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‘Four Seasons’ in an animal rescue centre; classical music reduces environmental stress in kennelled dogs
Abstract
On admission to rescue and rehoming centres dogs are faced with a variety of short- and long-term stressors including novelty, spatial/social restriction and increased noise levels. Animate and inanimate environmental enrichment techniques have been employed within the kennel environment in an attempt to minimise stress experienced by dogs. Previous studies have shown the potential physiological and psychological benefits of auditory stimulation, particularly classical music, within the kennel environment. This study determined the physiological/psychological changes that occur when kennelled dogs are exposed to long-term (7days) auditory stimulation in the form of classical music through assessment of effects on heart rate variability (HRV), salivary cortisol and behaviour. The study utilised a cross over design in which two groups were exposed to two consecutive 7day treatments; silence (control) and classical music (test). Group A was studied under silent conditions followed by 7days of test conditions during which a fixed classical music playlist was played from 10:00-16:30h. Group B received treatment in the reverse order. Results showed that auditory stimulation induced changes in HRV and behavioural data indicative of reduced stress levels in dogs in both groups (salivary cortisol data did not show any consistent patterns of change throughout the study). Specifically, there was a significant increase in HRV parameters such as μRR, STDRR, RMSSD, pNN50, RRTI, SD1 and SD2 and a significant decrease in μHR and LF/HF from the first day of silence (S1) to the first day of music (M1). Similarly, examination of behavioural data showed that dogs in both groups spent significantly more time sitting/lying and silent and less time standing and barking during auditory stimulation. General Regression Analysis (GRA) of the change in HRV parameters from S1 to M1 revealed that male dogs responded better to auditory stimulation relative to female. Interestingly, HRV and behavioural data collected on the seventh day of music (M2) was similar to that collected on S1 suggesting that the calming effects of music are lost within the 7days of exposure. A small '9-Day' study was conducted in attempt to determine the time-scale in which dogs become habituated to classical music and examination of the results suggests that this occurs within as soon as the second day of exposure. The results of this study show the potential of auditory stimulation as a highly effective environmental enrichment technique for kennelled dogs. However, the results also indicate the requirement for further investigations into the way in which auditory stimulation should be incorporated within the daily kennel management regime in order to harness the full physiological and psychological benefits of music.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc.
... Music, especially classical music, seems to exert a beneficial effect as an enrichment method in animal species such as bovines [13], pigs [13,14] and rats [15][16][17]. In dogs, classical music appears to reduce environmental stress both in kennelled [18][19][20][21][22][23][24] and owned dogs during a visit to the veterinary hospital [25]. However, the authors are aware of only four studies that aimed to evaluate the impact of music in domestic animals when anaesthetic agents were administered in dogs under sedation [26], in cats [27,28] and in dogs under general anaesthesia [29]. ...
... Classical music seems to evoke desirable responses in cats under general anaesthesia [27,28] and dogs [18,19,21,23,24]. Dogs seem to prefer slow rhythm music [20,[22][23][24][25], just like humans, to whom slow tempos between 60 and 80 beats per minute elicit beneficial responses [8,12]. Finally, the volume of musical stimulus is always set by the patient in human medicine [1,2], and sound volume levels of 60-70 dB have been proposed [6,30]. ...
... However, acoustic stimuli >80 dB seem to have a negative impact on bovine [13], pigs [31], rats [32,33] and hens [34], while, in dogs, when sedated with dexmedetomidine, the quality of sedation was negatively affected by an acoustic stimulus (noise conditions) of 80-85 dB [26]. On the other hand, musical stimuli of 43-73 dB in non-sedated dogs [20,21,[23][24][25]35] and classical music of <80 dB in cats under general anaesthesia [27,28] have shown a beneficial effect. ...
The main objective of this prospective, randomized, blind, cross-over experimental study was to evaluate the effect of classical music on the depth of sedation and propofol requirements for the induction of anaesthesia in dogs. Twenty dogs were involved, and each was subjected to three different treatments with a 3-month gap: Chopin music, Mozart music, and no music, via loudspeakers. The dogs were premedicated with acepromazine and butorphanol by intramuscular injection, and anaesthesia was induced using propofol intravenously. To compare the depth of sedation and propofol requirements for the induction of anaesthesia among the different treatments, we utilized non-parametric tests (Kruskal–Wallis test) for the depth of sedation due to a slight deviation from the normal distribution and parametric (ANOVA) for propofol requirements. When exposed to music (Chopin or Mozart), dogs exhibited deeper sedation and required less propofol for their intubation compared to the no-music treatment (p < 0.05). Exposure to classical music had a positive impact on the level of sedation, and more profound central nervous system depression seemed to contribute to approximately 20% lower propofol dose requirements for tracheal intubation. Therefore, classical music during the preoperative period appeared to exert a beneficial effect, at least when applying the specific pre-anaesthetic medications used in the present study.
... Several studies have explored the use of auditory enrichment to change dogs' behavior and reduce noise in shelter kennels (Wells et al. 2002;Kogan et al. 2012;Bowman et al. 2015;Brayley and Montrose 2016;Bowman et al. 2017), focusing on certain genres of music or types of sound, often those that are perceived as pleasant and mood-enhancing to humans (Rickard et al. 2005). Wells et al. (2002) investigated the impacts of classical, heavy metal, and pop music; human conversation on the radio; and a control condition of no auditory enrichment on the dogs' behavior. ...
... One consistent limitation of the aforementioned studies is the duration of the auditory intervention. Bowman et al. (2015) addressed this concern when they tested the effects of a classical music compilation compared to a noadditional-sound control. Both conditions lasted for six-and-a-half hours a day over seven days with dogs' in-kennel behavior observed twice daily for one-and-a-half hours, first in the morning and then again in the afternoon. ...
... While no changes in cortisol were found with the addition of music, changes in heart rate and HRV, which indicate stress reduction, were identified. Bowman et al. (2015) also investigated whether dogs habituate to auditory stimulation, another point of interest to shelters. They found that the behavioral and HRV effects of classical music began to diminish in as quickly as one day, suggesting that while classical music may be effective in improving welfare, rotating the selections that dogs are exposed to each day is important in maintaining those benefits over their stay. ...
Dogs experience a variety of stressors within the shelter that could negatively impact their welfare. The use of enrichment interventions that provide social interaction, either with a human or canine; object enrichment; and sensory stimulation (auditory, olfactory, or visual) is necessary for dogs living in animal shelters, along with the assessment of engagement and determination of benefits. There are a wide range of sampling and measurement techniques for monitoring enrichment usage and its behavioral effects, and such efforts are only worthwhile if the data being collected are used. Data‐informed decisions about which enrichment types are provided, on both the shelter‐wide and individual dog levels, must be consistently re‐evaluated based on the current population of dogs and can allow shelters to most usefully employ their resources and best serve the dogs in their care.
... Cortisol levels tend to remain elevated for extended periods during times of extreme or prolonged stress. Heart rate monitoring, including measuring heart rate variability, may be as useful as cortisol measurement for assessing physiologic changes in acutely stressful situations (Bergamasco et al., 2010;Bowman et al., 2015Bowman et al., , 2017. Heart rate is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and also naturally elevates in times of arousal whether it be stress or play. ...
... Other physiological assessment methods included heart rate monitoring Bowman et al., 2015;Bergamasco et al., 2010;Gunter, 2018;Bowman et al., 2017), activity level measurement via accelerometers (Jones et al., 2014), prolactin level (Gutiérrez et al., 2019), plasma ACTH concentration (Hennessy et al., 2002), and measurement of oxidative stress parameters (Cafazzo et al., 2014;Passantino et al., 2014;Corsetti et al., 2018). Three studies assessed oxidative stress in serum via the diacron reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs) test. ...
... Four studies looked at the effect of music or audio recordings on stress levels (Hypes, 2015;Bowman et al., 2017Bowman et al., , 2015Brayley and Montrose, 2016) and one looked at the effects of reducing noise in the kennels by restricting visitor access (Hewison et al., 2014). Brayley and Montrose (2016) and Hypes (2015) used an ethogram to evaluate differences in stress related behaviors between dogs exposed to audio recordings and a control group consisting of dogs not exposed to the recordings. ...
The aim of this scoping review was to consolidate information pertaining to welfare and quality of life assessments of shelter dogs. Specific objectives were to identify and characterize types of welfare assessment instruments, discuss circumstances where welfare and quality of life assessments are used, and identify research gaps. A comprehensive search strategy was implemented in five databases. Literature published globally between the years 2000 and 2020 was identified using specific search terms. Abstracts and full papers were screened, relevant articles obtained, and welfare assessment methods characterized. Of 670 unique citations identified, 43 met the inclusion criteria of including a welfare or quality of life assessment for shelter dogs. There were 16 different assessment tools used to evaluate welfare and quality of life in shelter dogs. Ethogram-based assessment tools, five of which were validated, were used in 37 publications. Physiological based assessment methods were used to assess welfare in 26 publications. Overall, assessment tools were used to either evaluate a dog’s acclimation to the shelter environment or evaluate welfare interventions. Several validated tools were identified that could be useful to shelters depending on need. The Multi-Operator Qualitative Behavioral Assessment and the Quality of Life Assessment are tools allowing for quick welfare assessments by shelter staff, while the Shelter Quality Protocol and the Shelter Quality Protocol 2 are more comprehensive welfare assessments, which require some experience or training in shelter management. The review identified few papers that evaluated the effects of chronic stress on dogs housed in a shelter environment long-term. Therefore, welfare of these dogs should be a priority for future studies. The range of assessment methods underscores the complexity of evaluating welfare and quality of life in different types of sheltering environments.
... However, dogs spent the most time silent during the classical music track with the fastest tempo and the least during the control. Bowman et al. [11] exposed shelter dogs to classical music with low pitch and slow tempo, and found that when listening to music, they spent more time lying down and less time barking compared to when there was no music played. This differs from our findings, as we did not find significant differences in activity when dogs were exposed to slow tempo music and found a trend for low pitch music to cause dogs to be more alert. ...
... This differs from our findings, as we did not find significant differences in activity when dogs were exposed to slow tempo music and found a trend for low pitch music to cause dogs to be more alert. However, in the Bowman et al. [11] study, different pitches and tempi were not compared. ...
... It could have been expected that further treatment differences in behaviour would be found, especially between slow tempo tracks, and the control. Many studies have shown that classical music exposure promotes behaviours suggestive of increased relaxation in shelter dogs (e.g., increased resting and reduced vocalisation) [9][10][11]. Bowman et al. [38] found that, when music was played, dogs spent less time standing and more time lying down (largely regardless of genre). ...
Confinement can be stressful for some dogs and this can lead to behavioural issues and poor welfare. A key component of the stress response is behavioural arousal, characterised by increased alertness and sensory sensitivity. This makes behavioural observations a useful tool to assess stress, as they provide insight into an animal’s internal state. Auditory enrichment has been shown to reduce arousal-related behaviour in dogs, but it is not clear if specific characteristics of a music track, such as tempo and/or pitch, produce these effects. The aim of this study was to compare behavioural responses of dogs to music tracks played with different characteristics (high pitch, low pitch, fast tempo, and slow tempo), as well as white noise and a control. Pitch and tempo modifications were applied to ten piano music songs and the six treatments (four different treatment-song combinations, white noise, and control) were presented daily, for ten minutes each, to ten dogs over ten days. Behavioural changes seemed to be driven by low-pitch tracks, which increased the level of alertness of the dogs. These findings could be related to the Morton’s motivations-structural rules: harsh, low frequency vocalisations signal aggressive motivations in mammals. Dogs may have perceived low-pitch tracks as more unsettling and were therefore more active and alert when listening to them.
... HRV has been shown to be an effective tool to measure the sympathetic and parasympathetic balance of the ANS (van Ravenswaaij-Arts, 1993;Thayer et al., 2010). HRV reflects variance in time intervals in successive heartbeats, indicating the organism's capacity to regulate internal and external demands (van Ravenswaaij-Arts, 1993;Jarczok et al., 2015;Mccraty and Shaffer, 2015;Shaffer and Ginsberg, 2017 Assessing canine emotional states by implementing HRV indices has been gaining research popularity in recent years (Bergamasco et al., 2010;Gácsi et al., 2013;Bowman et al., 2015;Katayama et al., 2016;Travain et al., 2016;Zupan et al., 2016;McGowan et al., 2018;Köster et al., 2019). It has been proposed that HRV parameters might be sensitive indicators of emotional Nonlinear measures SD1 ms 2 Poincaré plot representing the standard deviation perpendicular to the line of identity (the standard deviation of instantaneous beat-to-beat R-R interval variability) (Tulppo et al., 1996) SD2 ms 2 Poincaré plot representing the standard deviation along the line of identity (the standard deviation of continuous long-term R-R interval variability) (Tulppo et al., 1996) ApEn Approximate entropy, quantifying the regularity and complexity of a time series (Pincus et al., 1991) SampEn Sample entropy estimates the regularity and complexity of a time series (Richman and Moorman, 2000) DFA α1 ...
... Detrended fluctuation analysis, reflecting short-term fluctuations (Peng et al., 1995;Ho et al., 1997) DFA α2 Detrended fluctuation analysis, reflecting long-term fluctuations (Peng et al., 1995;Ho et al., 1997) D 2 Correlation dimension measures the minimum number of variables required to construct a model of system dynamics valence (Katayama et al., 2016) and tend to be less affected by physical activity compared to HR (Maros et al., 2008). Positive-emotion-eliciting stimuli, such as food, human-dog interaction, and listening to music, all resulted in changes of HRV parameters in dogs (Bergamasco et al., 2010;Bowman et al., 2015;Travain et al., 2016;Zupan et al., 2016;McGowan et al., 2018). ...
... Exposure to auditory stimuli in the form of classical music resulted, among others, in mean RR, STDRR, RMSSD, pNN50, SD1, SD2 increase, and LF/HF decrease, indicating parasympathetic nervous system dominance and stressbuffering effects of music on dogs in a stressful environment (Bowman et al., 2015;Köster et al., 2019). Zupan et al. (2016) studied the effects of positive stimuli on cardiac responses in dogs using higher-versus lower-valued food and social reward (familiar and less familiar person). ...
Although there have been a growing number of studies focusing on dog welfare, the research field concerning dog positive-emotion assessment remains mostly unexplored. This paper aims to provide a state-of-the-art review and summary of the scattered and disperse research on dog positive-emotion assessment. The review notably details the current advancement in dog positive-emotion research, what approaches, measures, methods, and techniques have been implemented so far in emotion perception, processing, and response assessment. Moreover, we propose possible future research directions for short-term emotion as well as longer-term emotional states assessment in dogs. The review ends by identifying and addressing some methodological limitations and by pointing out further methodological research needs.
... Behavioural responses to stress consist of increased arousal [5,6], which in turn results in heightened sensory sensitivity and alertness, the production of corticosteroids and increased heart rate (HR) [7]. Stress in animals can be monitored in various ways, such as behavioural observation, which provides external indicators of an animal's internal state [8] and the response to its surroundings, physiological measures such as the amount of circulating glucocorticoids [9] and heart rate variability (HRV) [10]. HRV is a useful indicator of ANS activity [11] and has the advantage of being measured non-invasively [10,12] (externally and without puncturing the skin). ...
... HRV is assessed through several time domains, frequency domains and non-linear parameters (Table 1). RMSSD ms Root mean square of differences between successive RR intervals [12] Increases with vagal activity [11] pNN50 % Percentage of successive RR interval pairs which differ by more than 50 ms [9] Increases with vagal activity [11] Frequency domain LF ms 2 LF/HF Low frequency/high frequency ratio Mix of vagal and sympathetic activity [16] Non-linear SD1 ms Standard deviation 1 of the Poincare Plot-short-term HRV [11] Increases with vagal activity [24] SD2 ms Standard deviation 2 of the Poincare Plot-long-term HRV [11] Mix of vagal and sympathetic activity [24] * Unit abbreviations: ms: milliseconds, bpm: beats per minute, %: percentage, ms 2 : milliseconds squared, n.u.: normalised units. ...
... Wells et al. [48] played different types of music (Classical, Heavy Metal and Pop), as well as human conversation, and found that dogs exposed to classical music spent more time resting and less time standing than dogs exposed to the other treatments. In Bowman et al. [9], the initial effects of classical music compared to a silent control, were a reduction in vocalisation and increase in time lying down, but dogs habituated to the stimuli by the second day of exposure. ...
Animal shelters can be stressful environments and time in care may affect individual dogs in negative ways, so it is important to try to reduce stress and arousal levels to improve welfare and chance of adoption. A key element of the stress response is the activation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and a non-invasive tool to measure this activity is heart rate variability (HRV). Physiologically, stress and arousal result in the production of corticosteroids, increased heart rate and decreased HRV. Environmental enrichment can help to reduce arousal related behaviours in dogs and this study focused on sensory environmental enrichment using olfactory and auditory stimuli with shelter dogs. The aim was to determine if these stimuli have a physiological effect on dogs and if this could be detected through HRV. Sixty dogs were allocated to one of three stimuli groups: lavender, dog appeasing pheromone and music or a control group, and usable heart rate variability data were obtained from 34 dogs. Stimuli were applied for 3 h a day on five consecutive days, with HRV recorded for 4 h (treatment period + 1 h post-treatment) on the 5th and last day of exposure to the stimuli by a Polar® heart rate monitor attached to the dog’s chest. HRV results suggest that music activates both branches of the ANS, which may be useful to relieve both the stress and boredom in shelter environments.
... vocalisation [20,21]. However, over the period of a week dogs can habituate to classical music if the same music is repetitively played [22]. In a study comparing different music genres (soft rock, motown, pop, reggae and classical music) changed daily, shelter dogs spent more time lying down in all of these except for reggae, when compared to a silent period [23]. ...
... Older dogs are less likely to explore their environment [48], sleep more during the day and less at night [54] and urinate more frequently [54]. However, some studies have not found differences in dog behaviour due to their sex and age [22,55,56]. It is also important to consider the lengths of dogs' stay in shelters, since they may adapt and the environment may become familiar over time [57][58][59], with some [21,58,60] but not all [55,57] studies showing a reduction in activity over time. ...
... A final night period was observed between 18.00 and 09.00 h on the following day, except for day 5 when recoding finished at midnight. Our behavioural observations used cameras, detailed below, and were therefore completed without disturbing the dogs [62], providing a measure of the animal's response to its surroundings, indicative of its stress response [22]. ...
Shelter environments are stressful for dogs, as they must cope with many stimuli over which they have little control. This can lead to behavioural changes, negatively affect their welfare and downgrade the human‐animal bond, affecting re-homing success. Arousal is evident in their behaviour, particularly increased activity and frequent vocalisation. Environmental enrichment plays an important role in reducing arousal behaviour, either through direct physiological effects or by masking stressful stimuli. The present study focused on sensory environmental enrichment, using olfactory and auditory stimuli under shelter conditions. Sixty dogs were allocated to one of four treatments: three types of enrichment, Lavender, Dog appeasing pheromone (DAP) and Music, and a Control group. Stimuli were applied for 3 h/d on five consecutive days. Dogs exposed to DAP lay down more, and those exposed to Music lay down more with their head down, compared to the Control. Those in the Control stood more on their hind legs with their front legs on the exit door, compared to those exposed to Music and DAP, particularly if they had only been in the shelter for a short time. They also panted and vocalised much more than dogs in the three enrichment treatments, which tended to persist during the 4 h period post treatment, and in the case of vocalisation into the subsequent night. The study suggests that all three enrichments had some positive benefits for dogs in shelters, as well as being non-invasive and easy to apply in the shelter environment.
... 13 This concept of conditioning was also investigated by Bowmen et al. (2015) where dogs were exposed to classical music over a 9-day period. 11 Over this longer time frame, conditioning did occur, with the shifting from a sympathetic to parasympathetic state no longer demonstrable after 7 days and the dogs becoming refractory to the positive effects of classical music. 11 Both acclimatisation (becoming accustomed to a particular environment) and habitualisation (repeated exposure to a stimulus resulting in a reduced response to said stimulus) might reduce the observed effects of music in the long term. ...
... 11 Over this longer time frame, conditioning did occur, with the shifting from a sympathetic to parasympathetic state no longer demonstrable after 7 days and the dogs becoming refractory to the positive effects of classical music. 11 Both acclimatisation (becoming accustomed to a particular environment) and habitualisation (repeated exposure to a stimulus resulting in a reduced response to said stimulus) might reduce the observed effects of music in the long term. However, this is not likely to be important in the context of a veterinary practice where patients are usually admitted for short periods. ...
... 9-14 When exposed to classical music, dogs spent more time resting, sleeping and lying down, and less time vocalising, standing and displaying postures involving motion. [9][10][11][12][13] Physiological data also showed that classical music significantly lowered heart rate and prompted changes in HRV which indicates parasympathetic nervous system dominance. [11][12][13][14] All six studies concluded that these behavioural and physiological changes represent a lowering of stress levels and inferred that exposure to classical music enhanced the welfare of the study participants. ...
Clinical scenario:
Classical music has been extensively studied and acknowledged for its ability to reduce stress and improve patient outcomes in human medicine. It has also been shown to influence the disposition of many captive species within the animal kingdom. Some studies have hypothesised that classical music can also benefit dogs, offering the potential to provide a simple and cost-effective method to improve patient outcomes and canine welfare when dogs are placed in unfamiliar and potentially stressful environments. This critical appraisal examines the current evidence available on the use of classical music for the purpose of stress reduction in hospitalised dogs.
Clinical bottom line:
Based on six experimental studies, there is only weak evidence which demonstrates that exposure to classical music reduces stress in hospitalised dogs undergoing veterinary intervention. However; it was shown that classical music has the ability to significantly influence specific behaviours and physiological parameters that have been associated with the canine stress response such as heart rate variability, level of vocalisation and time spent resting.
... In another example, 'fast music' (rock music) was shown to decrease daily growth rates in pigs, while 'slow music' (light music) had no effect upon growth rate [11]. Finally, animals may become habituated to music, and therefore any effects may decrease over time [12]. Hence, properly controlled experiments, designed with the target population and outcome response clearly defined, are required to achieve the best outcome when implementing music therapy in veterinary medicine. ...
... Fewer studies examined health and/or physiological measures. Three studies examined heart rate variability, with all three finding significant changes with exposure to music [12,17,20]. Two studies examined circulating cortisol concentrations, with one finding no difference in salivary cortisol concentrations as a result of exposure to classical music [12], and the other finding increased urinary cortisol concentrations with exposure to soft rock music [17]. ...
... Three studies examined heart rate variability, with all three finding significant changes with exposure to music [12,17,20]. Two studies examined circulating cortisol concentrations, with one finding no difference in salivary cortisol concentrations as a result of exposure to classical music [12], and the other finding increased urinary cortisol concentrations with exposure to soft rock music [17]. ...
Music therapy yields many positive health outcomes in humans, but the effects of music on the health and welfare of nonhuman animals vary greatly with the type of music played, the ethology of the species, and the personality and learning history of individual animals. One context in which music therapy may be used to enhance animal welfare is to alleviate stress in domestic environments. Here, we review studies of the effects of music exposure on dogs as a case study for the implementation of music therapy in veterinary medicine. Nine reports of experimental testing for the therapeutic effects of music on dogs were found, with most of these studies focusing on changes in behavior. Overall, exposure to classical music appears to have a calming influence on dogs in stressful environments, with no additional benefit observed from any music purposely designed for dogs (specifically "Through a dog's ear"). Given the cost effectiveness and ease of implementation, music therapy holds promise in veterinary medicine and animal welfare. However, to address precise research questions, further studies must use clearly defined characteristics of stimulus music in the experimental design, and consider the variability of each individual animal's physical characteristics and past experience in the selection of candidates.
... Some sounds, odours or images (e.g. using mirrors) can have calming effects, reducing agitation and increasing sleeping. For instance, classical music reduces stress in dogs (Bowman et al., 2015) and increases sleeping and decreases stereo-typic behaviours in horses (Huo et al., 2021) and lavender odour reduces motility in rats (reviewed by Wells, 2009). Other sounds, odours or images can have stimulatory effects, encouraging activity and seeking to approach the source of the stimulus. ...
... More specifically, Wells (2009) concluded that an enrichment should be more effective if it targets the dominant sense of the species, but it does not need to be linked to the species' natural habitat, and that the stimuli must not be harmful or stressful to animals. How long the animals show interest in stimuli should also be considered, because habituation to new stimuli often can occur within a few days (e.g. in 2 days in Waynert et al., 1999;Bowman et al., 2015), thus limiting the enrichment effect. ...
Environmental enrichment, that is making the environment of animals more complex, was first designed to enhance the welfare and cognitive abilities of captive animals, and was more recently applied to farm animals. Enrichments can be sensory, physical, social, occupational, feeding-based, or a mix of these, with a view to improve animals’ welfare. We posit that enrichments share the common factor of providing information to animals so that enrichment is all about providing the animal with a way to acquire information by interacting with the environment. Animals enjoy acquiring information, and the process of acquiring information acts in a way that enables them to better adapt to future environments. This reframed view of enrichment has several implications including prolonging the duration of exposure to an enrichment does not necessarily increase the impact of that enrichment, neutral and even slightly negative stimuli may still be enriching, complex and variable environments are enriching, and the more intensively an animal can engage with the environment, the more it will benefit from enrichments. These implications should be further explored by comprehensive re-analyses of findings from the enrichment literature and/or by dedicated experiments.
... The results obtained in the abovementioned studies and the present one tend to fit with those reported in other domestic and captive species, for which the playback of slow rhythm music, classical or 'New Age', seems to be associated with increased calm ([2] for a rev. for farm animals, dogs: [73][74][75]). Similar positive effects such as decreased agitation and increased relaxation (a general term covering measures such as increased respiration rate, decreased heart rate or quieter behaviors such as resting) have also been described in a variety of species including domestic dogs, cattle, pigs and chicks, as well as captive birds, elephants and gorillas [2,[73][74][75][76][77][78], although results can be contradictory and preferences for silence over music can be observed in some species (marmosets: [79]; orang-outans: [80]). ...
... for farm animals, dogs: [73][74][75]). Similar positive effects such as decreased agitation and increased relaxation (a general term covering measures such as increased respiration rate, decreased heart rate or quieter behaviors such as resting) have also been described in a variety of species including domestic dogs, cattle, pigs and chicks, as well as captive birds, elephants and gorillas [2,[73][74][75][76][77][78], although results can be contradictory and preferences for silence over music can be observed in some species (marmosets: [79]; orang-outans: [80]). Indeed, playback of music has been associated with increased growth rate in different species of fish, lower respiration rate in different mammals, increased milk yield in cows or relaxation in pregnant sows (review in [2,[81][82][83]). ...
(1) Background: Since antiquity, it is considered that sounds influence human emotional states and health. Acoustic enrichment has also been proposed for domestic animals. However, in both humans and animals, effects vary according to the type of sound. Human studies suggest that frequencies, more than melodies, play a key role. Low and high frequencies, music tuning frequency and even EEG slow waves used for ‘neurofeedback’ produce effects. (2) Methods: We tested the possible impact of such pure frequencies on racehorses’ behavior and physiology. A commercial non-audible acoustic stimulus, composed of an array of the above-mentioned frequencies, was broadcasted twice daily and for three weeks to 12 thoroughbred horses in their home stall. (3) Results: The results show a decrease in stereotypic behaviors and other indicators such as yawning or vacuum chewing, an increase in the time spent in recumbent resting and foraging, and better hematological measures during and after the playback phase for 4 of the 10 physiological parameters measured. (4) Conclusions: These results open new lines of research on possible ways of alleviating the stress related to housing and training conditions in racehorses and of improving physical recovery.
... For example, in dogs, positive anticipation and rewarding [10][11][12][13] as well as discomfort, anxiety and fear [14][15][16][17] have been associated with a decrease in HRV. Inversely, an increase in HRV has been linked to a more relaxed affective state in dogs [16,[18][19][20][21]. Furthermore, as evidenced in humans [22], the personality type can be reflected in the HRV in dogs. ...
... Emotional closeness (MDORS-EC), the aspect which measures how strong emotional bond owner feels toward the dog [63], was related to increase in the heart rate variabilitythe stronger the bond, the higher the RMSSD. The increase in RMSSD reflects decrease in sympathetic nervous system activation and increase in parasympathetic activation [8,9], and have been previously associated with a more relaxed affective state in dogs [16,[18][19][20][21]. The result supports the theory that attachment relationship to humans has stress-alleviating effect on the dog: in stressful situations, dogs seek assurance and comfort from their owners in the same way as human children use their caretakers as a safety haven [14]. ...
We evaluated the effect of the dog–owner relationship on dogs’ emotional reactivity, quantified with heart rate variability (HRV), behavioral changes, physical activity and dog owner interpretations. Twenty nine adult dogs encountered five different emotional situations (i.e., stroking, a feeding toy, separation from the owner, reunion with the owner, a sudden appearance of a novel object). The results showed that both negative and positive situations provoked signs of heightened arousal in dogs. During negative situations, owners’ ratings about the heightened emotional arousal correlated with lower HRV, higher physical activity and more behaviors that typically index arousal and fear. The three factors of The Monash Dog–Owner Relationship Scale (MDORS) were reflected in the dogs’ heart rate variability and behaviors: the Emotional Closeness factor was related to increased HRV (p = 0.009), suggesting this aspect is associated with the secure base effect, and the Shared Activities factor showed a trend toward lower HRV (p = 0.067) along with more owner-directed behaviors reflecting attachment related arousal. In contrast, the Perceived Costs factor was related to higher HRV (p = 0.009) along with less fear and less owner-directed behaviors, which may reflect the dog’s more independent personality. In conclusion, dogs’ emotional reactivity and the dog–owner relationship modulate each other, depending on the aspect of the relationship and dogs’ individual responsivity.
... Other studies have focused on the effect music has on laboratory animals or livestock, concluding that some forms of music improve milk production and meat quality, while also decreasing potential indicators of stress, such as heart rate and blood pressure [27]. More commonly, research involving music and companion animals has focused on pet welfare in kenneled environments (working and shelter dog populations) [28][29][30][31][32][33]. Results from these studies have indicated that the type of auditory stimuli is important, with kenneled dogs showing more calm behaviors when exposed to classical music [33], and more active behaviors when exposed to heavy metal music [29]. ...
... In this study, there were no significant differences in cortisol concentrations at any timepoints between the two groups. Similar findings were observed when shelter dogs were exposed to classical music or no music [28]. However, in contrast to the present study, the shelter dogs spent less time standing and barking when exposed to music, suggesting music may have had a positive effect in reducing stress despite no changes in cortisol concentrations. ...
Veterinary visits can be stressful for dogs, but how their wellbeing changes during a visit is not well understood. Music therapy has been successfully used in clinical practice to alleviate stress and anxiety in people. The present study aimed to understand how canine stress changes during a veterinary visit, establish the effect of music, and highlight measures which may be of practical use. In a randomized crossover design, dogs were exposed to no music and a bespoke piece of classical music at a tempo designed to match their resting heart rate during a mock veterinary visit. Dogs were scored as more “afraid” during the physical examination compared to when they were in the hospital kennel (p < 0.001). Salivary cortisol, IgA, and infrared temperature all increased significantly (p < 0.05) from baseline to post-kennel and post-examination, with no effect of music treatment. Core body temperature (p = 0.010) and the odds of ‘relaxed’ lips (p = 0.020) were lower when dogs were exposed to music compared to control visits. Overall, dogs experienced changes in physiology and behavior, indicative of increased stress, over the course of the visit. Additional research is required to further understand the effect that bespoke music may have in alleviating canine stress during veterinary visits.
... A música clássica causou efeitos benéficos sobre o comportamento animal, diminuindo comportamentos estereotipados como vocalização, lambedura psicogênica e tremores, aumentando seu tempo de sono e tranquilidade, enquanto a música do tipo heavy metal provocou uma maior ocorrência de tremores, um sinal característico de nervosismo e ansiedade (KOGAN et al., 2012). Bowman et al. (2015) realizaram estudo em centro de resgate de cães onde os animais foram expostos à música clássica e constataram que, durante a estimulação auditiva, os indivíduos permaneceram a maior parte do tempo deitados ou sentados e em silêncio do que latindo e em pé, sugerindo, assim, uma eficiente técnica de enriquecimento ambiental. ...
Introdução Tem-se observado nos últimos anos que as organizações, de forma incessante, buscam melhores patamares competitivos, não só em termos de país, mas acima de tudo, em termos globais. No entanto, é necessário destacar que não só as organizações urbanas foram afetadas por esse cenário de busca por maior competitividade, há que se inserir nesse contexto também as organizações rurais, visto que a produção de alimentos passou a ter caráter de escala global. Neste sentido, Nas organizações rurais, já é possível verificar-se, em alguns estudos, o uso da música na obtenção de resultados produtivos. Problema de Pesquisa e Objetivo Neste contexto, a problemática da presente pesquisa recai no fato de o Brasil ser um dos grandes produtores mundiais em termos agropecuário, no entanto, esse ramo parece ser ainda muito carente de estratégias que o torne mais competitivo, ressaltando-se que tal visão está relacionada às organizações de diferentes portes. Essa visão mais aguçada sobre a gestão da organização rural pode levá-lo, enquanto produtor, a mercados distantes. A partir da problemática exposta, o objetivo do presente trabalho é identificar os resultados obtidos com o uso da música nas organizações rurais. Fundamentação Teórica O fato de uma organização rural ser tratada como empresa é relativamente novo, e tratando-se de Brasil, a definição de propriedade rural como empresa rural é ainda mais recente como descreve Ulrich (2009) e Camara (2019). O uso da música é muito antigo na sociedade, tendo diferentes finalidades, sendo uma delas a sua aplicação em tratamentos comportamentais e pode estar atrelada a questões, inclusive, de filosofia de vida. Porém, no que tange às organizações a percepção que se tem é de que a aplicação da música em ambientes organizacionais é uma sequência do seu uso com objetivos terapêuticos. Metodologia Para tanto, foi utilizado como método o referencial bibliográfico, para através das fontes consultadas, identificar como a música pode proporcionar incrementos produtivos e potencializar uma produção e consumo responsável com adoção de técnicas alternativas no gerenciamento de uma propriedade. Foram consultados artigos, teses, dissertações e livros sobre o tema música e organizações. Foram extraídos nas plataformas Capes, Scielo, Scopus e Spell e selecionados a partir da relevância com o tema pesquisado de acordo com as palavras-chave: organizações rurais, processos produtivos e música. Análise dos Resultados De acordo com Gaston (1957) o tipo de música tem relação com o objetivo ao que se propõe. Nas organizações rurais, verifica-se basicamente o uso da música clássica nos processos produtivos em que existem ou não interação entre homem e animal, encontrando-se resultados em peixes, aves, suínos, equinos e bovinos de leite. Após a definição dos objetivos que se busca com a aplicação da música e com isso, a definição do tipo de música, a etapa seguinte é percebida como sendo as formas de utilização desta música nos sistemas produtivos. Conclusão Em animais é verificado desde os primeiros estudos até os mais contemporâneos, melhorias em comportamento e aprendizagem, principalmente quando usada a música clássica. Em animais de produção, além destes ganhos, verifica-se indicadores produtivos importantes, como aumento da produção leiteira. Outro fator interessante é que a aplicação da música em organizações rurais é verificada como sendo uma ferramenta de baixo custo de implantação. Neste sentido, evidencia-se uma maior facilidade no uso da ferramenta pois não necessita maiores investimentos em equipamentos e instalações.
... Many studies have investigated the welfare of shelter dogs using an animal-based approach [30,31] through physiological and behavioural assessments. Physiological assessments, including cortisol levels [32][33][34], heart rate variability [35][36][37], and oxidative stress parameters [38,39]. Various behavioural assessments, such as quality of life assessment and Shelter Quality Protocol (SQP), have also been applied in many studies to evaluate their welfare [40,41]. ...
The welfare of shelter dogs is a growing concern, particularly in regions like Taiwan, where public animal shelters (PASs) often face overcrowding. This study aimed to identify and prioritise welfare conditions (WCs) affecting shelter dogs in Taiwan’s PASs, offering insights into their impacts on population and individual welfare. A modified Delphi approach engaged 14 experts to evaluate the prevalence, severity, and duration of 59 potential WCs using the Five Domains model. The welfare impact of each WC on individual dogs was assessed as the product of severity and duration, with WCs scoring a median of 3 or higher considered critical. Of the 59 identified WCs, 49 were deemed critical. The most prevalent WCs were “limited access to toys” (median = 4.00), “insufficient foraging opportunities” (median = 4.00), and “intermittent, excessive barking noise” (median = 4.00). The most impactful WCs for individual dogs were “depressive disorders” (median of the product of duration and severity scores = 16.00), “fear-related or anxiety disorders” (median = 15.00), and “limited space” (median = 15.00). The Physical Environment Domain and the Behavioural Interactions Domain were highlighted as having the most significant and prolonged negative effects on welfare. This study provides a comprehensive WC list for shelter dogs, guiding future welfare improvements and resource allocation strategies.
... One possible explanation is the lack of speciesspecific validation for the immunoassay used, which may have affected the accuracy of cortisol detection in cats. A previous study in dogs also found salivary cortisol levels to be lower than expected (Bowman et al. 2015), further suggesting potential species differences in cortisol expression or assay sensitivity. ...
Objective
To compare the impacts of Elizabethan collar (EC) and wound protection corset (WPC) on pain and discomfort levels in cats following ovariohysterectomy.
Study Design
Prospective, randomized controlled clinical trial.
Animals
Twenty‐six healthy female cats.
Methods
Animals were randomly assigned to two groups after midline celiotomy: One group wore an EC (n = 13), and the other wore a WPC (n = 13). Pain was evaluated using the Composite Measure Pain Scale‐Feline (CMPS‐F) and the Multidimensional Pain Scale (MCPS) at intervals of 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, with the requirement for rescue analgesia recorded. Discomfort was assessed through cortisol levels, behavioural observations and the frequency of misbehaviours.
Results
No significant differences were observed between groups at all time intervals for CMPS‐F and MCPS (p < 0.05). Rescue analgesic administration was similar between the groups, with 16 administrations in the WPC group and 17 in the EC group (p = 0.88). Cortisol levels also showed no significant difference between groups (WPC: 0.05 [0.05–0.3] vs. EC: 0.05 [0.05–0.8]; p = 0.09). Behavioural observations revealed significant differences in misbehaviours, with 10 out of 13 cats in the EC group attempting to remove their collars or exhibiting head shaking (p < 0.01), whereas no misbehaviours were noted in the WPC group.
Conclusion
Both EC and WPC provided comparable pain management; however, the significant misbehaviours associated with EC use suggest increased discomfort level.
Clinical Significance
The WPC may offer a more comfortable recovery experience for cats following ovariohysterectomy, warranting further investigation.
... Concerning the music genre, classical music is supposed to have beneficial effects on a variety of different animal species 9,16 , including cats under anaesthesia 11,12 and dogs 9,14,16-20 ; dogs, in particular, seem to prefer slow rhythm music 14,17,[19][20][21] . With regard to the frequency range of an auditory stimulus, a recent study reported that exposure to low-pitch music resulted in arousal-related behaviour in dogs. ...
The objectives of this prospective, randomized, blinded, crossover, experimental study were to detect the potential anaesthetic- and analgesic-sparing effects of classical music provided to dogs undergoing skin surgery, and to investigate the role of substance P as an intraoperative pain indicator. Twenty dogs were included, each subjected to three different treatments: Chopin music, Mozart music and no music. They were premedicated with acepromazine, butorphanol and meloxicam and anaesthetized with propofol and isoflurane. Fentanyl was used as rescue analgesia. The anaesthetic depth was monitored by using the bispectral index along with standard anaesthetic monitoring, and autonomic nervous system responses were used to monitor the adequacy of analgesia. Furthermore, measurements of substance P serum concentration were carried out. Dogs exposed to music required less isoflurane and fentanyl. Furthermore, a statistically significant effect of time on substance P concentration was observed regardless of exposure to music, and there was a significant interaction effect between different timepoints and the type of acoustic stimulus. Classical music seems to have an isoflurane and fentanyl sparing effect on dogs undergoing minor surgery. Following surgical stimulation, the serum substance P concentration increases rapidly, and thus appears to be a potentially useful pain indicator.
... In Lars' gibbons, species-typical songs increased animal activity [126]. However, some studies reported positive effects of non-species specific music on various species' behaviors, including a reduction in "anxious" behavior in gorillas [127]; increased affiliative and reduced agonistic behavior [128] or reduced aggression and exploration with increased social readiness and rest [129] in chimpanzees; reduced stereotypies in elephants [97]; and in dogs, classical music increased sleep and resting behavior but rock music increased activity and barking [72,130,131]. ...
The effects of sound stimulation as a sensorial environmental enrichment for captive animals have been studied. When appropriately implemented for farm animals, it can improve welfare, health, and productivity. Furthermore, there are indications that music can induce positive emotions in non-human animals, similar to humans. Emotion is a functional state of the organism involving both physiological processes, mediated by neuroendocrine regulation, and changes in behavior, affecting various aspects, including contextual perception and welfare. As there is very limited information on non-human animals, the objective of this review is to highlight what is known about these processes from human biological and comparative perspectives and stimulate future research on using music to improve animal welfare.
... It has been reported that listening to music has positive effects on social stress by reducing cortisol levels and even increasing the intensity of positive emotions due to the activation of cerebral structures related to emotions such as pleasure ( Figure 2) [45][46][47][48][49][50]. In animals (e.g., pigs, dogs, chickens, buffaloes, and laboratory animals) [51,52], music has shown beneficial effects by reducing aggressive behavior, stress, and anxiety, considering it a sensory enrichment [53][54][55][56]. Neural pathways of music-evoked emotions. ...
Several types of enrichment can be used to improve animal welfare. This review summarizes the literature on the use of mechanical brushes, tactile udder stimulation, music, and visual stimuli as enrichment methods for dairy cows. Mechanical brushes and tactile stimulation of the udder have been shown to have a positive effect on milk yield and overall behavioral repertoire, enhancing natural behavior. Classical music reduces stress levels and has similarly been associated with increased milk yield. A slow or moderate tempo (70 to 100 bpm) at frequencies below 70 dB is recommended to have this positive effect. Evidence on the impacts of other types of enrichment, such as visual stimulation through mirrors, pictures, and color lights, or the use of olfactory stimuli, is equivocal and requires further study.
... It is also best to avoid heavy metal or a fast tempo over 100 beats per minute [48,49]. It is recommended to have a variety of music [50] and more mellow music such as classical [51] or Indian music [52]. ...
In Europe, regulations contain guidance to maintain high standards of animal welfare. In many parts of the world, large buyers for supermarkets or restaurants are the main enforcers of basic animal welfare standards. They can have considerable influence on improving standards on large commercial farms. Research clearly shows that straw is one of the most effective environmental enrichment for pigs. On some large farms, there are concerns that straw will either clog waste management systems or bring in disease. This paper contains a review of both scientific research and practical experience with enrichment devices that are easy to implement. Pigs prefer enrichment objects that they can chew up and deform. Broiler chickens prefer to climb up on objects, hide under them or peck them. It is always essential to uphold basic welfare standards such as animal cleanliness and low levels of lameness (difficulty walking). It is also important to reduce lesions, and maintain body conditions of breeding animals. An environment enrichment device is never a substitute for poorly managed facilities. It should enhance animal welfare on well-managed farms.
... It would be interesting to evaluate the effect of EE using more objective measurements of anxiety and pain. For example, comparing heart rate variability and salivary or urine cortisol levels (35,38,39) between the two groups or using quantitative sensory testing (QST) (such as mechanical threshold and thermal threshold evaluation) (11) could decrease the subjectivity of pain and anxiety assessments. Another potential method of pain assessment would be the application of a Grimace Scale that was recently developed in cats to assess acute pain. ...
Objective
The goal of this randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study was to evaluate the effect of environmental enrichment (EE) on post-operative pain and anxiety in dogs following hemilaminectomy for acute intervertebral disc extrusion (IVDE).
Methods
Twenty healthy client-owned dogs undergoing a hemilaminectomy for IVDE with the same immediate post-operative analgesia protocol were randomly assigned to either the EE or standard environment (SE) group post-operatively. Recovery was achieved in an intensive care room (SE) or a separate quiet room (EE) equipped with white noise and classical music. EE dogs were also exposed to dog-appeasing pheromones, essential oil scents, and positive human interactions and were provided meals through food toys. A blinded evaluator assessed all dogs using the modified Glasgow Composite Pain Scale (mGCPS) on presentation and at several time points post-operatively. A rescue injection of the opioid methadone was given to the dogs with an mGCPS score of ≥5/20. Dogs received the antidepressant trazodone when anxious behaviors (5 mg/kg) were observed. The mGCPS scores, the latencies to receive the first methadone and trazodone doses and to eat the first meal, the number of methadone and trazodone doses, and the number of meals ingested in the first 24 and 48 h post-surgery were compared using Wilcoxon tests, and Benjamini–Hochberg correction for false discovery rate was applied.
Results
Although median mGCPS scores did not differ between the groups, compared to SE dogs (n = 10), EE dogs (n = 6) received trazodone earlier (p = 0.019), were administered fewer methadone injections at 24 h (p = 0.043), and ate more at 48 h post-surgery (p = 0.007). Therefore, EE and anti-anxiety medications could be beneficial in improving the wellbeing of dogs post-operatively.
... The calming effects of music (auditory enrichment) have been investigated in several species, including cats, dogs, and horses (Houpt et al. 2000;Wells 2009;Bowman et al. 2015;Snowdon et al. 2015;Stachurska et al. 2015;Stachurska et al. 2017;Wiśniewska et al. 2019). ...
Objective, non-invasive indicators of the subjective experience of positive emotion are required to support assessment and improvement of animal welfare. Emotion is unique to the individual and indicators of emotion are indirect. The aim of this thesis was to ascertain if body and facial behaviours and physiological parameters reflected the emotional experiences of horses. Following review of the theoretical and experimental literature, three experiments were conducted, and an alternative emotional arousal-valence framework was proposed. Based on the preferences of individual horses, the relative arousal level and emotional valence induced by four stimuli (wither grooming, motionless person, intermittent spray, and being left alone) were ordered. Behavioural and physiological parameters were then measured during exposure to each stimuli. The indicators of contrasting affective experiences in horses were found to be heart rate, heart rate variability, eye temperature, and behaviours involving legs, neck, tail, ears, eyes, eyebrows, mouth, chin, and nares. Several behaviours differed across all three arousal levels or valence levels. Positive emotional valence was indicated by a decreased rate of neck very low, left ear forward, left or right ear back, blink, angled eyebrow, nares flared, nares neutral, and/or an increased rate of chin wobble, small eye aperture, or oral investigation behaviours. Higher arousal was indicated by an increased rate of neck very high, tail swishing, or higher odds of contracted lips, and/or a decreased rate of right ear forward or to the side behaviours. Reduction from 16 to six parameters may be possible. The findings may be used to aid interpretation of horse emotional experience and in the assessment and improvement of horse welfare. The research approach and framework described in this research may be suitable for future research in horses and other species.
... Separate from this question, though, there is also an emerging literature on the use of classical and other types of music to help /soothe dogs (as measured by activity level/time spent sleeping, vocalizing, and/or body shaking, no matter whether they are in the home environment, kennelled, or in an animal shelter (Bowman et al., 2015(Bowman et al., , 2017Gabbard, 2017;Kogan et al., 2012;Leeds and Wagner, 2008); though see also MailOnline Reporter, 2017). As yet, however, I am unaware of anyone having looked at the question of whether classical (or, for that matter, any other kind of) music influences the feeding behaviour of dogs under different environmental conditions/contexts (and see Snowdon et al., 2015, on species-appropriate choice of music in cats). ...
While the growing global obesity crisis in humans has attracted a great deal of attention from the media and healthcare professionals alike, the rapid increase in weight problems reported amongst pets is now attracting widespread recognition too. In humans, the emerging science of gastrophysics offers a number of concrete suggestions as to how people can be nudged into eating less by means of the enhanced multisensory design of both foods and the environments in which they choose to eat. In this narrative review, the potential relevance of gastrophysics to helping tackle the growing problem of overweight and obese domestic dogs is reviewed. This involves discussion of both the important similarities and difference in the way in which people and their pets perceive food, and the likely role of various product-extrinsic factors on consumption in the two cases. Nevertheless, despite the differences, a number of suggestions for future research are forwarded that may help to address the growing problem of overweight pets, and the behaviours that give rise to it.
... Further details of the kennel have already been described in d'Angelo et al., 2021 [23]. Each box presents a surface of 6 square meters/dog, with an open space in front of it, where animals can have a walk and interact each other, and equipped with a sound system, which broadcasts classical music [24]. The veterinary part occupies an area of approximately 200 square meters, and includes the Operating Room, Outpatient Clinic, Radiology, Analysis Laboratory, and Hospitalization with high technological innovation monitoring. ...
One of the main concerns of the human–dog relationship is today associated with the quality life inside the kennels, which are very often regarded as animal dump where dogs are exiled, representing a burden on society. In the present study we sought to investigate the importance of performing an appropriate behavioral program on the adoption chances within an Italian shelter, near Naples (Ottaviano). In this respect, we enrolled 555 adopted dogs of different ages, who followed a tailored-4-month lasting training program between 2018 and 2020. Once entered there, they were carefully examined by the veterinary behaviorist, and directed towards a suited training program, to improve living conditions. We documented a higher number of both adult and senior dogs who left the kennel and were adopted, compared to the age-matched untrained animals (n = 479), housed in the same kennel from 2015 to 2017. Taken together, the present data highlight an important role for training in improving the natural attitudes of the companion dogs, thus pointing towards a better human–animal bond.
... playing background music, 18,19 having the dog wait outside and not in the waiting room of the clinic, 7 examining the dog in an examination room and not a common treatment room, 20 placing the owner and pet into the examination room instead of a waiting room, 21 and having the owner present during the examination might be beneficial in reducing stress in dogs. 2,22 Additionally, administration of nutraceutical products 23 and the use of pheromone products might further reduce dogs' stress in the veterinary clinic. ...
Objective:
To evaluate the effects of a single dose of orally administered gabapentin in alleviating stress at a veterinary visit in privately owned dogs.
Animals:
22 healthy client-owned dogs (1.5 to 8.5 years old) were enrolled in this study.
Procedures:
Each dog received a 50-mg/kg oral dose of either gabapentin or placebo 2 hours before the beginning of each visit protocol. The dog's behavioral responses were coded from recorded video clips during a 5-minute-long standardized physical examination and pre- and post-physical examination phases. The veterinary technician separately rated each greeting behavior at each visit. Physiological variables during veterinary visits (ie, eye surface temperature and salivary cortisol concentrations) were also compared between the pre- and post-physical examination phases. The owner was queried 24 hours after a visit to determine the incidence of adverse events.
Results:
The greeting test score, eye surface temperature, and cortisol concentrations did not differ substantially between the gabapentin and placebo treatment groups. Lip licking frequency during the physical examination phase was significantly lower in the gabapentin treatment group than in the placebo group (P = 0.001). Lip licking frequency during the pre- and post-physical examination phases was also significantly lower in the gabapentin treatment group than in the placebo treatment group (P = 0.004). No serious adverse events were reported by the owners following gabapentin treatment.
Clinical relevance:
Results showed that the 50-mg/kg dose of gabapentin was well tolerated without serious adverse effects in healthy dogs. Further studies are recommended of dogs with documented stress in response to a veterinary visit.
... Exploring the perceived importance of kennel management practices has enabled assessment of how successfully the emerging research evidence base is entering and informing industry practice. The use of lavender as olfactory stimulation and music as auditory enrichment were rated as two of the most unimportant of kennel management practices, yet there are numerous scientific studies suggesting they can be helpful in reducing stress experienced by dogs housed in kennel facilities (Wells et al., 2002;Graham et al., 2005;Kogan et al., 2012;Bernardini and Niccolini, 2015;Bowman et al., 2015;Bowman et al., 2017;Binks et al., 2018;Köster et al., 2019). This suggests that dissemination of research findings is not always succeeding to industry practice uptake. ...
There is public interest for the welfare of dogs that spend at least part of their lives housed in kennel facilities, such as working, shelter and sporting dogs. The impacts of living in environments that limit social, physical, and behavioral opportunities are generally well understood in other animals, such as livestock and zoo animals. Research exploring the effects of the kennel environment and its enrichment on the behavior and physiology of dogs is emerging. However, human perceptions concerning what is important to the welfare of kenneled dogs have been overlooked. What people believe is important will influence their behavior, with direct relation to care provided to animals and the underlying social license of related industries to operate. This study evaluated the perceived importance of specific kennel management practices relating to canine health, kennel facility design and routine, social interactions, and environmental enrichment. Over 2,000 self-selected adults completed a voluntary, internet-based questionnaire. Differences in beliefs and attitudes were identified based on kennel facility experience, employment role, age, and gender, highlighting potential areas of discordance that may contribute to occupational stress and staff turnover. The results also suggest that research findings published in the scientific literature may not be successfully translating into evidence-based changes in industry practice. Future models to assess animal welfare should include the critical dimension of human-animal interaction. The beliefs, attitudes, and consequent behaviors of people interacting with dogs housed in kennels will determine how living in captivity impacts upon the experiences and welfare of the resident dogs.
... The most likely candidate for the primordial function is hedonistic stimulation -this function underlies all other functions and can be considered fundamental to the experience of music [63]. Moreover, numerous animal studies have reported reduced stress behavior (including reduction of aggression), increased positive behavior, and beneficial physiological responses to human music [70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77]. Such effects of music can be attributed to the oxytocin and vasopressin neurochemistry of the reward system shared by humans and animals [78]. ...
Together with language, music is perhaps our most distinctive behavioral trait. Following the lead of paleolinguistic research, different hypotheses have been proposed to explain why only humans perform music and how this ability might have evolved in the species. In this paper, we advance a new model of music evolution that builds on the theory of self-domestication, according to which the human phenotype is, at least in part, the outcome of a process similar to mammal domestication, triggered by a progressive reduction in reactive aggression levels in response to environmental changes. In the paper, we specifically argue that changes in aggression management through the course of human cultural evolution can account for the behaviors conducive to the emergence and evolution of music. We hypothesize 4 stages in the evolutionary development of music under the influence of environmental changes and evolution of social organization: starting from musilanguage, proto-music gave rise to personal and private forms of timbre-oriented music, then to small-group ensembles of pitch-oriented music, at first of indefinite and then definite pitch, and finally to collective (tonal) music. These stages parallel what has been hypothesized for languages and encompass the diversity of music types and genres described worldwide. Overall, music complexity emerges in a gradual fashion under the effects of enhanced abilities for cultural niche construction, resulting from the stable trend of reduction in reactive aggression towards the end of the Pleistocene, leading to the rise of hospitality codes, and succeeded by increase in proactive aggression from the beginning of the Holocene onward. This paper addresses numerous controversies in the literature on the evolution of music by providing a clear structural definition of music, identifying its structural features that distinguish it from oral language, and summarizing the typology of operational functions of music and formats of its transmission. The proposed framework of structural approach to music arms a researcher with means to identify and comparatively analyze different schemes of tonal organization of music, placing them in the context of human social and cultural evolution. Especially valuable contribution to the understanding of transition from animal communication to human music and language is the theory of so-called “personal song”, described and analyzed here from ethological, social, cultural, cognitive, and musicological perspectives. The emergence of personal song and its development into a social institution are interlinked with the evolution of kinship and placed into the timeline of cultural evolution, based on totality of ethnographic, archaeological, anthropological, genetic, and paleoclimatic data.
... There is some research on the perception of music and species-specific music in dogs (Leeds & Wagner, 2008), where it was found that soft rock, reggae, and classical music may have positive effects, whereas heavy metal had negative effects on dogs. Surprisingly, species-specific music appears to have no effect on dog behavior (Bowman, Dowell, & Evans, 2017;Bowman, Scottish, Dowell, & Evans, 2015;Kogan, Schoenfeld-Tacher, & Simon, 2012;Wells, Graham, & Hepper, 2002), unlike the preference shown by cats and monkeys (Snowdon & Teie, 2010;Snowdon et al., 2015). In contrast, it has been claimed that the calming effect of audiobooks exceeds that of music for dogs (Brayley & Montrose, 2016), although Wells et al. (2002) previously argued that classical music may outcompete speech. ...
... For classical music, we selected a playlist generated on Spotify, with pieces of music from previous studies. 25,29,30 The classical music included only instrumental pieces, and were based on the piano. For cat-specific music, we selected the playlist performed and produced by David Teie, available on Spotify. ...
Objectives This study aimed to evaluate the use of two different types of music – cat-specific music and classical music – compared with no music, to reduce stress in cats during hospitalization. Methods Thirty-five hospitalized cats were randomly divided into three groups and each group received a different stimulus – cat-specific music, classical music or no music (control) – throughout their hospitalization. Respiratory rate, salivary cortisol and social interaction were documented. A blinded researcher performed the Cat Stress Score (CSS) during the video analysis of recordings at five specific times over 31 h of hospitalization. Results There was no difference in the mean CSS between cats listening to cat-specific music, classical music and control throughout the five evaluations. Cat-specific music had a higher percentage of positive social interactions than the other groups on the first evaluation (P <0.05). The average respiratory rate was significantly lower in the classical music group vs control on the fourth evaluation (P <0.05). Although statistically insignificant, the average respiratory rate decreased only in the classical music group during the five evaluations. Cortisol quantification did not seem to follow the CSS results. However, owing to the low and unrepresentative number of samples, it was not possible to perform statistical analysis on these results or a group sample comparison. Conclusions and relevance Both cat-specific music and classical music seem to have some benefit to hospitalized cats. The salivary cortisol analysis was not adequate nor useful to measure stress in hospitalized cats in our study.
... For classical music, we selected a playlist generated on Spotify, with pieces of music from previous studies. 25,29,30 The classical music included only instrumental pieces, and were based on the piano. For cat-specific music, we selected the playlist performed and produced by David Teie, available on Spotify. ...
Objectives
This study aimed to evaluate the use of two different types of music – cat-specific music and classical music – compared with no music, to reduce stress in cats during hospitalization.
Methods
Thirty-five hospitalized cats were randomly divided into three groups and each group received a different stimulus – cat-specific music, classical music or no music (control) – throughout their hospitalization. Respiratory rate, salivary cortisol and social interaction were documented. A blinded researcher performed the Cat Stress Score (CSS) during the video analysis of recordings at five specific times over 31 h of hospitalization.
Results
There was no difference in the mean CSS between cats listening to cat-specific music, classical music and control throughout the five evaluations. Cat-specific music had a higher percentage of positive social interactions than the other groups on the first evaluation ( P <0.05). The average respiratory rate was significantly lower in the classical music group vs control on the fourth evaluation ( P <0.05). Although statistically insignificant, the average respiratory rate decreased only in the classical music group during the five evaluations. Cortisol quantification did not seem to follow the CSS results. However, owing to the low and unrepresentative number of samples, it was not possible to perform statistical analysis on these results or a group sample comparison.
Conclusions and relevance
Both cat-specific music and classical music seem to have some benefit to hospitalized cats. The salivary cortisol analysis was not adequate nor useful to measure stress in hospitalized cats in our study.
... In dogs, classical music increased sleep and rest behavior in three studies, whereas rock music led to increased activity and barking in three studies [26][27][28]. However, two other studies reported no effects of music on behavior [29,30]. ...
Playing music or natural sounds to animals in human care is thought to have beneficial effects. An analysis of published papers on the use of human-based music with animals demonstrates a variety of different results even within the same species. These mixed results suggest the value of tailoring music to the sensory systems of the species involved and in selecting musical structures that are likely to produce the desired effects. I provide a conceptual framework based on the combined knowledge of the natural communication system of a species coupled with musical structures known to differentially influence emotional states, e.g., calming an agitated animal versus stimulating a lethargic animal. This new concept of animal-based music, which is based on understanding animal communication, will lead to more consistent and specific effects of music. Knowledge and appropriate use of animal-based music are important in future research and applications if we are to improve the well-being of animals that are dependent upon human care for their survival.
... Music helped cows to lie longer under comfortable conditions (Haley et al. 2000), which indicates that the music environment is more conducive to psychological relaxation of animals (Geers et al. 2003). Thus, music stimuli can be used as environmental enrichment (Bowman et al. 2015). In our study, the lying, walking and exploring behaviours of piglets receiving music treatments were not significantly different from those of the control group, showing that the increase in exposure to music does not affect the behaviours of piglets. ...
Context
Music induces physiological responses in animals, and as an enriched environment, it may have a positive effect on behaviour and productivity.
Aims
This study aimed to determine the effects of different kinds of music on immunity, stress response and performance of piglets.
Methods
In total, 144 hybrid piglets (Yorkshire × Durac × Minpig) at the age of 7 weeks were divided into three treatment groups: slow-tempo string music (65 beats per min), fast-tempo wind music (200 beats per min), and control (i.e. no music). Exposure to music lasted for 42 days, from 8 to 14 weeks of age. During the experimental period, behavioural activities were observed, and physiological parameters, immune responses and growth performance were measured.
Key results
Results showed that long-term music exposure increased (P < 0.01) playing and tail-wagging behaviours compared with the control group, but had no effect (P > 0.05) on walking, lying, exploring, fighting or feeding behaviours. No effect (P > 0.05) was found on the levels of growth hormone, salivary cortisol, serum cortisol, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, β-endorphin or dopamine, or on the performance of growing pigs. However, the specific music type slow-tempo string significantly (P < 0.05) increased interleukin-4.
Conclusions
Long-term exposure to music does not affect stress response or growth performance in piglets. However, it promotes positive mood as indicated by increased playing and tail-wagging activities, and induces positive immunomodulation through increased interleukin-4 levels in piglets.
Implications
Exposure to music may be used to promote positive mood, and hence enhance welfare, in piglets.
Despite availability of video content marketed for dog (Canis familiaris) entertainment, there is little information on dog behaviors when viewing content, nor describing which content is engaging. The aims of this study were to define demographics of dogs that engage with screens, owner observed behaviors, and perceived content interest. A digital survey was distributed to dog owners (03/2022–03/2023). We collected demographics, home environment, owner-rated behaviors, content interest, and interest in 4 presented videos. We compared the representation of dogs from different purebred dog groups (categorized by job/purpose by the American Kennel Club) with the estimated general purebred dog population. Most respondents (total n=1246) lived in the USA (89%). Median age was 4 years, 54% were purebred, 51% were female. Most (86%, n=1077) stated their dog watched screen content. Excitement behaviors were often described: 78% of dogs approached the screen, 76% vocalized. Many owners played videos for their dogs when left alone. Dogs most frequently engaged with animal content; dogs were the most popular animal. Age and visual status influenced the frequency of perceived interaction; age and breed influenced content interest. Within purebred dogs that were stated to watch content, there was a relative over-representation of “sporting” and “herding”-type breeds. A dog’s age, visual status, and breed type may influence their interest in video content at home. Because many owners reported excitement in their dogs in reaction to screen content, owners may wish to determine whether video content would be suitable for use when their dogs are left alone.
To ensure the optimal living conditions of farm animals, it is essential to understand how their senses work and the way in which they perceive their environment. Most animals have a different hearing range compared to humans; thus, some aversive sounds may go unnoticed by caretakers. The auditory pathways may act through the nervous system on the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and immune systems. Therefore, noise may lead to behavioral activation (arousal), pain, and sleep disorders. Sounds on farms may be produced by machines, humans, or animals themselves. It is worth noting that vocalization may be very informative to the breeder as it is an expression of an emotional state. This information can be highly beneficial in maintaining a high level of livestock welfare. Moreover, understanding learning theory, conditioning, and the potential benefits of certain sounds can guide the deliberate use of techniques in farm management to reduce the aversiveness of certain events.
The stress caused by sound is inevitable. The stress caused by noise and the positive effects of music can affect the endocrine of animals and their welfare. In this study, a total of 72 hybrid piglets (Large White × Duroc × Min pig) were randomly divided into 3 groups, including music (Mozart K.448, 60-70 dB), noise (recorded mechanical noise, 80-85 dB), and control (natural background sound, <40 dB) groups. S-IgA (secretory immunoglobulin A), IL-6 (interleukin-6), IL-8 (interleukin-8), and positive emotion-related behaviors were used as indicators to discuss whether noise induced stress and inflammation in piglets or whether music could have positive effects. Six hours of auditory exposure were given daily (10:00 - 16:00), which lasted for 56 days. Behavioral responses of the piglets were observed, and the concentrations of salivary S-IgA and serum IL-6 and IL-8 were measured. The results showed that the concentration of S-IgA increased in the noise and control groups on the 57th day (P < 0.05); S-IgA concentration in the music group was unchanged after long-term music exposure. The concentrations of IL-6 and IL-8 showed that long-term noise exposure might lead to stress and inflammation in piglets. Tail-wagging and play behaviors of the piglets in the music group were significantly greater than those in the noise and control groups, which implied that long-term music exposure improved the emotional state of the piglets in a restricted and barren environment.
To maintain and enhance cow productivity and welfare, it is important that we can accurately assess and understand how cows respond to the physiological demands of gestation and lactation. Several methods have been developed for assessing the physiological responses to stressors and for detecting distress in cattle. Heart rate (HR) variability (HRV) is a non-invasive measure of autonomic nervous system activity and consequently a component of the physiological response to stress. In cattle, HRV has been successfully used to measure autonomic responses to a variety of health conditions and management procedures. The objectives of this study were to determine whether, among commercial Holstein Friesian cows and across farms, relationships exist between cow-level factors, HR and HRV. HRV parameters were compared with production records for 170 randomly selected, Holstein-Friesian-cows on 3 commercial dairy farms. Production data included parity, days in milk (DIM), milk yield, somatic cell count (SCC), % butterfat and protein, body condition score (BCS) and genetic indices. Fixed-effect, multivariable linear regression models were constructed to examine the association between cow-level variables and HRV parameters. Statistically significant relationships were found between HR and farm, temperature and BCS, and between HRV parameters and farm, rectal temperature, BCS, DIM, and percentage butterfat. Given the significant association between farms and several of the indices measured, it is recommended that care must be taken in the interpretation of HRV studies that are conducted on animals from a single farm. The current study indicated that within clinically normal dairy cattle HRV differed with the percentage of butterfat and BCS. Based on the relationships reported previously between HRV and stress in dairy cattle these results suggest that stress may be increased early in lactation, in cows with BCS <2.75 that are producing a high percentage of butterfat milk. Future work could focus on the physiological mechanisms through which these factors and their interactions alter HRV and how such physiological stress may be managed within a commercial farm setting.
The domestic dog has attracted notable attention in relation to the welfare benefits of auditory stimulation. Studies carried out in rescue kennels, an environment in which dogs are prone to chronic stress, have pointed to a calming influence of both classical music and audiobooks. The benefits of auditory stimulation for dogs experiencing more immediate types of stress, however, are still unknown. This investigation thus examined the effect of classical music and the spoken voice in the form of an audiobook on the behaviour of pet dogs in response to separation from their owners, a known short-term stressor. Three conditions of auditory stimulation were employed: (1) a control (the normal environment of the university research room), (2) classical music (Mozart’s Sonata K.448) and (3) an audiobook (Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone). The effect of these conditions was explored using two approaches. Study 1 explored the effects of auditory stimulation using a between-subjects design. Sixty dogs were assigned to one of the 3 conditions and exposed to the relevant auditory stimulus for 1-hour. Each dog’s behaviour was recorded every 10 s using a purpose-designed ethogram. Latency data were recorded by video. Results revealed a significant effect of auditory condition on latency to lie down, latency to settle (i.e., lie down for >30 s) and speaker-directed gaze. Dogs exposed to classical music were significantly faster to lie down than animals in the audiobook condition and quicker to settle than animals in the audiobook and control conditions. Subjects in the audiobook condition spent significantly more time gazing at the speaker than animals in the classical music and control conditions. Dogs in the classical music condition also spent significantly more time looking towards the speaker than control animals. Study 2 examined the effects of auditory stimulation using a repeated measures design. Twenty-two dogs were exposed to each condition of auditory stimulation for 30 min, with a period of 10 min between conditions. Each animal’s behaviour was recorded as per Study 1. Only speaker-directed gaze differed significantly between conditions, with animals spending more time looking at the speaker in the audiobook and classical music conditions than the control. Overall, findings point to only a moderately calming effect of classical music, and no apparent welfare benefits of an audiobook, on dogs separated from their owners. The research points to auditory stimulation having little value to dogs in situations of short-term acute stress. Further research is recommended in this field, ideally in a wider variety of contexts than studied thus far.
Objective
To assess the association between area level density of heavy metal bands and cause specific hospital admissions and mortality.
Design
Longitudinal register based cohort study.
Setting
311 municipalities in Finland.
Participants
3 644 944 people aged 15 to 70 residing in Finland at the end of 2001.
Main outcome measures
Hospital admission and mortality from all causes, internal causes, alcohol attributable causes, accidental injury and violence, suicide or self-harm, and mental health related causes. Appendicitis and toxic effects of metals were negative control outcomes.
Results
During 50.4 million person years of follow-up in 2002-17, 4 237 807 person years with hospital admissions were observed and 221 912 individuals died. Mortality in municipalities with a moderate density of heavy metal bands (<5.7 per 10 000 inhabitants) was lower than in municipalities with no heavy metal bands. Hospital admission rates were lower in municipalities with heavy metal bands compared with those with none. These associations could be explained partly by differences in the sociodemographic characteristics of residents in these municipalities. After adjustment for individual characteristics and area level cultural and economic characteristics—proportion of the population with no religious affiliation, unemployment rate, and per capita expenditure on culture and education—large cities with a high density of heavy metal bands (8.2-11.2 per 10 000) showed a mortality advantage (hazard ratio 0.92, 95% confidence interval 0.88 to 0.96). In contrast, the association for hospital admission was fully attenuated (incidence rate ratio 0.99, 95% confidence interval 0.92 to 1.06). The cause specific analysis showed similar results, with the association most pronounced for alcohol attributable mortality (hazard ratio 0.83, 95% confidence interval 0.75 to 0.93 for cities with a high density of heavy metal bands) and alcohol attributable hospital admissions (incidence rate ratio 0.84, 95% confidence interval 0.74 to 0.97 for cities with a high density of heavy metal bands) in the fully adjusted models. No association with heavy metal band density was found for the analysis using appendicitis as a negative control outcome.
Conclusions
The study found no evidence for adverse health outcomes with increasing density of heavy metal bands. Cities with a high density of heavy metal bands showed slightly lower rates of mortality and of hospital admissions for alcohol related problems and self-harm. Although residual confounding remains a problem in observational studies, vibrant local heavy metal scenes—comparable to many other forms of cultural capital—might help to promote health through healthier lifestyles, better coping mechanisms, and a stronger sense of community.
Enrichment is presented to improve the welfare of captive animals but sound is frequently presented with the assumption that it is enriching without assessing individuals’ preferences. Typically, presented sounds are unnatural and animals are unable to choose which sounds they can listen to or escape them. We examined preferences of three zoo-housed gorillas for six categories of sound. The gorillas selected unique icons on a computer touchscreen that initiated brief samples of silence, white noise, nature, animal, percussion, and electronic instrumental sounds. Following training, gorillas selected each sound paired with silence (Phase 2), each sound paired with each other sound (Phase 3), and one sound among all other sound categories (Phase 4). Initially, a single sound was associated with each icon, but additional exemplars of the category were added in phases 5–8. Preferences were generally stable and one gorilla showed a strong preference for silence. Although there were individual differences, a surprising general preference for unnatural over natural sounds was revealed. These results indicate the importance of assessing preferences for individuals before introducing auditory stimulation in captive habitats.
An enriched environment is widely used to improve domestic animals’ welfare and promote their natural behaviors. Music can reduce abnormal behavior in humans, nonhuman primates, and rodents. However, little is known about the effects of music on pigs. This study aims to explore the effects of repeated music stimulation on the behavior, physiology, and immunity of growing pigs. A total of 72 hybrid piglets (Large White × Duroc × Minpig) were randomly divided into three groups, including music (Mozart K.448, 60 to 70 dB), noise (recorded mechanical noise, 80 to 85 dB), and control (natural background sound, <40 dB), and 6 h sound stimulation was given per day (1000 to 1600 hours) from 40 to 100 d of age. The behavioral activities of the pigs were observed during the music stimulation, and their serum cortisol, salivary cortisol, and serum immune indices were also measured. Compared with the control group, the music group and noise group increased activity but decreased lying of pigs (P < 0.05). A significant increase in tail-wagging, playing, and exploring behaviors of pigs was found in the music group (P < 0.05), and the noise significantly increased the aggressive behavior of the pigs (P < 0.05). Tail-wagging, playing, exploring, manipulating, and aggressive behaviors decreased over time. Short-term (8 d) music stimulus had a lower cortisol level than that of the noise and control groups (P < 0.05), whereas long-term (60 d) music stimulus increased immunoglobulin G (IgG), interleukin-2 (IL-2), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) levels (P < 0.05) and decreased interleukin-4 (IL-4) level (P < 0.05). Long-term noise stimulus significantly reduced the level of IgG (P < 0.05) but did not affect the level of IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ levels (P > 0.05). In conclusion, short-term music stimulus (8 d) reduced the stress response, whereas long-term music stimulus (60 d) enhanced the immune responses. In addition, the noise increased the aggressive behavior, and long-term noise reduced the immunity of the growing pigs.
Dogs experience both acute and chronic stress when living in animal shelters. Current best practices recommend a variety of techniques for reducing stress such as enhanced human interactions including play or training, novel feeding strategies, increased exercise/group play, and, when possible, group housing. Auditory stimulation in the form of bio-acoustically designed music has shown a stress-relieving effect in dogs experiencing chronic stress such as those living in a kennel. However, there is little research looking at the effect of visual stimulation on stress in shelter-living dogs. Using a two-group (treatment, control) experimental design, the current study examined the effect of auditory and visual content intended to reduce stress, measured by salivary cortisol and behavior, in shelter dogs. The content was delivered through an in-kennel pet videophone unit. Forty-seven dogs were enrolled at one shelter in the United States. While there were no significant differences in pre- and post-test salivary cortisol levels by experimental group (P > 0.05), dogs in the treatment group spent significantly less time in the back of the kennel (P = 0.046) than did dogs in the control group. In addition, two behaviors differed by experimental group at the P < 0.10 level: dogs in the treatment group spent more time grooming (P = 0.066) and less time walking (P = 0. 052) than did dogs in the control group. These results point to a promising area for future research as they suggest that, under certain conditions, auditory and visual enrichment delivered through an individual in-kennel device could be a useful adjunct to an existing enrichment and behavior protocol for shelter-housed dogs.
It is not uncommon for veterinary practices to be daunting places for many pets. This article highlights the important role that reception staff have in creating a positive patient experience, and identifies a number of practical strategies that can easily be adopted and implemented to achieve this.
This essay seeks to clarify the relationship between music and environmental violence. After a reflection on the distortions and insights that different frames of reference produce, it places music within an expansive environmental register that encompasses the entirety of human history, up to and including our current era of “slow violence,” industrial pollution, mass extinction, and global warming. Throughout, human musicking is presented as always-already entangled with nonhuman entities and processes. The essay focuses on four of music’s potentialities—its exclusivity, centripetality, instrumentality, and reductivity—and argues that the cumulative effect of musicking has been to help perpetuate a type of anthropocentrism that made industrial-scale environmental violence possible. It concludes by suggesting a number of small tactics for musical thriving in an age when, in Timothy Morton’s words, “the concept of world is no longer operational”.
Heart rate variability (HRV) and echocardiography were performed in 14 dogs with mitral regurgitation (MR) before and after 14 days of 0.5 mg/kg/day of enalapril treatment. All dogs were in heart failure stages B1 and B2. After enalapril treatment, left ventricular end diastolic diameter (LVEDd), left ventricular end diastolic diameter normalized for body weight (LVEDdN) and percent mitral regurgitant jet decreased (P<0.05). The diastolic blood pressure decreased (P<0.05). Increased time domain parameters of HRV were found. For frequency domain analysis, the total frequency (TF) increased significantly (P<0.05). The normalized low frequency (LF norm) decreased while normalized high frequency (HF norm) increased causing significant reduction in LF/HF (P<0.05). Before enalapril treatment, LF was correlated with end diastolic volume (EDV) (P<0.01) and LVEDd (P<0.05). In conclusion, MR dogs receiving enalapril treatment for 14 days had increased cardiac parasympathetic tone while sympathetic tone was suppressed. The decreased sympathetic activity corresponded to the reduction in cardiac preload and afterload.
Four experiments were conducted to evaluate the accuracy and reliability of noninvasive evaluation of cortisol in saliva of dogs. In experiment 1, we measured the cortisol concentration in the filter paper on which 250-μL cortisol solutions had been quantitatively pipetted and in filter papers dipped in cortisol solution. In experiment 2, we collected the blood and saliva of dogs 3 times at 30-min intervals and compared the cortisol concentrations to examine whether the dynamics of cortisol in the blood and saliva are similar. The results of experiments 1 and 2 showed that the cortisol concentration can be quantitatively measured with this method and that the dynamics of cortisol concentration in the plasma and saliva collected by using filter paper are not different (P = 0.14 for experiment 1 and P = 0.51 for experiment 2). In experiment 3, to investigate the factors related to inducing stress in dogs by using the filter-paper method of collecting saliva, we compared the cortisol concentrations at 0 and 30 min after collecting the saliva of pet dogs. The dog owners completed a survey on their dogs, providing basic information and reporting the collection of their dog's saliva. We found that the cortisol concentrations increased significantly in dogs whose owners spent >2 min collecting saliva (P = 0.005), suggesting that prompt collection of saliva is necessary for accurate assessment of cortisol without induction of a stress response. In addition, the cortisol concentrations increased significantly in dogs whose teeth were not regularly brushed (P = 0.04), suggesting that regular teeth brushing mitigates the effect of the collection process on cortisol concentrations in the saliva, with minimal stress to the dogs. In experiment 4, we measured cortisol concentrations in pet dogs accustomed to having their teeth brushed by their owners, before and after interaction with their owners, to assess whether brushing induces stress in dogs. We detected that the cortisol concentrations significantly decreased after human-dog interaction (P = 0.008), suggesting that this method does not induce stress in dogs. Our study indicates that the method of saliva collection by using filter paper is effective in measuring the cortisol concentrations to evaluate stress, although certain steps are required to enhance accuracy.
Music listening has been suggested to beneficially impact health via stress-reducing effects. However, the existing literature presents itself with a limited number of investigations and with discrepancies in reported findings that may result from methodological shortcomings (e.g. small sample size, no valid stressor). It was the aim of the current study to address this gap in knowledge and overcome previous shortcomings by thoroughly examining music effects across endocrine, autonomic, cognitive, and emotional domains of the human stress response.
Sixty healthy female volunteers (mean age = 25 years) were exposed to a standardized psychosocial stress test after having been randomly assigned to one of three different conditions prior to the stress test: 1) relaxing music ('Miserere', Allegri) (RM), 2) sound of rippling water (SW), and 3) rest without acoustic stimulation (R). Salivary cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), heart rate (HR), respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), subjective stress perception and anxiety were repeatedly assessed in all subjects. We hypothesized that listening to RM prior to the stress test, compared to SW or R would result in a decreased stress response across all measured parameters.
The three conditions significantly differed regarding cortisol response (p = 0.025) to the stressor, with highest concentrations in the RM and lowest in the SW condition. After the stressor, sAA (p=0.026) baseline values were reached considerably faster in the RM group than in the R group. HR and psychological measures did not significantly differ between groups.
Our findings indicate that music listening impacted the psychobiological stress system. Listening to music prior to a standardized stressor predominantly affected the autonomic nervous system (in terms of a faster recovery), and to a lesser degree the endocrine and psychological stress response. These findings may help better understanding the beneficial effects of music on the human body.
The efficacy of salivary cortisol analyses for assessment of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) response to stimulation is compared to serum cortisol measurement. Matched samples of serum and saliva were collected from pigs (n = 6) subjected to exogenous adrenocorticotrophic: hormone (ACTH) stimulation (i.v. 200 IU) and snaring. Salivary cortisol responses to handling and transport (1 h) were measured in a further 10 pigs. Saliva samples were collected before and after handling and transport. There were significant correlations between serum and salivary cortisol values, following ACTH stimulation (r = 0.8813, P < 0.025), and snaring (r = 0.7964, P < 0.05). The overall ratio of saliva to serum cortisol was 9%. The saliva:serum cortisol ratio was concentration dependent. In pre-stimulation samples the ratio was 8.6% and at maximal concentrations was 13.3%. Handling and transport stress stimulated increases in salivary cortisol concentrations. Differences between pre- and post-transport concentrations were significant (P < 0.0001). Variation in the concentration of cortisol-binding globulin (CBG) is an important factor for the interpretation of adrenal response. Salivary "free" cortisol may be a better indicator of stress than "total" cortisol measured in blood samples.
The dog (Canis familiaris) has been domesticated for thousands of years but the effects of different housing regimens on canine behaviour are poorly understood. This study presents behavioural data collected from solitary and group-housed dogs housed in animal shelters and laboratories. The dogs differed greatly in their behaviour under the different housing regimens. Solitary dogs were more inactive (72-85% of observed time compared with group-housed dogs 54-62% of observed time), and spent more time in non-social repetitive locomotory behaviour categories (4-5% compared with group-housed 0.9-2% of observed time). Group-housed dogs were not only able to interact socially, but also spent more time investigating the floor of their pens, presumably because of the increased olfactory stimuli. Group-housed laboratory dogs provided with kennels used them for: rest, play and the control of social interactions. Single-housed dogs, which were housed in smaller pens, had low overall activity and tended towards stereotyped circling rather than pacing. At all the sites the opportunities for interactions with humans were limited (0.24-2.52% of the time observed). The results are discussed in terms of cage design and animal husbandry.
Power spectral analysis of the beat-to-beat variations of heart rate or the heart period (R–R interval) has become widely used to quantify cardiac autonomic regulation (Appel et al., 1989; Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology, 1996; Berntson et al., 1997; Denver et al., 2007; Thayler et al., 2010; Billman, 2011). This technique partitions the total variance (the “power”) of a continuous series of beats into its frequency components, typically identifying two or three main peaks: Very Low Frequency (VLF) <0.04 Hz, Low Frequency (LF), 0.04–0.15 Hz, and High Frequency (HF) 0.15–0.4 Hz. It should be noted that the HF peak is shifted to a higher range (typically 0.24–1.04 Hz) in infants and during exercise (Berntson et al., 1997). The HF peak is widely believed to reflect cardiac parasympathetic nerve activity while the LF, although more complex, is often assumed to have a dominant sympathetic component (Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology, 1996; Berntson et al., 1997; Billman, 2011). Based upon these assumptions, Pagani and co-workers proposed that the ratio of LF to HF (LF/HF) could be used to quantify the changing relationship between sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve activities (i.e., the sympatho-vagal balance) (Pagani et al., 1984, 1986; Malliani et al., 1991) in both health and disease. However, this concept has been challenged (Kingwell et al., 1994; Koh et al., 1994; Hopf et al., 1995; Eckberg, 1997; Houle and Billman, 1999; Billman, 2011). Despite serious and largely under-appreciated limitations, the LF/HF ratio has gained wide acceptance as a tool to assess cardiovascular autonomic regulation where increases in LF/HF are assumed to reflect a shift to “sympathetic dominance” and decreases in this index correspond to a “parasympathetic dominance.” Therefore, it is vital to provide a critical assessment of the assumptions upon which this concept is based.
The study of individual differences in emotional responding can provide considerable insight into interpersonal dynamics and the etiology of psychopathology. Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis is emerging as an objective measure of regulated emotional responding (generating emotional responses of appropriate timing and magnitude). This review provides a theoretical and empirical rationale for the use of HRV as an index of individual differences in regulated emotional responding. Two major theoretical frameworks that articulate the role of HRV in emotional responding are presented, and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. The case is made that HRV is an accessible research tool that can increase the understanding of emotion in social and psychopathological processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Cardiac autonomic neuropathy in dogs with diabetic mellitus (DM) was evaluated using measurement of heart rate variability (HRV) and plasma norepinephrine (NE) concentration. Dogs were divided into 2 groups; the control non-DM group (n = 13) and the diabetic group (n = 22) which was further divided into the well-controlled DM (n = 11) and the poorly-controlled DM subgroups (n = 11) according to their fasting plasma fructosamine concentrations. The electrocardiogram (ECG) was recorded continuously for at least 30 min to yield HRV. The results showed that in the poorly-controlled DM subgroup, the average of normal R-R interval (mean N-N), SD of the mean of all 5-min segments of normal RR intervals (SDANN) were lower than the control group while heart rate was higher (P < 0.05). The NNA, SDNN, SDNN index and pNN50% were significantly lower when compared with the well-controlled DM subgroup (P < 0.05). The high frequency (HF) and total power were significantly lower while the ratio of low to high frequency (LF/HF) was higher (P < 0.05) when compared with the well-controlled DM subgroup. Moreover, in the poorly-controlled DM subgroup, plasma NE concentration was lower than the control group (210 ± 37 vs. 479 ± 74 pg/ml, P < 0.05). There was a significantly negative correlation between plasma NE and plasma fructosamine concentrations. It is concluded that cardiac autonomic neuropathy occurred in poorly-controlled DM dogs. The sympathetic activity was suppressed as shown by decrease in both plasma NE concentration and LF component.
Time-domain heart rate variability (HRV) parameters and the correlation between echocardiography and Holter examinations in dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD) were determined. Holter examination was also performed at different time frames: an entire 24-hour period, a four-hour period during sleep, and a four-hour period while awake. Ten healthy (control group) and 28 MMVD dogs, 15 with and 13 without heart failure, were evaluated. The SDANN (sd of the mean normal RR intervals for all five-minute segments during 24-hour Holter) and pNN(50) (percentage of differences between adjacent normal RR intervals that are >50 ms computed over 24-hour Holter) variables were significantly lower in the dogs with MMVD heart failure. The differences in HRV between the groups were only detected during the 24-hour evaluation period (P<0.05). There were high correlations (canonical analysis) between Holter and echocardiography examinations when considering pNN(50), SDANN, and LA/AO (left atrial to aortic root ratio) (r=0.92; P<0.05), indicating that both are important in evaluating MMVD dogs. SDANN and pNN(50) are measures of parasympathetic control of the heart, and thus, it is possible to infer that the MMVD dogs exhibit parasympathetic withdrawal during the development of heart failure.
This work involves the development and validation of an enzyme immunoassay technique (EIA) for the measurement of the cortisol concentration in cattle saliva. Saliva samples present several advantages over plasma samples in animal welfare studies. Saliva collection avoids venipuncture as a stress factor. Also, saliva components do not affect EIA as plasma components do. At present, there is no validated commercial method for saliva cortisol determination in cattle. Commercially available radioimmunoassay kits for human plasma (detection range: 10-100 ng ml-1) are not sensitive enough for animals with low concentrations of salivary cortisol (< 4 ng ml-1). Thus, EIA is the method of choice in cattle. Sensitivity, specificity, precision and accuracy EIA tests showed this method to be suitable and reliable. The detection limit was found to be 0.024 ng ml-1, representing an improvement on previously described techniques. Intra-assay and inter-assay variation coefficients were 1.47-7.30% and 2.40-9.78%, respectively. The recovery rates for cortisol added to saliva samples were 91.36-126.5%. Parallelism tests showed that saliva cortisol levels can be determined in cattle samples without extraction. The correlation between saliva and plasma cortisol was positive (r = 0.75) and the saliva/plasma cortisol ratio was around 10%. Therefore, saliva samples are a suitable alternative to plasma samples in bovine HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis evaluation.
It is not known how many cats and dogs are admitted to welfare organisations annually. This study produced the first estimates of the size of this population. A questionnaire was mailed out to welfare organisations during 2010, followed by a postal/email reminder and requests to non-responders for a telephone interview. The questionnaire covered areas including, the current number of cats and dogs being housed, how much of the year organisations were operating at full capacity as well as the number of cats and dogs admitted, rehomed and euthanased between January and December 2009. Responses were obtained from 54.8 per cent of organisations. Sixty-six per cent of cat welfare organisations and 48 per cent of dog welfare organisations reported that they operated at full capacity for 12 months of the year. The number of cats and dogs entering UK welfare organisations during 2009 was estimated as 131,070 and 129,743, respectively. This highlights the scale of the work performed by welfare organisations in caring for and rehoming unwanted cats and dogs annually and emphasises the urgent need to address concerns over the considerable number of these animals. This study has also produced useful baseline data, which will be essential for monitoring population changes over time.
Six weeks of social and spatial restriction were used as a model to induce chronic stress in Beagles. Behavioral and physiological measurements were performed during a period of enriched spacious outdoor housing in groups (GH) and during a subsequent period of solitary housing in small indoor kennels (IH). Behavioral parameters that may indicate chronic stress in dogs are reported. During IH, the dogs showed significantly (comparison-wise error rate <0.05) lower postures than during GH. IH induced enduring increments in frequencies of autogrooming, paw lifting, and vocalizing, and was associated with incidents of coprophagy and repetitive behavior. So far, we interpret the behavioral changes as signs of chronic stress. Relatively low levels of walking, digging, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and increments in circling are conceived as obvious adaptations to the specific features of the IH system. By challenging the dogs outside their home kennel we tested whether the dogs’ coping abilities were affected by IH. Dogs that were challenged were introduced into a novel environment, given the opportunity to escape from their home kennel, restrained, walked down an unfamiliar corridor, presented a novel object, exposed to loud noise, given food, or confronted with a conspecific. During IH, challenged dogs exhibited higher postures, showed more tail wagging, nosing, circling, urinating, and defecating, and changed more often from one state of locomotion (or posture) to another than during GH. These behavioral changes were observed across the different types of challenges, with the exception of the noise administration test. In the presence of conspecifics, the socially and spatially restricted male dogs behaved more dominantly and aggressive than during the time that they were kept in groups. Such behavior manifested as increased performances of raised hairs, growling, paw laying, and standing over. Both sexes showed increases in paw lifting, body shaking, ambivalent postures, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and trembling in any of the challenges, excluding the walking down the corridor test. In short, during a variety of challenges, socially and spatially restricted dogs exhibited a heightened state of aggression, excitement, and uncertainty. Behavioral differences between dogs that had experienced pleasant and bad weather conditions during GH, suggested that “pleasant-weather individuals” had experienced early stress during the control period, and, as a result, responded to the subsequent period of IH differently. Regardless of the housing conditions, challenged bitches showed stronger indications of acute stress than male dogs. Gender did not affect the chronic stress responses to social and spatial restriction. A low posture and increased autogrooming, paw lifting, vocalizing, repetitive behavior, and coprophagy may indicate chronic stress in dogs, and as such, can help to identify poor welfare. When challenged, chronically stressed dogs may show increased excitement, aggression, and uncertainty, but the nonspecificity of such emotional behavior will complicate its practical use with regard to the assessment of stress.
: It is widely believed that stress suppresses immune function and increases susceptibility to infections and cancer. Paradoxically, stress is also known to exacerbate allergic, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases. These observations suggest that stress may have bidirectional effects on immune function, being immunosuppressive in some instances and immunoenhancing in others. It has recently been shown that in contrast to chronic stress that suppresses or dysregulates immune function, acute stress can be immunoenhancing. Acute stress enhances dendritic cell, neutrophil, macrophage, and lymphocyte trafficking, maturation, and function and has been shown to augment innate and adaptive immune responses. Acute stress experienced prior to novel antigen exposure enhances innate immunity and memory T-cell formation and results in a significant and long-lasting immunoenhancement. Acute stress experienced during antigen reexposure enhances secondary/adaptive immune responses. Therefore, depending on the conditions of immune activation and the immunizing antigen, acute stress may enhance the acquisition and expression of immunoprotection or immunopathology. In contrast, chronic stress dysregulates innate and adaptive immune responses by changing the type 1-type 2 cytokine balance and suppresses immunity by decreasing leukocyte numbers, trafficking, and function. Chronic stress also increases susceptibility to skin cancer by suppressing type 1 cytokines and protective T cells while increasing suppressor T-cell function. We have suggested that the adaptive purpose of a physiologic stress response may be to promote survival, with stress hormones and neurotransmitters serving as beacons that prepare the immune system for potential challenges (eg, wounding or infection) perceived by the brain (eg, detection of an attacker). However, this system may exacerbate immunopathology if the enhanced immune response is directed against innocuous or self-antigens or dysregulated following prolonged activation, as seen during chronic stress. In view of the ubiquitous nature of stress and its significant effects on immunoprotection and immunopathology, it is important to further elucidate the mechanisms mediating stress-immune interactions and to meaningfully translate findings from bench to bedside.
A random sample of 2980 households in the UK in 2007 showed that 26 per cent and 31 per cent of households owned cats and dogs, respectively. Households with gardens were more likely to own cats and dogs than households without gardens. Households in which someone was qualified to degree level were more likely to own cats and less likely to own dogs than other households. Cats were more likely to be owned by semi-urban/rural households and by female respondents. Dog ownership significantly decreased the likelihood of cat ownership, and respondents aged 65 years or more were less likely to report that their household owned a cat than younger respondents. Households with one or more dogs and children aged 11 to 15 years were more likely to own a cat than other households. The likelihood of dog ownership increased as household size increased. Dogs were more likely to be owned by rural households, and less likely to be owned by households with cats or children aged 10 years or younger. Female respondents and those aged less than 55 years were more likely to report dog ownership than other respondents. The estimated size (and 95 per cent confidence intervals) of the owned cat and dog populations in the UK in 2006 was 10,332,955 (9,395,642 to 11,270,269) cats and 10,522,186 (9,623,618 to 11,420,755) dogs.
Four groups of dogs, which had been subjected to housing conditions of varying quality for years, were assumed to experience different levels of stress. The groups were compared for behavioural and hormonal parameters in order to identify measures that indicate chronic stress in the dog and which may help to identify poor welfare in this species. As a standard for comparison, one of the four groups was composed of privately owned dogs; we assumed that chronic stress levels were relatively low in this group (GI). The three remaining groups of dogs (GII, GIII and GIV) were kept under conditions of low to relatively high austerity, and had basal urinary ratios of cortisol to creatinine, adrenaline to creatinine and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline to creatinine, that varied from low to high, respectively. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in cortisol to creatinine ratios when comparing GI to GII, GIII and GIV and when GII was compared to GIV. Statistical analyses indicated that the mean adrenaline to creatinine ratio in GI differed from that in the remaining groups and that the ratio in GII differed from that in GIII. Noradrenaline to creatinine ratios differed significantly only between GI and GIII. Dopamine to creatinine ratios and noradrenaline to adrenaline ratios did not differ significantly between groups. When dogs were not disturbed, those that were kept under the most austere conditions typically had high levels of locomotor activity, nosing, urinating and paw lifting. After mild disturbance by a slamming door or in the presence of a researcher these animals reacted actively, with increased locomotor activity, circling and nosing, and they showed high levels of behaviours that have previously been associated with acute stress: body shaking, yawning, ambivalent postures and displacement behaviours. Chronic stress in dogs may be identified by increased paw lifting when animals are not disturbed and by ample behavioural expressions of arousal when they are mildly stimulated. Since some behaviours may occur in contexts not related to stress, behavioural data are easily misinterpreted with regard to chronic stress. Interpretation will only be meaningful when physiological measures such as urinary adrenaline to creatinine ratios and, especially, urinary cortisol to creatinine ratios are also determined.
Analysis of HRV based on routine 24-hour Holter recordings provides a sensitive, noninvasive measurement of autonomic input to the heart. HRV can be measured in the time or frequency domain. Each frequency domain variable correlates at least r = 0.85 with a time domain variable. Thus time domain measures can be used as surrogates for frequency domain measures which may simplify future studies. Abnormalities of autonomic input to the heart, which are indicated by decreased indices of HRV, are associated with increased susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmias. Decreased indices of HRV are also associated with CHF, diabetes, and alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Decreased indices of HRV are an independent risk factor for mortality post MI and in patients with advanced CHF. Medications can also affect HRV, and that effect may become an important clinical consideration, especially in high-risk patients.
An understanding of the biological basis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) requires an examination of the underlying neurobiology of fear and the factors that might contribute to an unsuccessful termination of the fear response in some individuals. Several factors may lead to an inadequate termination of a stress response, and the failure to contain the biological alterations initiated by stress may have long-term adverse consequences. In particular, a prolonged continuation of biological responses following stress may lead to an inappropriate pairing of the traumatic memory with distress and may then initiate a cascade of secondary biological alterations. This article examines some of the biological alterations in PTSD and develops a framework for understanding the development progression of the neurobiology of this disorder. (J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61[suppl 7]:14–21)
Internet of Things based systems are anticipated to gain widespread use in industrial applications. Standardization efforts, like 6L0WPAN and the Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) have made the integration of wireless sensor nodes possible using Internet technology and web-like access to data (RESTful service access). While there are still some open issues, the interoperability problem in the lower layers can now be considered solved from an enterprise software vendors' point of view. One possible next step towards integration of real-world objects into enterprise systems and solving the corresponding interoperability problems at higher levels is to use semantic web technologies. We introduce an abstraction of real-world objects, called Semantic Physical Business Entities (SPBE), using Linked Data principles. We show that this abstraction nicely fits into enterprise systems, as SPBEs allow a business object centric view on real-world objects, instead of a pure device centric view. The interdependencies between how currently services in an enterprise system are used and how this can be done in a semantic real-world aware enterprise system are outlined, arguing for the need of semantic services and semantic knowledge repositories. We introduce a lightweight query language, which we use to perform a quantitative analysis of our approach to demonstrate its feasibility.
A study was conducted to investigate the potential of mood induction via music to influence cardiovascular correlates of negative emotions experience during driving behaviour. One hundred participants were randomly assigned to one of five groups, four of whom experienced different categories of music: High Activation/Positive Valence (HA/PV), High Activation/Negative Valence (HA/NV), Low Activation/Positive Valence (LA/PV) and Low Activation/Negative Valence (LA/NV). Following exposure to their respective categories of music, participants were required to complete a simulated driving journey with a fixed time schedule. Negative emotion was induced via exposure to stationary traffic during the simulated route. Cardiovascular reactivity was measured via blood pressure, heart rate and cardiovascular impedance. Subjective self-assessment of anger and mood was also recorded. Results indicated that low activation music, regardless of valence, reduced systolic reactivity during the simulated journey relative to HA/NV music and the control (no music) condition. Self-reported data indicated that participants were not consciously aware of any influence of music on their subjective mood. It is concluded that cardiovascular reactivity to negative mood may be mediated by the emotional properties of music.
Dogs admitted to animal shelters exhibit behavioral and physiological signs of stress. Among these is activation of the body's primary stress-responsive system, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis. HPA activity provides a metric for assessing both the dog's physiological response to the shelter as well as the effectiveness of attempts to reduce this response. Glucocorticoid measures of HPA activation are high for days following entry into a shelter. Further, it is unclear if eventual reduction in glucocorticoid levels represents actual adjustment by the dog to its new environment or a reaction (i.e., dysregulation) of the HPA axis to the continued stress. Interaction with a human has been found capable of reducing glucocorticoid responses of dogs to shelter housing as well as to additional stressors imposed in the shelter environment. These glucocorticoid reductions have been observed both at the time of human interaction and at later times. Sessions of interaction lasting 30 min or less have been found to have positive effects. These findings together with continued progress in our basic understanding of the mechanisms and mediators of HPA responses offer promise of identifying ever more practical means of reducing the physiological impact of stress, and thereby improving the welfare, of shelter dogs.
A wide variety of feline species have been shown to gain welfare benefits from the introduction of olfactory stimuli to the captive environment. The effect of this stimulation on the domestic cat, however, has been largely overlooked. This study thus explored the influence of olfactory stimulation on cats housed in a rescue shelter to determine whether it holds any value as a method of enrichment for this species. One hundred and fifty cats were randomly assigned to one of five conditions of olfactory stimulation (control [an odourless cloth]; biologically relevant odour [a cloth impregnated with the scent of rabbit]; biologically non-relevant odours, [a cloth impregnated with lavender, a renowned relaxant, or the scent of catnip, a well known stimulant]). Cats were exposed to the relevant olfactory stimuli for 3h a day for five consecutive days. Each cat's behaviour was recorded every 5min on days one, three and five of olfactory exposure, using instantaneous scan sampling. Overall, cats showed relatively little interest in the cloths, spending just over 6% of the total observation time interacting with these stimuli. However, animals exposed to the catnip-impregnated cloths exhibited significantly more interest in the stimulus than animals exposed to the other cloths, spending an average of 11.14% of the observation time interacting with the objects. Across all experimental conditions, interest in the cloths was significantly lower in the second and third hours of stimulus presentation compared to the first, suggesting habituation. Certain components of the cats’ behavioural repertoire were influenced by olfactory stimulation. Catnip and prey scent encouraged a significantly higher frequency of behaviours indicative of reduced activity (e.g. more time sleeping, less time standing and actively exploring the environment) in comparison to the control condition. Catnip also encouraged play-like behaviour characterised as the ‘catnip response’. Overall, the results suggest that certain odours, notably catnip, may hold potential as environmental enrichment for captive domestic cats.
The occurrence of stress has widely been associated with impairments in learning abilities in animals, although the influence of stress appears to differ with the complexity of tasks. Previous research has suggested that some domestic dogs exhibit both physiological (elevated cortisol) and behavioural signs of stress when newly admitted to re-homing centres. In this study we have investigated whether levels of stress as measured by urinary cortisol: creatinine is sufficient to impair the learning of simple associations. On the day following their admission to a re-homing centre, 32 dogs were trained on one classical conditioning task and one operant conditioning task; 6 days later, they were trained on a second operant conditioning task. Their mean urinary cortisol:creatinine ratio (C/C) fell from 27.1×10−6 to 22.3×10−6 (nmol/l:nmol/l) between these 2 days; a substantial proportion (78% on day 1, 63% on day 7) of dogs had ratios above the range of 5–20×10−6, which is that defined as clinically normal (Bush, 1991), suggesting high levels of stress. The dogs’ average time to reach criterion on either task on day 1 was unrelated to C/C or to behavioural signs of stress; this lack of correspondence may reflect the diverse previous experiences of the dogs. On day 7, the six dogs which failed to reach criterion for the operant association were significantly less active and interactive in their kennels than the others. For the remainder, a high rate of learning the operant association was associated with high C/C (in excess of 40×10−6), and a poor performance was associated with fearful behaviour in the kennel. Dogs appear to have adopted one of two coping strategies: either the display of fearful behaviours and an impaired ability to learn the tasks, which may reflect a ‘reactive’ style of responding, or a higher level of HPA axis activation and an enhanced ability to rapidly learn a new task, which may be indicative of a more ‘proactive’ coping style.
The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of a human interaction program on shelter dogs and to determine the effect on canine heart rate variability, behaviour, and salivary cortisol levels. Twenty dogs were behaviourally (temperament tests) and clinically (full cardiologic examination) pre-tested and then matched in two homogenous groups. Ten dogs (group A) were submitted to a human interaction program and compared to a control group (group B). The study included four experimental sessions (T0, T1, T2 and T3). At T0 salivary cortisol samples (basal cortisol) were collected from all dogs. After 1 week, all dogs were submitted to the following procedures: electrocardiogram holter monitor unit application and recordings, saliva cortisol sample collection before behavioural test (pre-test cortisol), behavioural test application, and saliva cortisol sample collection after behavioural test (post-test cortisol). The above-mentioned experimental session was repeated every 4 weeks from the beginning of the study (T1, T2 and T3). All dogs were videotaped during all behavioural evaluations. Significant differences (P
In order to assess the welfare of cows milked in automatic milking systems (AMS), restlessness behaviour during milking (stepping, foot-lifting), heart rate (HR) and heart-rate variability (HRV) were investigated in cows milked in two different AMS models (AMS-1, AMS-2) and in auto-tandem milking parlours (ATM) on four commercial farms in each case.Stepping rates and proportions of milkings with foot-lifting were calculated based on video recordings. Non-invasive radio equipment was used for measurements of HR and the HRV variable mean-squared differences of successive beat-to-beat intervals (rMSSD). HR data were recorded during milking and resting, thus allowing an assessment of the milking process in relation to the baseline level of each individual cow. Data were evaluated using generalised mixed-effects models.Restlessness behaviour was shown more often in AMS-2 than in AMS-1 and ATM. HR increased from resting to milking, and this difference was greatest in AMS-2. HR in AMS-1 and AMS-2 was higher during resting and milking than in ATM. rMSSD decreased from resting to milking, although to a lesser extent in AMS-1 due to lower values during resting. The lowest rMSSD values during milking were observed in AMS 2.In conclusion, statistically detectable differences in restlessness behaviour, HR and HRV indicated a slightly increased stress level in dairy cows in automatic milking systems as opposed to auto-tandem milking parlours. Viewed in absolute terms, however, all differences between the milking systems were minor. The results thus indicate that being milked in an AMS rather than in an ATM did not seriously impair the welfare of dairy cows.
This study explored the influence of five types of olfactory stimulation (control, lavender, chamomile, rosemary and peppermint) on the behaviour of 55 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each type of olfactory stimulation, through the diffusion of essential oils, for 4h a day for 5 days, with an intervening period of 2 days between conditions. The dogs’ behaviour was recorded on days 1, 3 and 5, during each condition of olfactory stimulation. Certain aspects of the dogs’ behaviour were influenced by the odours. Dogs spent more time resting and less time moving upon exposure to lavender and chamomile than any of the other olfactory stimuli. These odourants also encouraged less vocalisation than other types of aroma. The diffusion of rosemary and peppermint into the dogs’ environment encouraged significantly more standing, moving and vocalising than other types of odour. It is suggested that the welfare of sheltered dogs may be enhanced through exposure to appropriate forms of olfactory stimulation. Lavender and chamomile appear particularly beneficial, resulting in activities suggestive of relaxation and behaviours that are considered desirable by potential adopters. These types of olfactory stimulation may also appeal to visitors, resulting in enhanced perceptions of the rescue shelter and an increased desire to adopt a dog from such an environment.
Olfactory stimulation has been shown to influence the behaviour of a wide variety of species and is now considered a useful form of environmental enrichment for many captive animals. To date, the effect of odour introduction on the behaviour of primates has been subject to little attention. This study thus investigated the behaviour of six zoo-housed western lowland gorillas in response to five odours (no odour [control], orange, vanilla, almond, peppermint) introduced individually on cloths into the animals’ exhibit for a period of 5 days per stimulus. The gorillas’ behaviour was recorded in each condition using a scan-sampling technique. Analysis showed that the gorillas sniffed the odour-impregnated cloths slightly (although not significantly) more frequently than the control cloths. There was no significant effect of olfactory stimulation on the gorillas’ general behaviour (P>0.05 for all behaviours). Overall, findings suggest that olfactory stimulation in the form of odour-impregnated cloths has little effect on the behaviour of captive gorillas. This raises questions over the value of olfactory stimulation as a useful method of environmental enrichment for this species. Further research using different odours, methods of olfactory presentation, and larger numbers of animals is required, however, before firm conclusions regarding the value of olfactory stimulation for the great apes can be reached.
The aim of the study was to investigate whether heart rate variability (HRV) could assess alterations of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) at different levels of excitement. The behavioural and physiological responses of 20 warmblood horses to a challenging ground exercise task were studied. Prior to the experiment, the horses were evaluated at rest and during forward walking (FW). The horses were then forced to move backwards continuously during 3 min according to a standardised protocol (BW1). Subsequently, the horses were exposed to two training sessions, after which the backward walking (BW2) was re-evaluated. Heart rate (HR) and HRV-parameters such as the standard deviation of the beat-to-beat intervals (SDRR), the low (LF; sympathetic tone) and high frequency (HF) component of HRV (HF; parasympathetic tone) and their ratio (LF/HF; index representing the sympatho-vagal balance) were sampled at rest, and during FW, BW1 and BW2. Stress-related behaviour during BW1 and BW2 was determined from video recordings. The results of the different evaluations were compared to each other.
Noise levels (sound pressure levels, SPLs) were monitored over 24 and 48 h in a number of different types of kennels including shelters, training establishments and research laboratories. Two measures of SPL were used, Lpeak and Leq, over both low (1 Hz-20 kHz) and high (12.5–70 kHz) frequency ranges and using a linear weighting. At most sites the noise levels followed a diurnal pattern; levels were generally low and relatively constant overnight, increased gradually in the early morning and then fluctuated during the working day. Levels decreased in the evening at different times depending on the local regimes. In one facility near railway lines the diurnal pattern was less obvious. During the day Lpeak values regularly exceeded 100 dB and often reached 125 dB; Leq values were between 65 and 100 dB.The high noise levels were caused mainly by barking, but husbandry procedures such as cleaning also contributed to them. The noise levels recorded here may have welfare implications. If this is shown to be the case, it is not yet clear what are the best methods of reducing the levels. There is currently a lack of adequate guide lines for noise levels in dog kennels. The current work has highlighted an area of concern in dog husbandry that urgently needs to be addressed.
This study compares the effects of social and physical enrichment on the behaviour and physiological responses of group and pair-housed beagles. Some 432 h of observation were collected from 48 beagles assigned equally to four groups: (1) a control group, (2) a group given increased opportunities for social contact with conspecifics, (3) a group given 30 s day−1 of intensive handling, and (4) a group provided with three different toys/chews permanently suspended in the pen: Rawhide, Gumabone chew and a piece of plastic tubing. After 2 months both the controls and the enriched groups spent less time resting and more time on hind legs looking out of the pen. Both human-socialised and dog-socialised groups maintained pre-treatment scores of ‘sniffing kennel mate’, and ‘time spent in contact with kennel mate’, while the control and environment-enriched groups scores for these behaviours fell, but overall intraspecific socialisation in these groups showed no change. During human-socialisation, dogs' time spent chewing items of cage furniture was reduced by 90%. Following 2 months of environmental enrichment, dogs spent a substantial proportion of their time (24%) using the toys, showing that frequent changes of items are not necessary to avoid habituation, if the appropriate toys/ chews are used. Time spent inactive by environment-enriched dogs fell by 20% of pre-treatment values to 51% of total time. However, socialising with kennel mates also fell by 70% of pre-treatment values to 4% of the total time. Environment-enriched dogs solicited less play, played less and spent less time in contact with their kennel mate. These changes may show a ‘preference’ by the dogs for toys over social activity or they may be due to competition for toys. Environment-enriched dogs also spent less time chewing items of pen furniture (a fall on pre-treatment scores of 85%) and walked less (a fall of 35%). Following the addition of a platform to the pens these dogs spent over 50% of their time on it observing surroundings as well as guarding toy items. The study shows that appropriate enrichment can: increase the complexity of dog behaviour, substantially change the expression of behaviour and help to prevent undesirable behaviours. Small increases in the opportunities for social interactions with handlers may produce changes in behaviour with conspecifics. In large facilities physical enrichment is likely to be the most cost-effective option, but staff should be encouraged to have regular positive socialisation sessions with their dogs.
This study explored the influence of 5 types of visual stimulation (1 control condition [no visual stimulation] and 4 experimental conditions [blank television screen; and, televised images depicting humans, inanimate movement, animate movement]) on the behaviour of 125 cats housed in a rescue shelter. Twenty-five cats were randomly assigned to one of the five conditions of visual stimulation for 3h a day for 3 days. Each cat's behaviour was recorded every 5min throughout each day of exposure to the visual stimuli. Cats spent relatively little of the total observation time (6.10%) looking at the television monitors. Animals exposed to the programmes depicting animate and inanimate forms of movement spent significantly more of their time looking at the monitors than those exposed to the moving images of humans or the blank screen. The amount of attention that the cats directed towards the television monitors decreased significantly across their 3h of daily presentation, suggesting habituation. Certain components of the cats’ behaviour were influenced by visual stimulation. Animals in the animate movement condition spent significantly less time sleeping, and displayed a non-significant trend to spend more time resting, and in the exercise area of their pens, than those in the other conditions of visual stimulation. Overall, the results from this study suggest that visual stimulation in the form of two-dimensional video-tape sequences, notably that combining elements of prey items and linear movement, may hold some enrichment potential for domestic cats housed in rescue shelters. Such animals, however, may not benefit from this type of enrichment to the same degree as species with more well-developed visual systems, such as primates.
The effects of different spatial areas and different social conditions on behaviours of beagles maintained in a laboratory were evaluated. Eighteen female purpose-bred beagles were divided into six groups of three, and housed individually for 3 months each in six different housing conditions: (A) a 6.1 m × 9.1 m outdoor pen; (B) a 1.8 m × 6.1 m outdoor run; (C) a 1.2 m × 3.66 m indoor run; (D) a 0.9 m × 1.2 m × 0.84 m cage; (E) a 0.9 m × 1.2 m × 0.84 m cage with 30 min of forced treadmill exercise, 5 days week-1; (F) a 0.71 m × 0.86 m × 0.69 m cage. Behaviours of six dogs housed in pairs in Conditions A and C were also compared. Behaviours studied were movement, vocalisation, lying down, sleep, object manipulation, barrier manipulation, barrier jumping, fence running, agonistic and affiliative activities, and proximity. Behavioural effects were compared among housing conditions, order of rotation through each housing condition, and behavioural changes over time during each 3 month rotation. Dogs spent more time moving in pens and runs than in cages. Dogs housed in the greatest degree of social isolation spent the most time moving, exhibited the greatest number of bizarre movements, and vocalised the most. Dogs housed in the smallest cages spent more time grooming and in manipulation of enclosure barriers than those housed in any other conditions. Forced treadmill exercise did not significantly alter behaviours. When housed in pairs, dogs spent more time sleeping and showed a tendency to spend less time vocalising than when housed singly. The results indicate that spatial area and activity are not likely to be the most important factors to be considered when evaluating psychosocial well-being of dogs. In assessing the psychosocial well-being of dogs, social isolation may be as harmful or more harmful than spatial restriction.
Although some information exists on the stress response of horses in equestrian sports, the horse-rider team is much less well understood. In this study, salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV), SDRR (standard deviation of beat-to-beat interval) and RMSSD (root mean square of successive beat-to-beat intervals) were analysed in horses and their riders (n=6 each) at a public performance and an identical rehearsal that was not open to the public. Cortisol concentrations increased in both horses and riders (P<0.001) but did not differ between performance and rehearsal. HR in horses and riders increased during the rehearsal and the public performance (P<0.001) but the increase in HR was more pronounced (P<0.01) in riders than in their horses during the public performance (from 91±10 to 150±15beats/min) compared to the rehearsal (from 94±10 to 118±12beats/min). The SDRR decreased significantly during the equestrian tasks in riders (P<0.001), but not in their horses. The RMSSD decreased in horses and riders (P<0.001) during rehearsal and performance, indicating a decrease in parasympathetic tone. The decrease in RMSSD in the riders was more pronounced (P<0.05) during the performance (from 32.6±6.6 to 3.8±0.3ms) than during the rehearsal (from 27.5±4.2 to 6.6±0.6ms). The study has shown that the presence of spectators caused more pronounced changes in cardiac activity in the riders than it did in their horses.
The main objective of this experiment was to assess the effect of music on the voluntary approach of cows to an automatic milking system (AMS). A group of 19 mid- and late-lactating Holstein cows with 2 months prior experience of twice-daily milking in the AMS was used in this study. The cows were housed in a free stall barn with slatted floors and fed a complete mixed ration using an indoor feed bunk. They were also offered 1.5 kg per cow of grain pellets in the AMS during milking. Music was played during the milking period for 69 days prior to observation with amplifiers located within the milking compartments, approximately 1.2 m above the head of the milking cows and also on the long side of the barn. The sounds were activated at the start of each milking period and terminated after the last milking cow left the AMS. Behavioural observations were carried out during the afternoon milking for 20 days randomly fluctuating between days with music and days without music. The number of cows in the holding area was instantaneously recorded at 5 min before and 5 min after the onset of the milking period. On days with music, the number of cows in the holding area increased from 22.3 ± 15.1% to 45.0 ± 18.0% (P < 0.01). On control days without music, this difference was less pronounced, increasing from 27.1 ± 13.7% to 35.1 ± 15.4% (P = 0.150). Changes in the composition of behavioural states from 5 min before to 5 min after the onset of the milking period were significant on days with music (P < 0.001) but not on control days (P = 0.412). The results show a stimulatory effect of music, influencing behavioural readiness of cows to access the milking compartments of the AMS.
Poor housing conditions, harsh training sessions and uncontrollable or unpredictable social environments are examples of the situations that may lead to reduced welfare status in dogs. Individuals that suffer from poor welfare presumably experience stress and may consequently exhibit stress responses. In order to evaluate stress responses as potential indicators of poor welfare in dogs, we review studies dealing with dogs subjected to stressors. The reported stress responses are categorized as being behavioural, physiological or immunological, and demonstrate the various ways stress is manifested in the dog.
Dogs can be held temporarily or permanently in kennels for a number of reasons, not necessarily for their own benefit. Although restrictive environments have been associated with poor welfare, priorities for research and change cannot be understood unless the various aspects of the kennel environment are appreciated separately. This review critically evaluates the experimental research regarding the physical, social, sensory, occupational, nutritional and psychological aspects of the kennel environment and their effects on canine welfare, with a view to providing a consolidated report on our current state of knowledge on this subject. However, the lack of within-dog, single manipulations and a focus on quantitative measures affects the ability to make valid conclusions about the welfare benefits of several aspects, including social housing, kennel size and location. Despite these criticisms, the evidence for the positive benefits of group housing is strong. There is also considerable evidence for the benefits of positive human contact particularly on sociability and stress responses in other situations. Surprisingly few studies have looked at other forms of enrichment and even less have considered the potential for the kennel to be over-stimulating in an auditory, olfactory and visual sense. Such topics are suggested as priorities for further research, in addition to ways of minimising aggression in group housing and the effect of establishment of predictability on adjustment to kennelling.
This study explored the influence of five types of visual stimulation on the behaviour of 50 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. These conditions were: one control condition (no visual stimulation) and four experimental conditions (blank television screen, and moving televised images of conspecifics, interspecifics [ie unfamiliar animal species] and humans). The dogs were exposed to each condition for 4 h per day for five days, with an intervening period of two days between conditions. The dogs' behaviour was recorded on days 1, 3 and 5 during each condition. Dogs spent relatively little of the total observation time looking at the television monitors (10.8%). They spent significantly more of their time looking at the moving images of conspecifics, interspecifics and humans than at the blank screen, although their interest in all experimental conditions declined over time. Dogs spent more time at the front of their enclosures during all of the experimental conditions than during the control condition. Images of conspecifics were more likely to attract the dogs to the front of their kennels than the blank screen. The conspecific and human conditions of visual stimulation attracted slightly more attention from the dogs than the interspecific condition, although not significantly. All of the experimental conditions encouraged significantly less vocalisation and movement than the control condition. Overall, the findings suggest that the behaviour of kennelled dogs is influenced by visual stimulation in the form of television programmes. Such animals, however, may not benefit from this type of enrichment to the same degree as species with more well-developed visual systems. The addition of other types of enrichment strategy for dogs housed in rescue shelters is advocated.
Every year sees an increase in the number of dogs admitted to rescue shelters. However well these dogs are cared for in the shelter it cannot be ignored that being in such a situation is stressful and the time spent in the shelter may change the dogs' behaviour which may in turn influence their chances of being bought from the shelter. This research examined the behaviour of stray and unwanted dogs on their first, third and fifth days in an Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (USPCA) shelter. A questionnaire was also distributed to members of the public to determine how popular the USPCA was as a place from where to purchase a dog, and what factors about a dog's physical characteristics, behaviour and environment influenced potential buyers. Results revealed no significant difference between the behaviour of stray and unwanted dogs although the public viewed stray dogs as much less desirable than unwanted dogs. Time in the shelter had no adverse effects on the dogs' behaviour. Indeed those changes which did occur during captivity, dogs being more relaxed in the presence of people and eating food more quickly, may be considered as positive changes. The USPCA was viewed as a popular place from which to buy a dog. Off actors influencing the public's choice, the dog's environment and behaviour appeared more important than its physical characteristics. The presence of a toy in the dog's cage greatly increased the public's preference for the dog, although the toy was ignored by the dog. The welfare implications of sheltering dogs are discussed
To emphasize the effects of group- and single housing of kennelled dogs, the behavior of 211 dogs in two German animal shelters was tested and observed. After being placed, 197 of the dogs' new owners were interviewed. Although 51% of the German animal shelters already keep dogs in groups, there is strong prejudice against group housing because of the fear of fights. This study demonstrates that this apprehension is unfounded. Ninety-one percent of the social confrontations between dogs housed together were settled by the use of behavioral rituals. Keeping dogs in groups, furthermore, leads to a significant reduction in noise emission (p<.001). Group housing fulfills the dog's need for social interaction and the need to move. Dogs that were housed in groups displayed a closer human-animal relationship (80%) than those that had been kept individually (43%). A high percentage of individually housed dogs suffered from behavioral problems (31%) and 10% developed stereotypes. The percentage of behaviorally disturbed dogs observed in group housing was 11%, and stereotyped forms of behavior did not occur. Dogs who had been kept in groups were, on average, placed within 10 days, and were returned to the animal shelter less often (9%) compared to those housed individually (25%). Dogs that were housed separately needed an average of 17 days to be placed. Even after being placed, there is a correlation between the animal shelter's type of housing and the dog's behavior. Within four weeks after picking up their pet, 88% of the owners of dogs that had been housed individually complained of problems compared to the owners of the dogs that had been kept in groups, 53% of whom were completely satisfied with the adoption. Despite the fact that these results might be influenced by the small number of shelters examined, the study leads to the conclusion that keeping dogs in groups is a suitable alternative for dog housing in animal shelters and, for the animals' welfare, is preferable to individual housing.
This study explored the effect of auditory stimulation on the behavior and welfare of four zoo-housed, female Asian elephants (
Elephas maximus). All animals were exposed, in an ABA design, to two conditions of auditory stimulation: a 'control' (no auditory stimulation), and an 'experimental' condition, during which the animals were presented with a commercially-available CD of classical music. Each condition lasted for five days, with an interim period of two days between each condition (Study 1). The elephants' behavior was recorded every minute for four hours a day for the full five days of each condition using instantaneous scan-sampling. The procedure was repeated four months later (Study 2), for a shorter period of time (one day per condition, again using an ABA design) to assess whether the results are generalizable. Analysis of both studies revealed that the elephants spent significantly less of their time stereotyping during the experimental conditions than the control. None of the other behaviors recorded were influenced significantly by auditory stimulation. Overall, the findings from this study suggest that auditory stimulation, in the form of classical music, may be a useful method of reducing stereotypic behavior in zoo-housed Asian elephants, although more long-term work with a larger number of animals is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The use of microwave (MW) energy as an ignition source for combustion synthesis and compaction of intermetallics-based functionally
graded materials (FGMs) is suggested. Numerical simulation was used to investigate the temperature distribution in reacting
powders before, during, and after combustion synthesis, showing that microwaves are capable of continuing to convey energy
to the reactants and products, despite an adverse temperature gradient. Examples of the application of Microwave-Assisted
Combustion Synthesis (MACS) are reported, involving principally neat intermetallic-based FGMs belonging to the CoAl-NiAl system,
both as free-standing samples and as coatings on titanium Grade 5 alloy. Some other preliminary results on the reliability
of the here proposed experimental approach to the synthesis of free-standing samples based on intermetallic-matrix ceramic
particles reinforced FGMs are presented.
Fear and anxiety-related behaviors are common in pet dogs and are likely to cause a physiological stress response in individuals that are exposed to those things they find fear or anxiety-inducing. Stress responses are related to a number of changes in hormonal and immune modulation and have been shown in many species to be related to disease processes and shortened lifespan. It was predicted that dogs with fear and anxiety disorders would have decreased lifespan and increased disease frequency and severity.In this retrospective study, owners of 721 deceased dogs completed a 99 question on-line survey that asked about the demographics, training, behavioral characteristics, health history, age at and cause of death in their pets. Correlational and regression analyses were performed to explore relationships between behavior; fear and anxiety subscales; lifespan; and specific diseases and causes of death.Results show that how “well-behaved” an owner felt their dog was positively correlated with lifespan (R2 = 0.18, P < 0.001). Dogs with extreme non-social fear and separation anxiety were found to have an increased severity and frequency of skin disorders (R2 = 0.03, P < 0.001). While neither stranger-directed fear nor any other fear or anxiety scales were related to specific causes of death, fear of strangers was found to be related to a significantly shortened lifespan (R2 = 0.16, P < 0.001). There is evidence to suggest that the stress of living with a fear or anxiety disorder can have negative effects on health and lifespan in the domestic dog.
In general, an animal's inability to perform specific behaviours (for example, due to a lack of suitable stimuli or physical restraint) is often viewed as a cause of reduced welfare of animals kept in captivity. There is increasing evidence that the opportunity to display more species-specific appetitive behaviours is beneficial to captive animals. The present pilot study aimed to investigate the effects of feeding enrichment toys on the behaviour of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) housed under laboratory conditions.
With the aim of judging emotional valence from an animal's perspective, multiple physiological variables were recorded in sheep when they were exposed to situations likely to induce negative and positive emotional states. Fourteen sheep were conditioned for several weeks to anticipate the delivery of standard feed. In three experimental trials carried out thereafter, the animals' expectations regarding feed quality were either fulfilled by offering the familiar standard feed (control), frustrated by giving unpalatable wooden pellets (negative treatment) or surpassed by delivering enriched feed (positive treatment). Heart rate, root mean square successive difference (RMSSD), respiration rate, body-surface humidity, body-surface temperature and percentage of eye white were recorded prior to the delivery of feed (anticipation phase) and during the delivery (feeding phase) of either standard feed, wooden pellets or enriched feed. Data were analysed using linear mixed-effects models. Heart rate, respiration rate and variability of body-surface humidity were high during the delivery of wooden pellets and low during the feeding phases with standard and enriched feed; RMSSD showed an inverse pattern. In addition, heart rate was increased during the first feeding phase after the one with standard feed, independent of its presumed valence, whereas differential reactions were observed in the second feeding phase after standard feed. The results show that presumed negative and positive emotional states in sheep differ in their physiological reactions. Despite a need for validation in additional situations, the combination of heart rate, respiration rate, RMSSD and body-surface humidity appeared to be most useful for assessing physiological correlates of negative and positive emotional reactions in sheep.
A simple device for collecting saliva (mainly parotid) from sheep is described. The collection of saliva, and the assay of "free" cortisol in saliva appears to offer certain advantages over the collection of blood, and the assay of serum cortisol, for the assessment of stress in sheep. With a little experience, it is easier to collect saliva than take blood samples when sheep are passing through a race. The "free" cortisol can be measured directly in saliva, whereas in serum, it is first necessary to separate "free" from protein-bound cortisol. Basal levels of "free" cortisol of less than 10 nmol/l were recorded in saliva and blood plasma or serum in unstressed sheep which had previous experience of being handled in a race, Significant increases in salivary cortisol and "free" and total ("free" plus protein-bound) cortisol in serum were found in sheep following adrenal stimulation with synacthen, or after 30 min of stressful transport. This indicates that the salivary cortisol technique is applicable to studies of stress in sheep, and should also be useful for other ruminants.
Prepuberal gonadectomy in the hamster resulted in greater pituitary content of ACTH in adult castrates than in intact controls. Testosterone or estradiol replacement did not restore pituitary ACTH content to intact levels. Daily administration of ACTH for 2 weeks resulted in adrenal enlargement in all groups, abolished or reversed the diminutions in adrenal weight, plasma steroids, and adrenal slice steroid output observed after orchiectomy, and abolished the diminution in adrenal weight observed after ovariectomy. Pituitary content of ACTH was markedly diminished after ACTH injections in intact males and females in comparison with saline-injected controls. Pituitary release of ACTH in vitro was similarly reduced in ACTHtreated males. Testosterone replacement stimulated adrenal weight and hepatic metabolism of the side-chain of cortisol in vitro in hypophysectomized, castrated males but failed to alter adrenal slice steroid output or hepatic metabolism of ring A. Estradiol had no effect on adrenal weight,...
Beat-to-beat heart rate (HR) dynamics were studied by plotting each R-R interval as a function of the previous R-R interval (Poincaré plot) during incremental doses of atropine followed by exercise for 10 subjects and during exercise without autonomic blockade for 31 subjects. A quantitative two-dimensional vector analysis of a Poincaré plot was used by measuring separately the standard deviation of instantaneous beat-to-beat R-R interval variability (SD1) and the standard deviation of continuous long-term R-R interval variability (SD2) as well as the SD1/SD2 ratio. Quantitative Poincaré measures were compared with linear measures of HR variability (HRV) and with approximate entropy (ApEn) at rest and during exercise. A linear progressive reduction was observed in SD1 during atropine administration, and it remained almost at the zero level during exercise after a parasympathetic blockade. Atropine resulted in more variable changes in SD2 and the SD1/SD2 ratio, but during exercise after parasympathetic blockade, a progressive increase was observed in the SD1/SD2 ratio until the end of exercise. The SD1/SD2 ratio had no significant correlations with the frequency domain measures of HRV. However, the SD1/SD2 ratio had a modest correlation with ApEn at rest (r = -0.69, P < 0.001), but not during exercise (r = 0.27, P = NS). All measures of vagal modulation of HR decreased progressively until the ventilatory threshold level was reached, when sympathetic activation was reflected as changes in the SD1/SD2 ratio. These results show that quantitative two-dimensional vector analysis of a Poincaré plot can provide useful information on vagal modulation of R-R interval dynamics during exercise that are not easily detected by linear summary measures of HRV or by ApEn.