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Waste Frying Oils-Based Biodiesel: Process and Fuel Properties

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The conversion of waste frying oil into a valuable methyl ester (biodiesel) has been successfully conducted and also the acid pre-treatment process was carried out prior to the main biodiesel production process for lowering waste frying oil free fatty acid (FFA) content below 1%. The physicochemical properties of biodiesel were analyzed to ensure the product could meet the standards of fuel properties. The methanolysis was selected as the biodiesel production technique under various mixing speeds namely 350, 400 and 450 rpm, while the other parameters are maintained at the optimum process conditions such as methanol to oil molar ratio is 6:1, percentage of catalyst loading is 1.0% wt, reaction temperature is 60˚C, and reaction time is 50 min. Also, the investigation on the kinematic viscosity, density and flash point of biodiesel was performed against a number of rpm. The standards of ASTM D 6751 were applied to measure the entire prescribed properties of biodiesel. The highest yield of biodiesel obtained was 99%. The values of flash point, ki-nematic viscosity and density were in the range of specified limitations. Other biodiesel properties fulfilled the diesel engine application requirements.
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Smart Grid and Renewable Energy, 2013, 4, 281-286
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/sgre.2013.43034 Published Online June 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/sgre)
281
Waste Frying Oils-Based Biodiesel: Process and Fuel
Properties
Azhari Muhammad Syam1,2*, Leni Maulinda1, Ishak Ibrahim1, Syafari Muhammad1
1Department of Chemical Engineering, Malikussaleh University, Lhokseumawe, Indonesia; 2Institute of Advanced Technology,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.
Email: *armuh@yahoo.com
Received April 4th, 2013; revised May 6th, 2013; accepted May 13th, 2013
Copyright © 2013 Azhari Muhammad Syam et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
ABSTRACT
The conversion of waste frying oil into a valuable methyl ester (biodiesel) has been successfully conducted and also the
acid pre-treatment process was carried out prior to the main biodiesel production process for lowering waste frying oil
free fatty acid (FFA) content below 1%. The physicochemical properties of biodiesel were analyzed to ensure the prod-
uct could meet the standards of fuel properties. The methanolysis was selected as the biodiesel production technique
under various mixing speeds namely 350, 400 and 450 rpm, while the other parameters are maintained at the optimum
process conditions such as methanol to oil molar ratio is 6:1, percentage of catalyst loading is 1.0% wt, reaction tem-
perature is 60˚C, and reaction time is 50 min. Also, the investigation on the kinematic viscosity, density and flash point
of biodiesel was performed against a number of rpm. The standards of ASTM D 6751 were applied to measure the en-
tire prescribed properties of biodiesel. The highest yield of biodiesel obtained was 99%. The values of flash point, ki-
nematic viscosity and density were in the range of specified limitations. Other biodiesel properties fulfilled the diesel
engine application requirements.
Keywords: Waste Frying Oils; Biodiesel; Fuel Properties
1. Introduction
While global warming and green house gas effect corre-
spond to a part of issues in the green environmental top-
ics of worldwide. Biodiesel takes a significant role in
reducing the accumulation of green house gas and main-
tain a globally benign environmentally. As vehicle fuel,
biodiesel has some benefits due to domestic and renew-
able resources, also its application without requiring a
major modification of engine. In terms of clinical aspects,
biodiesel is suitable for environmentally friendly fuels
because of there are not any toxic compounds produced
during the period of combustion. In this matter, Demir-
bas [1] reported that the advantages of biodiesel is better
quality of exhaust gas emissions, its biodegradability and
its contribution to the reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions.
Most researchers have selected the cheapest and sim-
plest technique of biodiesel production. The others have
applied the expensive methods once the untreated oil was
used as feedstock of biodiesel. Even though, the eco-
nomical aspect is highly associated with the technique of
biodiesel production. However, the quality of biodiesel
should be taken into account when one of techniques is
applied as reported by Jain and Sharma [2]. It is due to
the process may take place either with catalysts such as
alkaline [3], acid [4] and enzyme [5,6] or without cata-
lysts [7]. In an industrial scale, the alkaline catalyst is the
most prefer way due to low cost, easy to install and
above all, its high reaction rate without requiring a large
reactor volume and save the capital of production [8].
As a rule, the methanolysis process proceeds under
three step wise reactions as indicated in Scheme 1. Based
on the reaction stoichiometry, one mole of triglyceride
requires three moles of methanol to produce three moles
of fatty acid methyl esters and one mole of glycerol as
shown in Scheme 2.
The nowadays serious problem for biodiesel produc-
tion is the high price of vegetable oil which leads to a
highly expensive of biodiesel product price compared to
that of petroleum based diesel product. For anticipating
such that situation, many researchers have started to util-
ize the waste resource based oils as reaction feedstock.
*Corresponding author.
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. SGRE
Waste Frying Oils-Based Biodiesel: Process and Fuel Properties
282
3
TG+CH OH DG+RCOOCH
Alkaline
 3
3
3
Alkaline
3
DG+CH OH MG+RCOOCH
Alkaline
3
MG+CH OH GL+RCOOCH
Scheme 1.
CH
2
-OCOR
1
CH-OCOR
2
CH
2
-OCOR
3
CH
3
OH
CH
2
-OH
CH
2
-OH
R
2
-OCOCH
3
R
1
-OCOCH
3
R
3
-OCOCH
3
Triglyceride Methanol Glycerol Methyl Esters
OCH
3-
CH-OH + +
Scheme 2.
As Berrios et al. [8] reported that waste cooking oils
are good raw material because of their low cost and the
environmental advantage of the residue valorisation. An-
other feedstock which corresponds to bio-based oils is
the slaughterhouse waste.
The objective of this study is to synthesize the oil
waste into biodiesel and investigate the physicochemical
properties of biodiesel product for engine application
such as kinematic viscosity, density, flash point, water
content, calorific value, iodine value, total acid number
(TAN), pour point, and cetane index. The analysis of
those properties refers to the standards of ASTM D 6751
[9], where TG, DG, MG, GL, and R denote triglyceride,
diglyceride, monoglyceride, glycerol and long hydrocar-
bon chain.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Material
The feedstock employed in this work is waste frying oils
that are collected from restaurants and houses. Isopropa-
nol, phenolphthalein and potassium hydroxide are util-
ized for determining acid values of waste frying oil and
the oil after treating. While the sulphuric acid is used for
the pre-treatment process, sodium methoxide is used as
catalyst in the methanolysis process and methanol is ap-
plied for both pre-treatment and methanolysis processes.
Ethyl acetate and BSTFA are for gas chromatography
sample preparation. The equipments involved are three
neck flask, oil bath, graham condenser, thermometer, hot
plate complete with stirrer, and other related glass wares.
2.2. Acid Pre-Treatment Process
In this work, the steps of acid pre-treatment (esterifica-
tion) are carried out. Initial step, the high free fatty acid
waste frying oil is poured into the three neck flask (reac-
tor) and heated. The mixing solution of methanol with
catalyst (sulphuric acid) is also heated prior to be added
into the reactor. After the reaction completing, the prod-
ucts are allowed for 2 h settling down in a separation
funnel and then, the methanol-water fraction at the top
layer is removed.
2.3. Methanolysis
The treated oil is used as the feedstock. Fatty acid com-
position of the waste frying oil is given in Table 1. The
oil needs to be heated after pouring into the reactor prior
to the excess reactant and catalyst are added. The reactor
is filled up with 150 g of treated oil and heat until 60˚C.
Then, the mixture of methanol with catalyst is added at
which the reaction is assumed to commence. The flow
sheet of completed biodiesel production process is shown
in Figure 1.
2.4. Analytical Procedure
The free fatty acids content of the waste frying oil and
treated oil is determined using acid base titration tech-
nique. A standard solution of 0.1 N alkali solution is used.
The titration method is as follows. The specified weight
of oil sample is measured in a flask, add 50 ml of iso-
propanol and thus, shake it gently while titrating with
standard alkali to the first permanent pink colour. The
colour must persist for 30 seconds.
2.5. Gas Chromatography Analysis
GC (gas chromatography) analysis is performed for iden-
tifying the hydrocarbon compounds such as fatty acids
and methyl esters. The separation is carried out by using
capillary column Rtx-5MS 30 m × 0.25 mm ID, 0.25 μm
with helium at 137.7 ml/min as a carrier gas and 1:100 of
split ratio.
Table 1. Fatty acid composition of waste frying oils.
Fatty acids Formula Weight
Octanoic C8H16O2 6.18
Decanoic C10H20O2 7.13
Dodecanoic C12H24O2 35.36
Tetradecanoic C14H28O2 24.68
Hexadecanoic C16H32O2 12.53
9-Hexadecenoic C16H30O2 1.17
Octadecanoic C18H36O2 4.63
9-Octadecenoic C18H34O2 8.32
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. SGRE
Waste Frying Oils-Based Biodiesel: Process and Fuel Properties
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. SGRE
283
Figure 1. Process flow diagram of biodiesel production.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Biodiesel Synthesis
The production of biodiesel from triglyceride of waste
frying oil takes place slowly at the lower mixing speed
(350 rpm). This phenomenon is happened because of the
mechanical nature which contributes to the process that
is going on ineffectively. However, at higher mixing
speeds, the yield of biodiesel increases significantly, in
particular at higher of reaction time as shown in Figure 2.
It proves that the methanolysis process is extremely af-
fected by the rpm. Also, it can be seen that the reaction is
slow during the initial reaction time due to the mixing
and excess reactant dispersion with triglyceride (Figure
2). Nevertheless, the reaction yield increased steadily
from 30 min of reaction. Especially, at both 400 rpm and
450 rpm of mixing speeds, the yield of methyl ester en-
hances proportionally. The conversion of waste frying oil
triglyceride into valuable methyl ester reached the maxi-
mum yield at 50 min of reaction time. The highest yield
of biodiesel product obtained in this work is 99%. The
similar study has been done by Wang et al. [10] which
attained 97% of biodiesel conversion from waste cooking
oil. Also, Zhang et al. [11] have conducted the assess-
ment on the technological and process for biodiesel pro-
duction from oil waste.
Figure 2. The yield of biodiesel at various mixing speeds
(rpm).
tigation on kinematic viscosity of biodiesel over rpm is
carried out. The findings are reported that the kinematic
viscosity of biodiesel declines exponentially at every
selected rpm for whole reaction times. Above all, at 30
until 90 min, the slopes appear to be the same (Figure 3),
except for 60 min of reaction time, there is a slightly dif-
ference of slopes in particular after 350 rpm. In the real-
ity, the kinematic viscosity decreases with increase in
rpm of mixing intensity. Therefore, at low rpm, the un-
successful reaction has caused the biodiesel viscosity still
remains at high level. As the engine fuel, according to
Heywood [14] and Coulson & Richardson [15], the
higher viscosity results in the mixture to burn lean in the
engine as fuel moves slowly through the fuel filter and
fuel lines. In addition, the higher viscosity of biodiesel
fuel causes inadequate atomization and incomplete com-
3.2. Study on Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is one of the most effecting parame-
ters on the performance of engine and the emission char-
acteristics [12]. Also, according to Bhale et al. [13], ki-
nematic viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of
which it offers resistance to flow. In this work, the inves-
Waste Frying Oils-Based Biodiesel: Process and Fuel Properties
284
Figure 3. Effect of rpm on the kinematic viscosity.
bustion.
Although, the mixing intensity is surely increased until
450 rpm, from Figure 3 it can be observed that at 400
rpm and 60 min of reaction time, the feasible kinematic
viscosity of biodiesel (4.21 mm2/s) is obtained. The simi-
lar study has been carried out by Tesfa et al. [16] using
corn oil, rapeseed oil and waste oil as the reaction feed-
stock. Their findings report revealed that the kinematic
viscosity of biodiesel is in the range of 3.55 - 5.48
mm2/s.
3.3. Study on Biodiesel Density
Density of biodiesel is one of specified quality parame-
ters which closely relates to the kinematic viscosity and
affects the engine performance. More viscous of bio-
diesel, higher the density of biodiesel is produced. The
density of biodiesel depends on the composition of fatty
acid compounds, as Tat and Gerpen [17] reported that
densities of biodiesel will vary with the fatty acid com-
position and their purity. Thus, it leads to a problem for
engine combustion which results in coking and trumpet
formation on the injectors, carbon deposits, oil ring
sticking, thickening and gelling of the lubricating oil [18].
In present study, the correlation between density and rpm
is investigated. From Figure 4, it can be seen that the
change of biodiesel density at every rpm is significant.
However, between 400 to 450 rpm (6.7 - 7.5 Hz), there is
not any major change of density for all reaction times.
On the other hand, at 300 rpm, especially for 30 min of
reaction time, the density of biodiesel is almost close to
the density of feedstock. This condition shows that the
reaction is not happened completely due to the time con-
straint.
Many previous works have been done by other re-
searchers on the biodiesel density [19]. But, their find-
Figure 4. Effect of rpm on density.
ings showed that the density change is linier with the
increase of pressure and inversely to the decrease of
temperature. The similar study also has been performed
by Alptekin and Canakci [12] which obtained that the
density of biodiesel is between methanol and fatty acid
densities.
3.4. Study of Flash Point
The aim of flash point analysis is to identify the tem-
perature degree of oil to be flammable with air. It is only
one of properties which must be considered in assessing
the overall flammability hazard of a material [20]. This
analysis is very important for the fuel transportation and
storage purposes.
The flash point of biodiesel corresponds to both the
percentage amount of hydrocarbon saturated compounds
and the residual of alcohol. As Jorge et al. [21] reported
the high sensitivity of the flash point with respect to the
residual alcohol content of the biodiesel is very clear.
This study is performed to investigate the effect of vis-
cosity on the flash point of biodiesel. The correlation of
viscosity with flash point of biodiesel can be explained
by using Figure 5. The results of observation (Figure 5)
showed that the flash point increases considerably with
enhance the viscosity. The bond appears to be linier. It
means that higher the percentage of saturated hydrocar-
bon compounds, lower the flash point of biodiesel. In
terms of safety, the lowest the flash point, a higher cost is
necessary for storage system. In this work, a moderate
flash point is obtained on the acceptable value of bio-
diesel viscosity as indicated in Table 2. The similar work
has been conducted by Mejía et al. [22], which used the
lending of vegetable oil biodiesel with fossil based die- b
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. SGRE
Waste Frying Oils-Based Biodiesel: Process and Fuel Properties
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. SGRE
285
Table 2. Physicochemical properties of waste frying oils based-biodiesel (ASTM D 6751).
Parameters Unit Method Values Limitation*
Density (15˚C) kg/m3 ASTM D 40 867 -
Kinematic viscosity (40˚C) mm2/s ASTM D 445 4.21 6.0 (max)
Water content % volume ASTM D 95-05 0.006 0.05 (max)
Calorific value MJ/kg ASTM D 240 39.85 -
Iodine value - PORIM 91 -
Pour point ˚C ASTM D 97 0 -
Flash point ˚C ASTM D 93 133 130 (min)
Total acid number mg KOH/g oil ASTM D 974 0.781 0.80 (max)
Cetane index - ASTM D 976 49 47 (min)
*[9].
Figure 5. Flash point of biodiesel over kinematic viscosity.
sel as the analyzed matter.
3.5. Analysis of Physicochemical
Characterization of Biodiesel
Since biodiesel as fuel for the engine application, it
should meet the standard quality of International specifi-
cations. In this work, some physic chemical properties of
waste frying oil-based biodiesel are analyzed using
ASTM method as shown in Table 2.
Most studies in biodiesel application have been fo-
cused on the blending with petroleum-based diesel. In
terms of emulsifying, biodiesel is also potentially prone
to hydrolytic degradation which is caused by the pres-
ence of water [23]. Biodiesel contaminated with water
can result in engine corrosion. To avoid this negative
effect, ASTM D 6751 set the maximum allowable con-
tent of 0.05% for water in biodiesel [24]. Anyway, in this
study, the value of water content of biodiesel is very low
compared to the minimum standard limitation. In terms
of TAN, Fan et al. [24] also reported that TAN is used as
a guide in the quality control as well as monitoring oil
degradation during storage period. Other physicochemi-
cal properties comply with the values of standards speci-
fication.
4. Conclusion
This research work, however, employs the optimum con-
dition for methanolysis process namely 1% wt of catalyst,
50 min of reaction time, and a hundred percent of stoi-
chiometric excess of methanol to oil, which is equal to
6:1 molar ratio to obtain the maximum percent conver-
sion of biodiesel production under various reaction tem-
peratures. The highest yield of biodiesel is 99%. The
similar condition is also achieved for the kinematic vis-
cosity, density, and flash point studies. The entire ana-
lyzed physicochemical properties of product showed that
the biodiesel properties favour the commercial require-
ments, in particular for diesel engine application.
5. Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledged all parties which contributed
in this research work, and a special thank for PT. Arun
NGL management which has allowed the authors for
using the lab facilities in conducting some analysis of
biodiesel properties.
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Copyright © 2013 SciRes. SGRE
... The fossil fuel depletion, the demand of fuel and the uncertainty of resource availability is a serious trigger to search for alternative fuel to replace the fossil fuel [1]. As fuel alternative, biodiesel takes a significant role in reducing accumulation of green house gas in atmosphere and keep a benign environmental [2]. Furthermore, Jung., et al. [3] revealed that during the few years ago, environmental pollution and shortage of fossil fuels have been an interest topic, and research on alternative fuels have received much attention. ...
... Other researchers reported that the nowadays serious problem for biodiesel production is the high price of green feedstock which leads to a highly impact on the biodiesel price. Using of waste based feedstock is carried out to anticipate such situation [2]. ...
... It has been estimated that biodiesel, and more specifically bio-ethanol, could supplant roughly 10% of the diesel fuel consumed within European continent total fuel demand [1]- [3]. The alternative fuel that will replace part or all of the petroleum diesel fuel must be in fact attainable, economically competitive, ecologically satisfactory, and promptly accessible [1], [4], [5]. A considerable lot of these essentials are met by vegetable oils, or by and large, by triglycerides. ...
... Substantial amounts of utilized frying oil are accessible all through the world. In Jordan the amount of UFO range 320 million liters/year and in the US alone the amount of UFO ranges from 5 billion to 12 billion liters a year [2]- [4]. in some places, frying oil used in the manufacturing of soap also as an additive for fodder preparation. ...
... It has been estimated that biodiesel, and more specifically bio-ethanol, could supplant roughly 10% of the diesel fuel consumed within European continent total fuel demand [1]- [3]. The alternative fuel that will replace part or all of the petroleum diesel fuel must be in fact attainable, economically competitive, ecologically satisfactory, and promptly accessible [1], [4], [5]. A considerable lot of these essentials are met by vegetable oils, or by and large, by triglycerides. ...
... Substantial amounts of utilized frying oil are accessible all through the world. In Jordan the amount of UFO range 320 million liters/year and in the US alone the amount of UFO ranges from 5 billion to 12 billion liters a year [2]- [4]. in some places, frying oil used in the manufacturing of soap also as an additive for fodder preparation. ...
Article
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Abestract-In this research, biodiesel was prepared from used frying oil (UFO) by transesterification reaction in the presence of impregnation of Jordan zeolite (JOZ) with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The transesterification process is optimized by modify the JOZ catalyst concentration and the conversion of UFO to biodiesel exceeds 95% when using 1:6 molar ratio of oil to methanol at 600C, time of reaction 3hr and 5.5% solid catalyst.. The biodiesel is analyzed by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry and the result are confirm by FTIR spectral, which evidence the being of linoleic acid as the main constituent. The physical and chemical characteristic of biodiesel were analyzed to guarantee that the product meets the standards of fuel characteristic. The standard utilized was ASTM D 6751 and was used to measure the whole specific properties of biofeul. The properties of biodiesel obtained were within the range of specified limitations. The research appear that biodiesel daraived from UFO was of good quality and could be used as a diesel fuel which count as renewable energy and environmental recycling process from west oil after frying.
... The transformation of crop triglycerides into methyl ester (ME) occurs in the presence of a catalyst. The catalyst can be an alkali, acid or enzyme, and its type depends on the properties of feedstock and conditions of the reaction [6] [7]. ...
... Rtx-5MS 30 m × 0.25 mm ID, 0.25 µm with helium at 137.7 ml/minute as a carrier gas and 1:100 of split ratio.The entire physical and chemical properties (such as: density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, saponification number, acid value, iodine value, calorific value, moisture content, and pour point) analysis were carried out using ASTM D6751[7]. ...
... Used cooking oil, cleaned from impurities, was analyzed by GCMS to determine the components of its constituent compounds. The composition of used cooking oil as a result of the analysis was then compared with the results of an experiment conducted by Syam et al. [33] and Banani et al. [34], and is presented in Table 5. The results of the GCMS analysis in Table 5 show the differences in fatty acid composition. ...
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The production of biodiesel using zeolite catalysts from geothermal solid waste has been studied. This study aims to make zeolite catalysts as catalysts in biodiesel production, assessing the effect of catalyst concentration, and temperature in the esterification–transesterification process on the biodiesel yield produced. The results showed that the synthesized zeolite catalyst was an analcime zeolite catalyst (Al1.9Na1.86O12Si4). The biodiesel yield of 98.299% with 100% fatty acid alkyl ester (FAAE) content was achieved at a catalyst concentration of 5%wt and a reaction temperature of 300 °C for one-hour reaction time. The yield of biodiesel decreased with repeated catalysts, which experienced morphological changes before and after three usage times. Consequently, in this case, the catalyst cannot be regenerated.
... The physicochemical characteristic such as acid value and moisture content of yeast oil and WCO was estimated according to the AOCS Cd 3d-63 and AOCS Ca 2b-38 standard methods [45,46]. The molecular weight was determined based on the fatty acid composition [47]. ...
... If the process used alkaline catalyst, the process needs reaction time of 2-4 hours for complete reaction to biodiesel production. Several researchers was reported that the better results and industrial scale, the alkaline catalyst is the most commonly used due to low cost, easy to install and shorter reaction time [14][15]. In recent years, ultrasound a useful tool for strengthening the mass transfer of the liquid-liquid systems, has gained much more interest of many researchers [13]. ...
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The biodiesel synthesis through alcoholysis process of triglyceride from Jatropha curcas using different type of alcohol, such as: methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol and tert-butanol, was conducted in the presence of potassium hydroxide (KOH) as catalyst under 35 kHz frequency ultrasound irradiation. The optimum conditions, such as: alcohol to jatropha oil molar ratio, concentration of catalyst, reaction temperature, and reaction time, were found to be 7:1 of alcohol to jatropha oil molar ratio, 0.5 % of KOH, temperature of reaction at 35 0C, within the reaction times of 15 minutes. The results obtained for the different types of alcohol were 62.77 %, 57.93 %, 51.64 %, and 46.77 % for methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and tert-butanol, respectively. Copyright © 2017 BCREC Group. All rights reserved Received: 11st November 2016; Revised: 8th March 2017; Accepted: 9th March 2017; Available online: 27th October 2017; Published regularly: December 2017 How to Cite: Irwan, M., Saidi, H., Rachman, M.A., Ramli, R., Marlinda, M. (2017). Rapid Alcoholysis of Jatropha Curcas Oil for Biodiesel Production Using Ultrasound Irradiation. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 12 (3): 306-311 (doi:10.9767/bcrec.12.3.801.306-311)
... If the process used alkaline catalyst, the process needs reaction time of 2-4 hours for complete reaction to biodiesel production. Several researchers was reported that the better results and industrial scale, the alkaline catalyst is the most commonly used due to low cost, easy to install and shorter reaction time [14][15]. In recent years, ultrasound a useful tool for strengthening the mass transfer of the liquid-liquid systems, has gained much more interest of many researchers [13]. ...
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This article was retracted due to the following reasons. Retraction note here: https://doi.org/10.9767/bcrec.12.2.1202.App.7 RETRACTION TO:Dhal, G.C., Dey, S., Prasad, R., Mohan, D. (2017). Simultaneous Elimination of Soot and NOX through Silver-Barium Based Catalytic Materials. Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis, 12 (1): 71-80 (doi:10.9767/bcrec.12.1.647.71-80)This article has been retracted by Publisher based on the following reason:Letter to Editor from Prof. James J. Spivey (Department of Chemical Engineering, Louisiana State University) who reported that a comparison of this paper with a previously paper published in Catalysis Today (258 (2015) 405-415, doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2015.02.024) shows significant duplication according to analysis by iThenticate shows 73% similarity, which is far more than acceptable. The authors have plagiarized part of the paper that had already published in [Catalysis Today (258 (2015) 405-415, doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2015.02.024)]. Based on clarification via email, Authors of the above paper have admitted their plagiarism to the previously published paper by Catalysis Today.Editor of Bulletin of Chemical Reaction Engineering & Catalysis acknowledged Prof. James J. Spivey due to the valuable Letter to Editor.One of the conditions of submission of a paper for publication in this journal is that authors declare explicitly that their work is original and has not appeared in a publication elsewhere. Re-use of any data should be appropriately cited. As such this article represents a severe abuse of the scientific publishing system. The scientific community takes a very strong view on this matter and apologies are offered to readers of the journal that this was not detected during the submission process.
... Fatty acid quantitative was determined by using a Hitachi G-5000A GC (gas chromatography), analysis is performed for identifying the hydrocarbon compounds such as fatty acids and methyl esters. The separation is carried out by using capillary column Rtx-5MS 30 m × 0.25 mm ID, 0.25 µm with helium at 137.7 ml/min as a carrier gas and 1:100 of split ratio [19]. ...
Chapter
Expanded ecological mindfulness and consumption of assets are driving industry to make option fuels from renewable resources that are naturally more available. Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel. Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel that produced from vegetable oils, reused cooking oils, or animal fats. Biodiesel contrasted with ordinary diesel is in fact and financially more focused in light of its renewability, biodegradability, low emission profile, nontoxic and high flash point. Furthermore, biodiesel expands lubricity which prolongs motor life and decreases the recurrence of motor parts substitutions. The primary issue retards utilizing vegetable oil as fuel is its more prominent viscosity adjacent to low volatility and awful cold flow properties which influence the legitimate operation of the diesel engine. The properties of vegetable oils can be enhanced by distinctive routes, for example, pyrolysis, dilution with fluid hydrocarbon (blending), small scale emulsification and transesterification. Out of these four systems, tranesterification is the most reasonable and practical method to decrease viscosities of vegetable oils and produces alkyl esters with properties practically identical to diesel. The primary preferences of utilizing biodiesel as 100% alkyl ester of vegetable oils or fats or biodiesel mix (up to 20% to the diesel fuel) are delivering less smoke and particulates and decreasing the generation of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Many conventional (sunflower, safflower; soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed, and palm), and unconventional (Jatropha and Moringa) oil crops have been studied and are thought to be a good fuel for diesel engines. Transesterification is a procedure of rearranging the fatty esters (oils or fats). It happens basically by an alcohol (methanol or ethanol). It speaks to a harmony which can be moved towards changing fatty ester by utilizing catalyst as a part of the vicinity of overabundance measures of alcohol. The primary results of transesterification are alkyl ester which represents biodiesel with the normal properties approaching to petroleum diesel; glycerol and fatty acids are by-products of great interest industrial applications. Changing conventional oils to biodiesel is a productive technique to obtain biodiesel with characteristics similar to fossil fuel. The extent of reagents along these lines influences the procedure regarding transformation proficiency and this variable contrasts as per the vegetable oil. Numerous vital variables impact the transesterification response, to be specific the response temperature, the sort and amount of catalyst, the proportion of alcohol to oil, the stirring rate, and the reaction time.
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Renewable vegetable fuels are spreading rapidly throughout Europe and North America. Because biodiesel fuel has now acquired an important market share, it is necessary to thoroughly examine aspects of its use not previously considered either at the research stage or when overhauling the production technology. One of these aspects is its medium-term storage. The object of the present work is to study the behavior of biodiesel under controlled storage conditions that simulate those found in reality. Samples of biodiesel were kept in the dark, at two different temperatures (20°C and 40°C), in both glass and iron containers. They were controlled by the parameters that indicate their state of oxidation. Another group of samples was stored in glass and kept under the conditions described above in the presence of increasing quantities of water to determine its influence on the formation of acidity.
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Many countries are promoting the use of biodiesel as a direct replacement for, or blend stock component with petroleum based diesel fuel using policy instruments that aim to gradually increase the use of vegetable oil biodiesel-diesel ratio from the current (or inexistent) blend to values among 15-20% by an specific upcoming year. For the particular use of palm oil as biomass raw material in the diesel-palm oil biodiesel (Diesel-POB) blend that goal could bring some difficulties because the high content of saturated fatty acids in POB could confer a problematic high cloud point to the fuel mixtures. On the other hand, the use of castor oil biodiesel in the blends could lower the cloud point value but, simultaneously, increase the viscosity of the diesel-biodiesel blends. In this article there were evaluated three properties (viscosity, cloud point and flash point) of binary mixtures castor oil biodiesel (COB), palm oil biodiesel (POB) and diesel fuel. It was also measured the cloud point for some ternary bends of Diesel/POB/COB. It was found that diesel-castor oil biodiesel (Diesel-COB) blends showed appropriate and approximately the same cloud point temperatures when the biodiesel concentration in those mixtures was under 40% in volume. The use of palm oil biodiesel-castor oil biodiesel (POB-COB) blends to obtain a type of pure biodiesel with both low cloud point and viscosity was not a practical option. Experimental data were also compared with the predictions of different published models for diesel-biodiesel mixtures. The general thermodynamic expressions used for estimation of viscosity and cloud point for liquid mixtures showed lower deviations from experimental values properties predictions from other proposed empirical models.
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A capacitance type densitometer was used to measure the densities of canola, jatropha and soapnut biodiesel and their blends at elevated temperatures and pressures. This densitometer is based on the principle that the capacitance of the liquid is proportional to the dielectric constant, which, in turn, is proportional to the density. Densities were measured from room temperature up to 523 K and from atmospheric pressure up to 7 MPa. The frequency output from the densitometer was found to have a linear relationship with temperature. It was found that density showed a linear relationship with temperature and pressure over the measured range. The measured data were regressed and the regression models were developed to represent densities as a function of temperature as well as pressure. The errors between measured and regressed densities of diesel and canola, jatropha, soapnut biodiesel were found to be less than 3%.
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Mixing is very important to the transesterification of beef tallow, because melted beef tallow and a sodium hydroxide–methanol solution (NaOH–MeOH) are immiscible. There was no reaction without mixing. When NaOH–MeOH was added to the melted beef tallow in the reactor while stirring, stirring speed was insignificant. Reaction time was the controlling factor in determining the yield of methyl esters. This suggested that the stirring speeds investigated exceeded the threshold requirement of mixing. When NaOH–MeOH was added to the melted beef tallow without stirring, higher stirring speeds or longer stirring times were needed to mix the two phases subsequently. In both cases, once the two phases were mixed and the reaction was started, stirring was no longer needed. Misek's equation was applicable to the former case. The droplet diameter was inversely proportional to the square of the rotation speed. But in the latter case, the droplet diameter was inversely proportional to n1.2. Smaller NaOH–MeOH droplets in melted beef tallow resulted in fast transesterification reaction and stable emulsion.
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A simple low cost method is proposed for the quantitative analysis of residual alcohol in biodiesel through determination of the flash point, with which it is correlated. Methyl ester biodiesels from vegetable oils such as corn, soy and sunflower were prepared. The ethyl ester was obtained from soy oil and methyl biodiesel was also synthesized from bovine fat. In all cases it became very evident that there is a direct correlation between the flash point and the residual alcohol content in the prepared biodiesel. Therefore this parameter can be used to directly determine the residual alcohol content of the product.
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Biodiesel, an alternative biodegradable diesel fuel, is derived from triglycerides by transesterification with alcohols. In this work, the transesterification of sunflower oil was investigated in supercritical methanol and supercritical ethanol at various temperatures (200–400 °C) at 200 bar. The rate coefficients and the activation energies of the reaction were also determined. Biodiesel was also enzymatically synthesized in supercritical carbon dioxide. The effect of enzyme loading, oil to alcohol ratio, reaction time and temperature was investigated. While nearly complete conversions were obtained for the thermal reactions in supercritical methanol and ethanol, only 30% conversions were obtained in the enzyme-catalyzed reactions in supercritical carbon dioxide.
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Biodiesel is synthesized via the transesterification of lipid feedstocks with low molecular weight alcohols. Currently, alkaline bases are used to catalyze the reaction. These catalysts require anhydrous conditions and feedstocks with low levels of free fatty acids (FFAs). Inexpensive feedstocks containing high levels of FFAs cannot be directly used with the base catalysts currently employed. Strong liquid acid catalysts are less sensitive to FFAs and can simultaneously conduct esterification and transesterification. However, they are slower and necessitate higher reaction temperatures. Nonetheless, acid-catalyzed processes could produce biodiesel from low-cost feedstocks, lowering production costs. Better yet, if solid acid catalysts could replace liquid acids, the corrosion and environmental problems associated with them could be avoided and product purification protocols reduced, significantly simplifying biodiesel production and reducing cost. This article reviews some of the research related to biodiesel production using acid catalysts, including solid acids.
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Used frying oils are a good alternative for biodiesel production but their treatment is more complex than fresh vegetable oils. Used frying oils contain a large amount of free fatty acids, so an esterification step is necessary before transesterification. This reaction is usually carried out in batch reactors with pressure and temperature conditions (ambient pressure and 60 °C) where the esterification reaction acts as the limiting step of the production. The aim of this work was to investigate the acidity removal and the subsequent transesterification at different temperatures and mole ratios in a batch reactor in order to improve the biodiesel production from used frying oils.The influence of temperature was studied in order to know the kinetics of esterification. The reaction rate increased when the temperature was increased. The experimental results were found to fit a first-order kinetic law for the forward reaction and a second-order for the reverse reaction.The influence of temperature was found to be insignificant on the transesterification reaction. Nevertheless, methanol/oil mole ratio influenced up to 6.0:1. The influence of upper mole ratios was insignificant on the FAME content evolution.Based on the experimental results, biodiesel from used frying oil did not fulfil all the specifications from EN 14214 Standard due to the chemical modifications in the oil during cooking (presence of polar compounds). Therefore, biodiesel was proposed for use in combustion processes or in blends with biodiesel from other vegetable oils or even animal fats, which had not undergone chemical modifications.
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The specific gravities of biodiesel and 75, 50, and 20% blends with No. 1 and No. 2 diesel fuels were measured as a function of temperature from the onset of crystallization to 100°C. The results indicate that biodiesel and its blends demonstrate temperature-dependent behavior that is qualitively similar to the diesel fuels. The temperature dependence of the specific gravity for biodiesel and its blends was compared with the ASTM D 1250-80 procedure for the temperature correction of hydrocarbon fuels, and the procedure was found to provide accurate corrections. A blending equation was developed that allows the specific gravity of blends to be calculated from the specific gravities of the biodiesel and diesel fuels.