fax: +82-33-251-7719; e-mail: skilee@
kangwon.ac.kr).
Sun Moon Kang is with Dept. of Animal Products and Food
Science, Kangwon National University, Chucheon, 200701
South Korea (e-mail: smkang@kangwon.ac.kr).
Won Hee Choi is with Dept. of Animal Products and Food
Science, Kangwon National University, Chucheon, 200701
South Korea (e-mail: ilyh83 @hanmail.net).
Hee Ju Kim is with Reaserch Center, Meatbank Co., Ltd.,
Incheon, 404300 South Korea (e-mail: heeju_k@naver.com).
Cheon Jei Kim is with Dept. of Food Science and
Biotechnology of Animal Resources, Konkuk University, Seoul,
143701 South Korea (e-mail: kimcj@ konkuk.ac.kr).
Index Terms—cooking temperature, seasoned chicken
meat.
I. INTRODUCTION
EVERAL searchers have suggested that cooking
temperature affect the quality of meat products.
Huang and Greene [2] have reported that the high
cooked temperature decreased the TBARS content
in stored beef. In beef, pork, and turkey muscles at
pH 5.5-7.0, an increased in myoglobin denaturation
with the high cooked temperature was observed by
Trout [9]. Furthermore, in the study on buffalo
meat, Vasanthi et al. [10] have reported that an
increase in cooking temperature increased the pH,
cooking loss, collagen content, collagen solubility,
and tenderness score.
Soy sauce is the Korean traditional fermented sauce
and made with soybean and some additives [1]. It
contains maillard reaction products, such as
melanoidines, which have the powerful antioxidant
potential [6]. Cheigh et al. [1] found that soy sauce
inhibited the lipid oxidation in cooked beef. In
Korea, the seasoned meat products were usually
prepared with soy sauce. The quality of soy sauce-
seasoned meat has been studied previously [3, 4].
However, there is little information on the effect of
cooking temperature in soy sauce-seasoned meat.
Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to
investigate the effect of cooking temperature on the
quality characteristics of soy sauce-seasoned
chicken meat.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Preparation of seasoned chicken meat
Experimental seasoned chicken meat was processed
with fresh leg meat (63.42%) from 35-days-old
broiler. The following additives were added to
meat: soy sauce (21.86%), gelatin (2.5%), sugar
(2.5%), Cheonyang green pepper (3.51%), hot
sauce (3.12%), onion (1.23%), garlic (1.23%), and
curry (0.63%). The meat and additives were
vacuum-mixed and stuffed into a ø90 mm PVDC
casing (Teepak Co., USA). The samples were
divided into three groups with cooking
temperatures. Two groups were steam-heated at
180℃ until the internal temperatures of 75℃
(IT75) and 90℃ (IT90) were attained, respectively.
The other (AC) was autoclaved at 121℃ for 15
min. After freezing at -20℃, cooked samples were
sliced into about 2 cm thickness for the quality
measurements.
B. Experimental methods
The pH was determined using a pH meter
(SevenEasy pH, Mettler-Toledo GmbH,
Switzerland). Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)
was performed as described by Nam and Ahn [7]
and expressed as mV. Total reducing ability (TRA)
was performed as described by Lee et al. [5] and
expressed as absorbance of 1 mM potassium
ferricyanide minus absorbance of sample. CIE L*,
a*, and b* values were determined using a chroma
meter (CR-400, Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc.,
S


Proceedings: 1656
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Japan). Texture profile analysis (TPA) was
determined using a texture analyzer (TA-XT2i
version 6.06, Stable Micro System, UK) equipped
with a Φ75 mm aluminium platen. Aroma pattern
was determined by an electronic nose (FOX3000,
Alpha MOS, France) equipped with 12 metal oxide
sensors and analyzed by the principal component
analysis (PCA, Alpha Soft version 8.01, Alpha
MOS, France). Data was analyzed by the General
Linear Model procedure of SAS program [8].
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The effect of cooking temperature on the pH of soy
sauce -seasoned chicken meat is presented in Fig. 1.
The pH showed the higher (P<0.05) in IT75 and
IT90 groups compared with AC group. But there
was no significant difference (P>0.05) in the pH
between IT75 and IT90 groups.
The ORP (Fig. 1) was significantly lower (P<0.05)
in IT75 group than in AC group. In contrast, the
TRA (Fig. 1) showed the higher (P<0.05) in IT75
compared with AC group.
In the CIE values (Fig. 2), the L* value of IT75
group was significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of
IT90 and AC groups. The a* and b* values (Fig. 2)
of IT75 and AC groups showed the lower (P<0.05)
than that of IT90 group.
In the TPA (Fig. 3), there was no significant
difference in the hardness between all groups.
The aroma pattern (Fig. 4) was discriminately
different between IT75, IT90 groups and AC group
and the discrimination index was -20.
IV. CONCLUSION
The effect of cooking temperature on the quality
characteristics of soy sauce-seasoned chicken meat
was investigated in this study. The cooking to
internal temperature of 75℃ showed the higher
oxidation stability and different aroma compared
with autoclave. Moreover, it showed the lighter
color than the cooking to internal temperature of
90℃ and autoclave.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Study was supported by Technology
Development Program for Agriculture and Forestry
(608001-05-1-SB440), Ministry for Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries, Republic of Korea.
REFERENCES
[1] Cheigh, H. S. & Moon, G. S. (1986). Antioxidative effect
of soybean sauce on the lipid oxidation of cooked meat.
Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology 18, 313-
318.
[2] Huang, W. H. & Greene, B. E. (1978). Effect of cooking
method on TBA numbers of stored beef. Journal of Food
Science 43, 1201-1203, 1209.
[3] Jin, S. K., Kim, I. S., Hur, S. J., Park, K. H., Lyou, H. J.,
Kim, I. J., & Hah, K. H. (2005). Effect of traditional
seasoning on quality characteristics of low temperature
aging pork. Korean Journal of Animal Science and
Technology 47, 1041-1050.
[4] Kim, I. S., Jin, S. K., Hah, K. H., Park, S. T., Kwuak, K.
R., Park, J. K., Kang, Y. S., & Chung, K. Y. (2005).
Changes of vacuum packaged pre-aged venison with
seasoning during chilled storage. Korean Journal for Food
Science of Animal Resources 25, 442-448.
[5] Lee, M., Cassens, R. G., & Fennema, O. R. (1981). Effect
of meat ions on residual nitrite. Journal of Food Processing
and Preservation 5, 191-205.
[6] Moon, G. S. & Cheigh, H. S. (1990). Separation and
characteristics of antioxidative substances in fermented
soybean sauce. Korean Journal of Food Science and
Technology 22, 461-465.
[7] Nam, K. C. & Ahn, D. U. (2003). Effects of ascorbic acid
and antioxidants on the color of irradiated ground beef.
Journal of Food Science 68, 1686-1690.
[8] SAS (1999). SAS/STAT User’s Guide, Version 8.01. Cary,
NC: SAS Institute Inc.
[9] Trout, G. R. (1989). Variation in myoglobin denaturation
and color of cooked beef, pork, and turkey meat as
influenced by pH, sodium chloride, sodium
tripolyphosphate, and cooking temperature. Journal of
Food Science 54, 536-540, 544.
[10] Vasanthi, C., Venkataramanujam, V., & Dushyanthan, K.
(2007). Effect of cooking temperature and time on the
physicao-chemical, histological and sensory properties of
female carabeef (buffalo) meat. Meat Science 76, 274-280.

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Proceedings: 1657
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
a
a
b
6.35
6.40
6.45
6.50
6.55
6.60
IT75 IT90 Aut oc lav e
pH
a
ab
b
30
33
36
39
42
45
IT75 IT 90 Aut o cla ve
ORP (mV)
b
ab
a
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
IT75 IT90 A ut oc lave
TRA
Fig. 1 The effect of cooking temperature on the pH,
ORP, and TRA of soy sauce-seasoned chicken meat
b
b
a
45
50
55
60
65
70
IT75 IT90 Au to clave
L* (Lightness)
bab
0
3
6
9
12
15
IT75 IT90 A ut oc lave
a* (Redness)
Fig. 2 The effect of cooking temperature on the color of
soy sauce-seasoned chicken meat
IT90
IT75
Fig. 3 The effect of cooking temperature on the aroma
pattern of soy sauce-seasoned chicken meat.


Proceedings: 1658
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
PE10.06 Alternative fabrication strategies for the beef chuck roll 413.00
Chris Calkins (1) ccalkins1@unl.edu, A Mata (2), K Underly(3), J Nelson (4), B Lobaugh (5), E Gibson (6), S
Wald (6)
(1)University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, United States of America
(2)Mata Development Group, Colleyville, TX, United States of America
(3)Range, Inc., Chicago, IL, United States of America
(4)Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States of America
(5) iQ Foods, Fayetteville, AR, United States of America
(6) Beef Innovations Group of the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, Englewood, CO 80112, United States
of America
Abstract— The beef chuck roll is a large (9.3 kg)
subprimal cut manufactured in the United
States. It consists of the portion of the beef chuck
(shoulder) that medial to the scapula, from the
fifth rib to the neck and includes all or part of
the following major muscles: m. longissimus
thoracis, m. longissimus capitus et atlantis, m.
rhomboideus, m. spinalis dorsi, m. complexus,
m. multifidus dorsi, m. serratus ventralis, and m.
splenius. Typically, U.S. fabrication at retail is
to remove 2-3 steaks from the caudal end of the
cut and to merchandise the remaining portions
as pot roasts. Alternative fabrication strategies
were developed and economic returns from the
various strategies were estimated. Results
indicate considerable economic return is
available when muscles and muscle groups are
cut into specific cuts that can be merchandised
separately.
A. Mata is with Mata Development Group,
Colleyville, TX 76034 (Phone: 312-953-7281, e-mail:
antonmata@aol.com).
K. A. Underly is with Range, Inc., Chicago,
IL 60607 (e-mail: Kari@rangepartners.com).
J. L. Nelson is with Oklahoma State
University, Stillwater, OK 74078 (e-mail:
jacob.nelson@okstate.edu).
C. R. Calkins is with the Department of
Animal Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68503
USA (e-mail: CCalkins1@unl.edu).
B. Lobaugh is with iQ Foods, Fayetteville,
AR 72703 USA (e-mail: brandonlobaugh@gmail.com).
E. Gibson is with the Beef Innovations
Group of the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association,
Englewood, CO 80112 USA (e-mail: EGibson@beef.org).
S. J. Wald is with the Beef Innovations
Group of the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association,
Englewood, CO 80112 USA (e-mail: SWald@beef.org).
Index Terms— Beef chuck, Value-added cuts,
Cutting yield
I. INTRODUCTION
HE beef chuck roll in the United States consists of
the portion of the beef chuck (shoulder) that lies
under the scapula, from the fifth rib to the neck and
includes all or part the following major muscles:
m. longissimus thoracis, m. rhomboideus, m.
spinalis dorsi, m. complexus, m. multifidus dorsi,
m. serratus ventralis, and m. splenius. The chuck
roll can be further fabricated into a chuck eye roll
(which contains portions of the m. longissimus
thoracis, m. spinalis dorsi, m. complexus, m.
multifidus dorsi, and the m. longissimus capitus et
atlantis) and the underblade (containing m.
rhomboideus, m. serratus ventralis, and m.
splenius).
Typically, retail fabrication of the chuck roll
involves removal of 2-3 chuck eye steaks from the
caudal end of the chuck eye roll and to merchandise
the remaining portions of the chuck roll as pot
roasts. Consumers have repeatedly shown a
willingness to pay for convenience and consistency
in eating quality. Cutting beef in a way to create
single-muscle cuts or cuts that are consistent for a
popular recipe should return value to the industry.
Although the chuck roll may be cut into a chuck
eye roll and an underblade (defined below), this
seldom occurs in the United States because the
value-added opportunities have not been well
studied. This research was conducted to determine
the potential economic impact of alternative cutting
strategies for the beef chuck roll.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data from 8 chuck rolls were used to construct a
spread sheet depicting the expected yield of cuts
and economic values that result from three different
cutting styles. Style 1 was the traditional method,
where a few chuck eye steaks were removed from
the caudal end of the chuck eye roll and the
remainder of the chuck roll was cut into chuck
roasts, stew meat and trim for grinding. Style 2
converted the chuck eye roll into boneless country
style ribs and the underblade into steaks from the
m. serratus ventralis (called the Denver cut), a steak
from the m. splenius (called the Sierra cut), stew
meat and trim for grinding. Style 3 converted the
chuck eye roll into chuck eye steaks, boneless
country-style ribs, and a chuck eye roast (called
America’s beef roast). The underblade was cut as
described for style 2. The Sierra cut has similar
characteristics to a flank steak (m. rectus
abdominus) and so was valued in a similar fashion.
Denver cuts are rich in marbling and offer a strong,
succulent flavor and a pleasurable eating
experience.
T

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Proceedings: 1659
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
After fabrication, data were used to calculate the
gross margin return, retail value per kg, average
cost per kg, per kg gross profit, and net margin
percent. Time required to fabricate was recorded
and labor costs were included in the calculations.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 presents the cutting yields for the three
fabrication styles that were studied. The traditional
style yields 67% chuck roasts, which have
relatively low value in the United States market. In
style 2 the chuck roll yielded 37% boneless,
country-style ribs and 21% Denver cuts. Both of
these cuts are of greater value than the traditional
chuck roast. Cutting style 3 provided a greater
variety of cuts with even greater retail value in the
United States.
The prices used in the calculations are provided in
Table 2. Labor costs were estimated at $18.00 per
hour and a marketing cost of 5% of the retail price
was included. These are estimated prices and
would be expected to change over time. Even so,
the differences in economic return are rather
dramatic. The traditional cutting style resulted in
gross profit of $4.30 per kg while style 2 yielded
$5.46 per kg and style 3 resulted in $5.99 per kg of
gross profit. These prices include the cost of added
labor. Clearly, there is substantial economic value
in altering the way the beef chuck is fabricated at
retail in the United States. It is anticipated that the
foodservice market would realize similar gains with
these new approaches.
It is likely that individual muscles of the chuck eye
roll have further potential that could be realized
through single-muscle merchandising. Anecdotal
evidence suggests these muscles are especially rich
in flavor. Further research is needed to resolve
fabrication and quality issues before
recommendations can be made.
IV. CONCLUSION
Taking the time to cut the beef chuck roll into
specific retail cuts rather than chuck roasts is
economically valuable and offers strategies to
increase retail profit in the meat department.
Consumers gain additional benefits when beef cuts
are identified with simple names that are easy to
remember and that represent cuts that deliver
consistent, desirable eating experiences.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement is extended to the Robert M.
Kerr Food and Agricultural Products Center at
Oklahoma State University for additional funding,
personnel, and facility use and to The Beef
Checkoff.
Table 1 Cutting yields (%) from three different fabrication styles for the beef chuck roll.
Style 1 Style 2 Style 3
Cut Traditional Ribs Diverse
Chuck roasts 67.23
Chuck eye roast 10.50 27.56
Chuck eye steaks 10.22
M. splenius (Sierra cut) 5.97 7.11
Country-style ribs 37.25 1.78
M. serratus ventralis (Denver steaks) 21.42 20.44
M. rhomboideus (stew meat) 6.99 9.33
Stew meat 8.40 6.41 8.00
80% lean trim 8.40 12.29 8.89
Fat trim 0.00 2.19 0.00
Unusable (connective tissue, shrink, purge, cut loss) 5.47 7.48 6.67

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Proceedings: 1660
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Table 2 Cost assumption for calculation of value.
Cut Price, $ per kg
Chuck roll 3.19
Chuck roasts 9.45
Chuck eye roast 10.99
Chuck eye steaks 10.99
M. splenius (Sierra cut) 13.19
Country-style ribs 10.99
M. serratus ventralis (Denver steaks) 15.40
M. rhomboideus (stew meat) 8.79
Stew meat 8.79
80% lean trim 7.25
Fat trim 0.00
Table 3 Value and gross margin provided by three different fabrication styles for the beef chuck roll.
Net margin Net margin Retail value
$ per kg % $ per kg
Style 1
Traditional 4.30 51.11 8.85
Style 2
Ribs 5.46 56.02 10.24
Style 3
Diverse 5.99 59.46 10.59


Proceedings: 1661
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
PE10.07 Cutting yields and value-added strategies for the beef round 414.00
Chris Calkins (1) ccalkins1@unl.edu, A Mata( 2), K Underly (3), J Nelson (4), B Lobaugh (5), E Gibson(6), S
Wald (6)
(1)University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, Unite States of America
(2)Mata Development Group, Colleyville, TX, Unite States of America
(3)Range, Inc., Chicago, IL, Unite States of America
(4)Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, Unite States of America
(5)iQ Foods, Fayetteville, AR, Unite States of America
(6)Beef Innovations Group of the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, Englewood, CO 80112, Unite States of
America
Abstract— To increase the value of the beef round in
the United States it is necessary to have a clear
understanding of the yields and properties of the key
muscles which comprise the round. To quantify
cutting yield, shank-off, partially boneless beef rounds
(n = 29) from young, market-weight beef carcasses
(carcass weight = 378.8 kg) were fabricated into the
primary muscle groups and trimmed of all visible fat:
cap-off and side muscle off, inside round (m. adductor
and m. semimembranosus together; 17.7% of round
weight), inside round cap and side muscles (m.
gracilis, m. pectineus, and m. sartorius, independent
of each other; 2.7, 1.3, 0.8%, respectively), outside
round flat (m. biceps femoris, 19.1%), heel (m.
gastrocnemius and m. superficial digital flexor
together; 5.8%), eye of round (m. semitendinosus;
7.2%), and the knuckle (m. rectus femoris, m. vastus
medialis, m. vastus intermedius, and m. vastus
lateralis together; 13.4%). Based on published
tenderness and sensory properties, and ease of access
during fabrication, candidate muscles for upgrading
include the m. gracilis, m. pectineus, m. sartorius, m.
rectus femoris, and the m. adductor.
A. Mata is with Mata Development Group,
Colleyville, TX 76034 (Phone: 312-953-7281, e-mail:
antonmata@aol.com).
J. L. Nelson is with Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
OK 74078 (e-mail: jacob.nelson@okstate.edu).
B. Lobaugh is with iQ Foods, Fayetteville,
AR 72703 USA (e-mail: brandonlobaugh@gmail.com).
K. A. Underly is with Range, Inc., Chicago, IL 60607 (e-
mail: Kari@rangepartners.com).
C. R. Calkins is with the Department of
Animal Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68503
USA (e-mail: CCalkins1@unl.edu).
E. Gibson is with the Beef Innovations
Group of the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association,
Englewood, CO 80112 USA (e-mail: EGibson@beef.org).
S. J. Wald is with the Beef Innovations
Group of the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association,
Englewood, CO 80112 USA (e-mail: SWald@beef.org).
Index Terms— Beef round, Cutting yield, Value-
added cuts.
I. INTRODUCTION
USCLE profiling research conducted in 2000
revealed the tenderness and sensory
properties of muscles from the beef round
[1]. Round muscles possess unique properties that
make them especially challenging to use for value-
added beef items. They are lean, often high in
connective tissue, and generally low in tenderness.
To add value, separation of the various muscle
groups into component muscles will likely be
needed as muscles vary in their sensory traits. To
facilitate fabrication of the beef round into cuts to
which value can be added it is necessary to know
the cutting yields. This research was conducted to
quantify the cutting yield of specific muscles and
muscle groups in the beef round. In addition,
published tenderness and sensory properties have
been combined with ease of fabrication and cutting
yield information to suggest candidate muscles for
value-adding procedures.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Shank-off, semi-boneless beef rounds (NAMP no.
160 except the aitch bone was included, [2]; n = 29)
from young, market-weight beef cattle (mean
carcass weight = 378.8 kg) were fabricated into
major muscle groups. The rounds had the
following portions removed: tibia and muscles
associated with the shank, aitchbone, sacral
vertebra, the sacrosciatic ligament and the thick
opaque portion of the gracilis membrane. Selected
muscle groups were then further fabricated into
individual muscles and denuded of all fat and heavy
connective tissue. Muscle groups included the cap-
off inside round (m. adductor and m.
semimembranosus together), inside round cap and
side muscles (m. gracilis, m. pectineus, and m.
sartorius, together and independent of each other),
outside round flat (m. biceps femoris), heel (m.
gastrocnemius and m. superficial digital flexor
together), eye of round (m. semitendinosus), and
the knuckle (m. rectus femoris, m. vastus medialis,
m. vastus intermedius, and m. vastus lateralis
together). Means and standard deviations were
calculated.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Yields of the various muscle groups and selected
individual muscles are presented in Table 1. The
largest muscles groups in the round were the inside
round (m. adductor and m. semimembranosus), the
outside round flat (m. biceps femoris), and the beef
M


Proceedings: 1662
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
knuckle (m. rectus femoris, m. vastus medialis, m.
vastus intermedius, and m. vastus lateralis). Most of
these cuts already return good value and offer
minimal opportunity to be increased in value, with
two major exceptions. The outside round flat can be
increased in value by removing the ischiatic head of
the m. biceps femoris. Doing so creates a beef cut
that is more uniform in size and shape, that can
easily be cut into steaks by cutting across the grain,
and provides an ease of use for retailers. The
second opportunity is the central muscle of the beef
knuckle. Published shear force values (Table 2)
reveal the m. rectus femoris to be one of the top two
most tender muscles in the round. This is a steak-
quality muscle that merits exploration as a steak
item, not just as a convenient beef roast.
Additional value can apparently be returned by
separating the cap and side muscles from the inside
round. This includes the m. gracilis, a wide, flat
muscle with coarse texture. The tenderness data
(Table 2) suggest this muscle could be used for
specialized applications like fajita meat or even as a
replacement for flank steak (m. rectus abdominis)
which has high value in the United States. In
removing the cap, the side muscles can also be
removed from the inside round. The m. pectineus is
tender and offers a strong opportunity for adding
value. The m. sartorius, because of accessibility and
consistency, could be used as a specialized beef cut
or in the production of ground round, a popular and
relatively high value product in the United States.
IV. CONCLUSION
On the basis of tenderness, sensory properties and
ease of fabrication, several muscles in the round are
candidates for development of value-added cuts.
These include the m. gracilis, m. pectineus, m.
sartorius, m. rectus femoris, and the m. adductor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement is extended to the Robert M.
Kerr Food and Agricultural Products Center at
Oklahoma State University for additional funding,
personnel, and facility use and to The Beef
Checkoff.
REFERENCES
[1] Von Seggern, D.D., Calkins, C.R., Johnson, D.D., Brickler,
J.E., and Gwartney, B.L. 2005. Muscle Profiling:
Characterizing the muscles of the beef chuck and round.
Meat Science 71:39-51.
[2] Meat Buyer’s Guide. North American Meat Processors
Association, Reston, VA, USA.
[3] Calkins, C.R. and Johnson, D.D. 2009. Characterizing
muscle properties to develop muscle-specific intervention
strategies and improve meat cuts for the consumer. In
Improvin the sensory and nutritional quality of fresh meat.
J.P. Kerry and D. Ledward, Eds. Woodhead Publishing,
Ltd., Cambridge, UK.
[4] Calkins, C.R., Pokharel, S., de Mello, A.S., Senaratne, L.,
and Hinkle, J.B. 2009. Characterizing the beef heel
muscle. A final report submitted to the National
Cattlemen’s Beef Association, Englewood, CO.
Table 1 Mean weight and percentage of muscle groups in the beef round
Item
Muscle
Weight
kg
Standard
Deviation, kg
Percent
of round
Standard
Deviation, %
Round, shank-off,
semi-boneless
32.66 3.15
Inside round, cap off,
side muscles off
m. adductor and m.
semimembranosus 5.77 0.82 17.65 1.46
Inside round cap
m. gracilis 0.89 0.19 2.72 0.42
Inside round cap -
side muscle
m. pectineus 0.42 0.07 1.30 0.18
Inside round cap -
side muscle m. sartorius 0.25 0.05 0.77 0.12
Outside round flat m. biceps femoris 5.36 0.71 16.37 0.89
Eye of round m. semitendinosus 2.35 0.40 7.18 0.90
Heel m. gastrocnemius and m.
superficial digital flexor 1.88 0.28 5.75 0.55
Knuckle m. rectus femoris and
vastus muscles 4.36 0.50 13.35 0.80
Bone 3.26 0.41 9.98 0.85
Trim 7.00 1.01 21.54 3.10
Purge/cutting loss 1.11 0.21 3.38 0.53

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Proceedings: 1663
The 55th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (ICoMST), Copenhagen, Denmark, 16-21 August 2009
Table 2 Published Warner-Bratzler shear force values for muscles from the beef round.
Dry heat cookery Moist heat cookery
Muscle Shear force, kg Std Dev. kg
Shear force
kg
Std Dev,
kg Source
m. adductor 4.48 1.10 4.47 0.59 [3]
m. semimembranosus 4.30 1.23 4.10 0.70 [3]
m. gracilis 4.12 0.81 3.67 0.61 [3]
m. pectineus 3.70 0.65 4.27 0.73 [3]
m. sartorius 4.45 0.47 4.63 0.48 [3]
m. biceps femoris 4.51 1.33 4.82 1.64 [3]
m. gluteus medius 6.04 1.14 5.12 1.28 [3]
m. semitendinosus 4.72 0.84 5.02 0.72 [3]
m. rectus femoris 3.65 0.75 3.81 0.65 [3]
m. vastus medialis 3.73 0.74 3.88 0.63 [3]
m. vastus intermedius 4.02 0.60 3.53 0.62 [3]
m. vastus lateralis 5.28 1.03 4.82 0.73 [3]
m. gastrocnemius 4.42 1.38 4.42 0.97 [4]