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Can Serious Games Contribute to Developing and Sustaining 21st-Century Skills?

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Serious games (SG) are innovative tools that are widely recognized as having considerable potential to foster and support active learning. This article addresses the question of whether and how SG can contribute to the development of the so-called “21st century skills” in education. This article starts by characterizing the current need for 21st century skills and the identification of these core skills. Thereafter, it reports on a literature review of studies analyzing SG impact on the development of one or more 21st century skills; and finally, it analyzes which, among the most relevant game characteristics, are those that could facilitate 21st century skills development. This study offers a multifold perspective on the use of SG to support 21st century skills development that may be helpful for both teachers and SG designers.
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Article
Can Serious Games
Contribute to
Developing and
Sustaining
21st Century Skills?
Margarida Romero
1
, Mireia Usart
2
, and Michela Ott
3
Abstract
Serious games (SG) are innovative tools that are widely recognized as having con-
siderable potential to foster and support active learning. This article addresses the
question of whether and how SG can contribute to the development of the so-called
‘‘21st century skills’’ in education. This article starts by characterizing the current
need for 21st century skills and the identification of these core skills. Thereafter,
it reports on a literature review of studies analyzing SG impact on the development
of one or more 21st century skills; and finally, it analyzes which, among the most
relevant game characteristics, are those that could facilitate 21st century skills
development. This study offers a multifold perspective on the use of SG to support
21st century skills development that may be helpful for both teachers and
SG designers.
Keywords
education, serious games, 21st century skills, game-based learning, competence-
based education
1
Universite
´Laval, Que
´bec, Canada
2
ESADE—Universitat Ramon Llull, Sant Cugat del Valles, Spain
3
Institute for Educational Technology, National Research Council, Genoa, Italy
Corresponding Author:
Margarida Romero, Universite
´Laval, 2320 rue des Bibliothe
`ques, local 1112, Que
´bec, Canada G1V 0A6.
Email: margarida.romero@fse.ulaval.ca
Games and Culture
2015, Vol. 10(2) 148-177
ªThe Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/1555412014548919
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Introduction
There is a need to develop new skills to face future challenges and prepare students
for new jobs and technologies, including those job roles that do not yet exist (Fisch
& McLeod, 2009). In society in general and education in particular, transition from
the 20th century to the 21st century has brought important changes. First, according
to Prensky (2004), technology has become ‘‘an entire strategy for how to live,
survive and thrive in the 21st Century’’ (p. 2). Prensky observes that youth today
communicate, buy and sell, search information, and socialize differently. The 21st
century context requires a new set of competences beyond the obvious information
and communication technology (ICT) literacy: communication, collaboration, social
and cultural skills, creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, productivity in a
globalized world, learning to learn skills, self-direction, planning, flexibility, risk
taking, conflict management, and a sense of initiative and entrepreneurship (Voogt
& Pareja Roblin, 2012). Such new skills and competences are commonly defined as
‘21st century skills’’ in opposition to the 20th century skills (Wisniewski, 2010),
based on the 3 R’s of Reading, wRiting, and aRithmetic and focusing on the ‘‘lower
levels of Bloom’s taxonomy—knowledge, comprehension and application’’ (p. 57).
According to Trilling and Fadel (2009), the 21st century skills term defines the new
set of skills required to succeed in learning, working, and living. These 21st century
skills should be developed by everyone, from primary school pupils to lifelong stu-
dents and those involved in informal learning settings. To sustain the development of
21st century skills, the effectiveness of adopting active learning methodologies that
encourage self-regulated learning is widely acknowledged (Bell & Kozlowski,
2008). Active learning methodologies involve activities that emphasize the develop-
ment of learner skills (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). Active learning covers forms of
learning in which the learner has some control over the input of information (Cohn,
Atlas, & Ladner, 1994). It enhances the learner engagement in learning tasks and
offers significant added value to provide learners with the abilities to cope with new
challenges, solve problems (Edens, 2000), and adapt to changes in technology,
knowledge, and jobs.
Games are a form of active learning that enable the learner to have some control
of the game activity and engage in interaction. Game-based learning (GBL) is
grounded in active learning methodologies and encourages learning activities by
building on engagement and challenges to achieve the intended learning objectives.
Games can therefore be considered among the tools to develop new skills for the
21st century (Prensky, 2006; Redecker et al., 2011) as well as being ‘‘central nodes
in the organization of contemporary leisure culture, computer-mediated interaction,
visual culture, and information societies’’ (Simon, 2006, p. 64). Playing games could
develop a ‘‘gamer disposition’’ that could foster learners to thrive on change, dis-
cover new insight, and learn how to overcome obstacles (Brown & Thomas,
2008). Although games, in general, could be analyzed for their contribution to
21st century skills, in this article, we delimit our focus on education-oriented games
Romero et al. 149
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or serious games (SG) as ‘‘games in which education (in its various forms) is the pri-
mary goal, rather than entertainment’’ (Michael & Chen, 2005, p. 17).
In this article, we tackle the issue of whether and how SG can support the devel-
opment of 21st century skills in the various modalities and levels of formal and
informal education. The article aims to answer the following research questions:
Research Question 1: What exactly do we mean by 21st century skills?
Research Question 2: Is there any evidence that SG are being used to
develop 21st century skills? (whether)
Research Question 3: What are the game characteristics supporting 21st
century skills development? (how)
To answer the first question, we introduce the nature and type of the so-called
21st century skills and the core skills in the following sections. To answer the second
question, we conduct a literature review of SG and provide evidence of the use of SG
for the development of at least one of the core 21st century skills. The analysis of the
SG identified in the literature to support 21st century skills enables us to answer the
third research question in this article by analyzing the characteristics of SG that
support each of the 21st century skills.
Finally, we discuss the current opportunities and limits in the use of SG to
develop 21st century skills, as well as the steps in game design and the teaching use
of games that could help achieve this objective.
Identification of 21st Century Skills
Education has been traditionally focused on knowledge transmission in a context of
formal educational settings. In the final decades of the 20th century, a learner-
centered approach to education enabled a competency-based orientation in formal and
informal settings to be introduced (Grant & Associates, 1979; Spady, 1977). In
competency-based education, the emphasis is not on the curriculum and domain-
specific knowledge but is oriented to a learner-centered and outcome-based approach.
Despite the wide controversy on the distinction between competences and skills, in
this article we follow Sue, Arredondo, and McDavis (1992) who characterize compe-
tence as a set of knowledge (K), beliefs and attitudes (A), and skills (S). In the context
of digital games, Che Pee (2011, p. 22) consider competence as a ‘‘combination of
knowledge, skills, and behavior leading to an individual being able to perform a cer-
tain task to a given level.’’ Accordingly, skill is the part of the competence related to
the ability to behave effectively and engage certain attitudes and knowledge in action-
oriented situations (Argyris & Schon, 1974). Carmeli and Tishler (2006) define skills
as the ‘‘ability to do something in an effective manner’’ (p. 13). The characterization
of the core or key skills in each educational system and society is one of the main chal-
lenges for educational policy makers. The knowledge society requires a new set of
skills to cope with the knowledge-based economy and uncertain worldwide changes
150 Games and Culture 10(2)
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(Fisch & McLeod, 2009). This has led to the definition of the so-called 21st century
skills and their respective frameworks of reference (Binkley et al., 2011; Dede, 2010;
Redecker et al., 2011).
Since the first references to 21st century skills in the final decades of the last cen-
tury (Jones, 1996; Stuart & Dahm, 1999), much has been published in the literature
about these skills in an attempt to identify them precisely. Various definitions and
classifications were proposed over the following years, and researchers have consid-
ered the characterization of 21st century skills from many perspectives, for example:
Binkley and colleagues (2011) defined 21st century skills as ways of thinking,
working, and living in connected, media-rich worlds;
Redecker and colleagues (2011) in the Joint Research Center report for the
EU Commission looked at the issue from the perspective of three general
categories: (1) personal skills (initiative, resilience, responsibility, risk taking,
and creativity); (2) social skills (team, networking, empathy, compassion, and
co-constructing); and (3) learning skills (managing, organizing, metacogni-
tive skills, and failing forward).
From an ICT-focused perspective, Dede (2010) included the following in a
list of newly required abilities: ‘‘information problem solving’’ or ‘‘the ability
to rapidly filter huge amounts of incoming data; extracting information valu-
able for decision making;’’ and ‘‘the ability to separate signal from noise in a
potentially overwhelming flood of incoming data’’ (p. 5).
Furthermore, educational organizations have developed structured frameworks to
define 21st century skills based on educational needs analysis, including a categor-
ization of skills and a characterization of each of the skills in relation to the frame-
work. Figure 1 shows two exemplar 21st century skills frameworks by the
Partnership for 21st century skills (P21, 2007) and EnGauge.
In the cited literature on 21st century skills, there is no consensual shared defini-
tion of the concept—nor is there a list of skills. As underlined by Kickmeier-Rust and
Dietrich (2012, p. 681), the major challenge hindering the possibility of providing a
shared definition and formal model for 21st century skills arises from ‘‘the unclear,
probably vague and highly informal nature of these 21st century skills.’’ However,
different authors and educational organizations have developed different concep-
tualizations of such skills by building on each other’s ideas so as to avoid a ‘‘Tower
of Babel’’ situation (Dede, 2010). The resulting frameworks are largely consistent
and generally focus on skills such as innovative thinking, creative problem solving,
metacognitive abilities, communication, and collaboration. According to Kickmeier-
Rust and Dietrich (2012, p. 680), 21st century skills involve ‘‘meta-skills such
as problem solving, non-linear thinking, creativity, or communication skills.’
With the final aim of studying the impact of SG on the skills required to live in and
be proactive actors in the knowledge society, we refer to the skills reported by Voogt
and Pareja Roblin (2012). These authors proposed an extensive list of the skills found
Romero et al. 151
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Figure 1. Partnership for 21st century skills (left) and EnGauge (right).
152 Games and Culture 10(2)
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in six relevant frameworks on 21st century skills, namely, P21, 2007, EnGauge 21st
century skills (Metiri Group & North Central Regional Educational Laboratory,
2003), assessment and teaching of 21st century skills (ATCS), National Educational
Technology Standards and International Society for Technology in Education
(NETS/ISTE) framework, competences for new millennium learners by Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2005), and Center for Social
and Economic Research (Gordon et al., 2009). Voogt and Pareja Roblin developed
a meta-analysis of these six frameworks to identify the skills included in these differ-
ent frameworks and then categorized the skills according to their shared presence. The
categorization of 21st century skills made by these authors is shown in Table 1, which
also shows the level of frequency of each skill in the frameworks.
The skills identified by Voogt and Pareja Roblin (2012), namely, communication,
collaboration, ICT literacy, and social and/or cultural skills, appear in all six revised
frameworks, as well as matching two of the 4Cs proposed by Frydenberg and
Andone (2011), namely, critical thinking and problem-solving, communication, col-
laboration, creativity, and innovation skills. ICT literacy is widely recognized as a
key skill in the knowledge society (Bawden, 2008; Ferrari, 2012). Following these
results, we can assume that, in addition to the ICT skills clearly emerging during the
last decades, communication and collaboration are two major skills that we must
take into account for success in modern society. These skills go far beyond the tra-
ditional 3Rs (Reading, wRiting, and aRithmetic) of the 20th-century skills panorama
and are a promise to help students and professionals to meet present demands of life-
long learning.
Investigating Whether SG Can Contribute to Developing
21st Century Skills
SG researchers agree on the value of games as tools to develop the skills needed in the
knowledge society (Kickmeier-Rust & Dietrich, 2012; Pivec, 2007; Redecker et al.,
Table 1. Summary of 21st Century Skills Mentioned in Six Related Frameworks.
Mentioned in all
frameworks
Mentioned in most
frameworks
Mentioned in a few
frameworks
Mentioned only in
one framework
Communication
Collaboration
ICT literacy
Social and/or
cultural skills
Creativity
Critical
thinking
Problem
solving
Develop
quality
products/
productivity
Learning to
learn
Self-direction
Planning
Flexibility, and
adaptability
Risk taking
Manage and solve
conflicts
Sense of initiative and
entrepreneurship
Romero et al. 153
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2011, Westera, Nadolski, Hummel, & Wopereis, 2008). According to Pivec, games
enable an active learning approach that encourages ‘‘critical thinking, group commu-
nication, debate and decision making’’ (p. 391). Additionally, Westera, Nadolski,
Hummel, and Wopereis (2008) highlight the contribution of SG to developing skills,
especially those ‘‘needed in the information age: self-regulation, information skills,
networked co-operation, problem solving strategies and critical thinking’’ (p. 420).
To understand whether SG can profitably be used to this end, we have searched
the literature for specific case studies demonstrating the effectiveness of SG in
developing 21st century skills.
Method
To answer the second research question, ‘‘Is there any evidence that SG are used to
develop 21st century skills?’’ we have reviewed studies that analyze the use of SG
for the development of these skills. The search strategy has been developed in the ISI
Web of Knowledge, ProQuest, Scopus, and Google Scholar, using the following
keywords in the search engines: ‘‘serious game’’, ‘‘skill’’, ‘‘competency’’, and
‘competence’’ and then combining the keyword ‘‘serious games’’ and the name for
each of the skills identified by Voogt and Pareja Roblin (2012; see Table 1).
In Table 2, we report on studies analyzing the potential of SG to develop each of
the competences identified by Voogt and Pareja Roblin (2012). The goal of this
selection of examples of SG is to identify exemplary SG that will facilitate a subse-
quent analysis of the game characteristics that support 21st century skills. The search
strategy was developed in the EBSCO database, combining the terms associated
with each of the 21st century skills and the synonyms appearing in the literature. The
terms used for the search strategy corresponds to each of the terms in the first column
of Table 2, combined with the terms ‘‘serious games’’, ‘‘digital game based learn-
ing’’, and ‘‘SG’’. When the result of the 21st century skills and serious game pro-
vided more than 10 results, the articles were selected according to their impact in
other studies referring to them. However, the 21st century skills of ‘‘ICT literacy’’,
‘computer literacy’’, ‘‘digital literacy’’, or ‘‘eCompetence’’ did not provide any
results, and none of the articles explicitly declared the learning objective of ICT lit-
eracy, computer literacy, digital literacy, or eCompetence. In this article, we discuss
this specific research difficulty in the Discussion section. In Table 2, the frequency
column (freq.) includes the four skills considered in all the frameworks revised by
Voogt and Pareja Roblin (2012) under the term ‘‘all’’; the term ‘‘most’’ includes the
skills considered in most frameworks (i.e., P21, EnGauge, ATCS, and NETS/ISTE);
the term ‘‘few’’ includes the skills included in just a few frameworks; and finally, the
term ‘‘one’’ includes skills considered in only one framework.
Results show a diversity of SG used to train each of the 21st century skills. Most
of the studies focus on supporting one of the skills. However, we can consider that all
games studied encourage ICT literacy skills because they focus on the use of a
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Table 2. Games Whose Effectiveness for Sustaining 21st Century Skills Has Been Reported
in the Literature.
Freq. 21st century skills
Serious game examples related to each
of the 21st century skills
All Collaboration/teamwork, the ability
of team members to coordinate
themselves to accomplish tasks
(Stevens & Campion, 1999)
contributing to decision making
to accomplish a common goal,
assuming responsibility, and a
certain leadership for
collaborative tasks
Most SG encourage individual skills
development. However, despite this
result from the literature review, we
selected four representative studies as
examples of the use of multiplayer games
that develop teamwork skills. Two of
these studies address teamwork in terms
of group development and leadership.
The Leadership Game is a multiplayer
online SG intended to develop
leadership skills in teamwork (Ferretti,
Brami, Quero, & Fiorese, 2010).
NoviCraft team building and leadership
solution is an immersive multiplayer 3D
application for assessing, building, and
developing leaders, teams, and
teamwork (Ha
¨kkinen, Bluemink,
Juntunen, & Laakkonen, 2009). Two
other games focus on the decision-
making process of teamwork. Linehan,
Lawson, and Doughty (2009) developed
a serious game to encourage collabora-
tive decision-making behavior. The SG
MetaVals aims to develop collective
decision making in dyads (Romero,
Usart, & Almirall, 2011; Usart, Romero,
& Almirall, 2011)
All Communication—the ability to
‘‘articulate thoughts and ideas
clearly and effectively through
speaking and writing’’ (Buck
Institute for Education, 2012)
The literature review enabled the
identification of two SG aspects
contributing to communication skills
development through the use of SG.
First, by allowing the players to interact
among themselves in a virtual
environment: this is the case of VECTOR,
a cultural SG that places learners in a
virtual foreign town for language learning
(Johnson, 2007). Second, communication
skills are developed by interacting with a
virtual player. In this line, the SG
deLearyous aims to develop an
environment in which users can improve
their communication skills by interacting
with a virtual character (Vaassen &
Daelemans, 2011)
(continued)
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Table 2. (continued)
Freq. 21st century skills
Serious game examples related to each
of the 21st century skills
All ICT literacy/computer or digital
literacy/eCompetence as the
ability to use computers and
digital devices for personal
and professional purposes
We should consider the development of
ICT literacy not only as an indirect result
of the use of SG as digital environments
but also as a learning objective that some
SG could be designed to support.
First, we should consider SG as a digital
environment requiring a certain level of
ICT literacy. In this sense, one of the
challenges in the use of SG in formal
education is the lack of ICT literacy
among teachers and some of the adult
learners that could be considered as
digital migrants (Prensky, 2001).
However, SG helps to develop digital
literacy through computer-based learn-
ing and human computer interaction
(HCI) developed through gameplay.
Prensky (2003) claims that SG contri-
butes to developing ICT literacy for
teachers and learners. More generally,
Subrahmanyam, Greenfield, Kraut, and
Gross (2001) consider that for skills to
be enhanced by gameplaying, players
must already possess such skills to some
degree. Therefore, learners engaged in
SG require a basic level of ICT literacy,
but could benefit from the use of SG to
develop this skill. For this reason, SG
designers should consider HCI studies to
develop ease of use among learners and
increase acceptance among those with
low levels of ICT literacy.
Second, some SG develop ICT literacy
skills—such as JobScout (http://myjobs-
cout.org). This game aims to increase
digital literacy to support employment
searches on the Internet
All Social skills/cultural skills/cultural
heritage awareness/citizenship
as the ability to understand the
social and cultural context, to
act as citizens and the ability
to interact with others in a
given social context
Anderson and colleagues (2010) developed
a review of games in order to develop
cultural heritage awareness. One of the
interests Anderson and colleagues
highlight in the use of SG for cultural
heritage awareness is a virtual and
augmented reality. More recently,
Mortara and colleagues (2013) analyzed
(continued)
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Table 2. (continued)
Freq. 21st century skills
Serious game examples related to each
of the 21st century skills
the use of SG for cultural heritage
awareness in the context of Japanese
culture and etiquette. They analyzed the
impact of the game through Bloom’s
taxonomy, but also took into account
the gaming and learning experience of
the students, which stressed the interest
of games for long-term retention and
learners’ engagement.
Icura (Mortara et al., 2013).
Civilization (Apperley, 2006)
Revolution (Francis, 2006)
Virtual Egyptian Temple (Jacobson, &
Holden, 2005).
Enhanced-learning environments with
creative technologies for bilateral nego-
tiations (ELECT BiLAT) is an SG immer-
sive learning environment that teaches
the preparation, execution, and under-
standing of bilateral meetings in a cultural
context (Hill et al., 2006), and so con-
tributes to the development of cross-
cultural awareness (Lane et al., 2008).
Similar to this SG, the Tactical Language
and Culture Training System (TLCTS) is a
story-centric SG mostly used to train
soldiers in cultural, verbal, and nonverbal
communication (Johnson, & Wu, 2008)
Most Creativity as the ability to generate
original, valuable, or useful ideas
(Sternberg & Lubart, 1995) in
individual and collaborative
contexts (Romero, Hyvo
¨nen,
& Barbera
`, 2012)
There is a growing number of SG aiming to
develop the skill of creativity and we
identify four examples. Pannese,
Hallmeier, Hetzner, and Confalonieri
(2009) analyze the uses of storytelling
and serious games to foster learner
creativity and encourage awareness. In
the study of Song (2008), individual
games stimulated learner creativity
which was then transferred to the group
blogs. Ott and Pozzi (2011) analyze the
use of mind games to elicit creative
attitudes in the context of primary
education.
Finally, creating games through game
building environments such as Kodu
(continued)
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Table 2. (continued)
Freq. 21st century skills
Serious game examples related to each
of the 21st century skills
supports learner creativity and ICT
literacy by helping the players to learn
programming (MacLaurin, 2009)
Most Critical thinking as the ability
to develop critique and
‘‘disciplined self-directed
thinking’’ (Paul, 1990)
Gameplaying might increase learner critical
thinking and problem-solving skills (Katz,
2000; Prensky, 2000) if the game avoids
‘‘quick answers and fast action for
reflection and critical thinking’’ (Michael
& Chen, 2005, p. 13). For Graesser,
Chipman, Leeming, and Biedenbach
(2009, p. 93) ‘‘games are deep in the
sense that the content and skills tap deep
reasoning, critical thinking, complex
systems, causal chains and networks.’’
Jenkins and colleagues (2009) observe
that SG ‘‘effectively engage students
(notably, female students responded
very well) in critical thinking about
authentic scientifically based scenarios
and enhance their interest in these sce-
narios’’ (p. 459)
Despite the fact that SG are discussed as
a learning environment that could foster
critical thinking if they have a certain
level of complexity, we only identified
one SG specifically addressing this 21st
century skill, the Critical Thinking Training
Game. This SG has been designed to
specifically support critical thinking as
one of the key skills required by the U.S.
Navy
Most Problem solving as the ability to
develop a sequence of actions
to achieve a goal (Cohen &
Feigenbaum, 1982)
Certain approaches to SG gameplay involve
problem-solving skills. Adventure games
are especially good at developing prob-
lem solving skills. In The Adventures of
Jasper Woodbury developed by the Cog-
nition and Technology Group at Van-
derbilt University (1997), learners are
engaged in completing the game and
solving the problems they encounter
Most Develop quality products/productivity
(all except ATCS) as the ability
to ‘‘set and meet high standards
and goals for delivering quality
Despite McGonigal’s (2011) arguments
regarding the benefits of games for
improving professional and personal
words, games are often perceived as an
(continued)
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Table 2. (continued)
Freq. 21st century skills
Serious game examples related to each
of the 21st century skills
work on time; demonstrating
diligence and a positive work
ethic’’ (BIE, 2012)
unproductive waste of time, especially
among nongamer women (Royse, Lee,
Undrahbuyan, Hopson, & Consalvo,
2007). The literature review allows us to
identify only a few examples of SG aimed
at explicitly developing quality
orientation or productivity. The Good
Productivity Game (Lutzker & White-
Blackburn, 1979) develops productivity
skills by providing just-in-time feedback.
In Taskville (Nikkila, Linn, Sundaram, &
Kelliher, 2011), productivity increases
while the game is played
Few Learning to learn (ATCS, EU) is ‘‘a
set of meta-skills that enable
(lifelong) learners to successfully
construct and shape their own
learning process’’ (European
Commission, 2002, p. 31)
In the context of face-to-face games, Raser
(1969, p. 115) notes that ‘‘gaming is, in
essence, a process of developing skills
that increase one’s ability to learn new
facts and abilities.’’ In digital games, Pivec
(2012) affirms that games could develop
the ‘‘learning to learn’’ skill by experi-
menting within a safe environment. Ray-
bourn (2009) describes the development
of the multiplayer computer game—
America’s Army Adaptive Thinking & Lead-
ership—that was created to train inter-
cultural competence and learning-to-
learn skills related to metacognitive agi-
lity (self-awareness and self-regulated
learning)
Few Self-direction/self-regulation (P21,
EnGauge, and OECD). In relation
to learning-to-learn skills,
self-direction is defined as the
ability to set goals and plan for the
achievement of those goals. Vohs
and Baumeister (2004, p. 2) define
‘‘self-regulation’’ as ‘‘the exercise
of control over oneself, especially
with regard to bringing the self
into line with preferred (thus,
regular) standards’’
SG involve different degrees of self-
direction and self-regulation, depending
on the game mechanics and the possi-
bility for learners to choose and plan the
goals, and adapt their behavior to
achieve goals. Virtual games are one of
the categories of SG that enable learners
to have a higher degree of self-direction
and self-regulation. According to Lane
(2007), self-regulation is demanded for
playing in the TLCTS language and cul-
tural virtual game, as part of the inter-
cultural development within the
gameplay. Wagner (2008) analyzes the
use of massively multiplayer online role-
playing games (MMORPG) as
(continued)
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Table 2. (continued)
Freq. 21st century skills
Serious game examples related to each
of the 21st century skills
constructivist learning environments
enabling 21st century skills development.
He argues that MMORPG could help
learners develop self-regulation skills
because they must be dedicated and
disciplined to succeed in the game. He
discusses MMORPG MIT Revolution and
Indiana University’s Arden: The World of
William Shakespeare (both of which are
modifications of the commercial game
Neverwinter Nights)
In the field of health care and well-being,
SG could foster self-regulation through
the use of physiological feedback to
support self-regulation skill develop-
ment. An example is the Auction Game
analyzed by Jercic et al. (2012) to
develop player emotion regulation in the
context of financial decision making
Few Planning (EnGauge and OECD) as
the ability to analyze a situation
and create a mental simulation of
future actions
SG allow different degrees of action
planning and strategy during the game.
Some of the games in the category of
strategy involve the development of
planning, as well as flexibility and
adaptability skills. In the SG RollerCoaster
Tycoon (www.rollercoastertycoon.com),
players create companies or build theme
parks and so develop strategic thinking
and planning skills (British Broadcasting
Corporation, 2002)
Few Flexibility and adaptability (P21 and
EnGauge) as the ability to
reconfigure current and future
actions (planning) in response to
contextual demands
Similar to planning potential, SG enable
different degrees of flexibility and
adaptability according to the changing
contextual demands or programmed
critical incidents. Simulation Roulette is a
health care game where the learners deal
with random complications and prove
their flexibility and adaptability skills
(Frederick, Corvetto, Hobbs, &
Taekman, 2011). In a military context,
the ATL training simulation is a
multiplayer simulation created for the
Adaptive Thinking & Leadership (ATL)
Program to train special force team
leaders; in particular, it aims to develop
(continued)
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Table 2. (continued)
Freq. 21st century skills
Serious game examples related to each
of the 21st century skills
adaptability, effective communication,
analyze ambiguous situations, teach self-
awareness and innovative thinking, and
critically use effective problem-solving
skills (Raybourn, Deagle, Mendini, &
Heneghan, 2005)
One Risk taking (EnGauge) as the ability to
make decisions under uncertainty
SG are risk-free environments that facili-
tate discovery learning, curiosity, and
perseverance (Kirriemuir, 2002). This
game characteristic makes SG ideal for
developing risk taking and management
skills and transferring them to real life.
An example is Hot Shot Business (Jason,
2003), where the player takes the risk of
opening a self-financed business or
obtaining a loan from a bank. Another
SG that aims to support risk taking in
other fields, such as food safety, is Serious
Gordon (Mac Namee et al., 2006)
One Manage and solve conflicts (OECD) as
the ability to identify and manage
conflicts in different situations
The SIREN project aims to develop social
games for conflict resolution based on
natural interaction. Within this project,
Cheong and colleagues (2011) study the
value of serious games for conflict
resolution skills; they have developed an
SG prototype to support the skill of
conflict resolution (Berger, Liapis, &
Yannakakis, 2012). In another approach,
Smith (2004) denounces the risks of
conflict being transferred in multiplayer
games based on cheating and antisocial
behavior
One Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship
(EU) as ‘‘a process by which
individuals—either on their own
or inside organizations—pursue
opportunities without regard to
the resources they currently
control’’ (Stevenson & Jarillo,
1990, p. 23)
There is an increasing number of
entrepreneurship SG in management
education aiming at developing this skill
within students and adult learners. We
selected two examples representing two
approaches. The first approach is a
business simulation that helps to develop
entrepreneurship skills. The SG
SimVenture offers a holistic view of the
common processes of running a small
business. SimVenture has been analyzed
(continued)
Romero et al. 161
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computer-based environment with a certain level of human–computer interaction;
therefore, users need basic ICT skills in order to significantly play the game.
The analysis of the examples of SG aiming to support social and cultural skills
leads us to observe that these games are based on communication; and therefore,
communication skills are in some cases already supported as a metaskill during the
development of social and cultural skills. The development of interpersonal abilities
such as social, cultural, and communication skills is supported by games that employ
virtual worlds where the players can interact with other players or virtual characters.
These games are also used to develop communication skills, combining the potential
of virtual worlds to develop cultural, social, and communication skills.
Among the results of this literature review, only one result showed an SG that is
intended to develop all the 21st century skills, namely, ATCS, an SG that ‘‘addresses
the issue of assessment and teaching of 21st century skills’’ (ATCS; Griffin,
McGaw, & Care, 2012, p. 4). To articulate the 21st century skills, the ATCS has
grouped these skills into two main categories: collaborative problem-solving and
ICT literacy.
Table 2. (continued)
Freq. 21st century skills
Serious game examples related to each
of the 21st century skills
as an engaging environment for
encouraging entrepreneurship skills
(King & Newman, 2009; Williams, 2011)
The second approach is the design of an
SG that develops the abilities,
conceptions, and theories related to
entrepreneurship. In this line, Babson
Business School has developed ‘‘a game
to support learning about how
entrepreneurs think under conditions of
risk, uncertainty, and unknowability.’’
The game is based on the theory of
effectuation (Sarasvathy, 2008) and is
designed to replace a case study for in-
class discussion on entrepreneurial
thinking. Overall, the use of SG is part of
the method approach; it gives students a
different environment to practice
entrepreneurship
Note. SG ¼serious games; 3D ¼three-dimensional; VECTOR ¼Virtual environment cultural training for
operational readiness; ICT ¼information and communication technology; ATCS ¼assessment and
teaching of 21st century skills; P21 ¼Partnership for 21st century skills; OECD ¼Organization for Eco-
nomic Cooperation and Development; MIT ¼Massachusetts Institute of Technology; SIREN ¼Social
games for conflict resolution.
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How SG Can Support the Development of 21st
Century Skills
After identifying studies focused on the use of SG to develop 21st century skills, we
observe that certain skills are better developed within certain categories of games.
Virtual worlds facilitate complex collaboration games to develop communication,
cultural, and decision making (Lane et al., 2008); while strategy games contribute
to the development of planning, flexibility, and adaptability skills (Frederick,
Corvetto, Hobbs, & Taekman, 2011). In this section, we aim to identify which are
the most relevant characteristics embedded into SG that support the development
of one or more 21st century skills. To identify the SG characteristics that could sup-
port skills development, we first produced a game characteristics classification by
reviewing the pioneer studies on analogical GBL, and subsequently, we focused
on computer-based games and SG. In the following section, a classification analyzes
each of the SG characteristics in relation to their potential for developing and
sustaining 21st century skills.
Garris, Ahlers, and Driskell (2002) reviewed the literature on game characteris-
tics. Their study focuses on the evolution of game characteristics since the 1950s,
when Wittgenstein (1953, 1958) highlighted the difficulty of defining the essential
characteristics of games as he could not see any properties common to all games.
Later, Crookall, Oxford, and Saunders (1987) distinguished between games and
simulations. The authors noted that games do not necessarily intend to represent the
real world as simulations do. In this line, Thomas and Macredie (1994) claimed that
the core characteristic of games is that actions have no real-world consequences; this
enables learners to practice safely without fear of failure. Based on their literature
review, Crookall, Oxford, and Saunders identified various game characteristics,
rules, and strategies—and the costs of losing a game. De Felix and Johnston
(1993) studied the structural components of a game, such as dynamic visuals, inter-
action, rules, and goals. Malone (1981) introduced the characteristics of challenge,
fantasy, complexity, and control to identify the level of engagement in educational
games.
According to Alessi and Trollip (2001), game characteristics can include compe-
tition and rules. Other authors focus on the characteristics of interactivity (Thornton
& Cleveland, 1990), challenging activities (Malone, 1981), choices (Hannafin &
Peck, 1988), and fantasy (Charsky, 2010). These characteristics could challenge
structured and organized activity (Crawford, 2003) and help learners acquire and
practice skills (Charsky, 2010).
Thanks to these game characteristics, SG motivate learners to complete learning
activities and provide them with authentic learning experiences where entertainment
and learning are seamlessly integrated (Gee, 2005; Prensky, 2001). SG designers use
these characteristics consciously and apply them differently to differing game genres
(racing games, fighting games, and role-playing games [RPGs]) to facilitate learning
and skill development objectives.
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Game Characteristics Classification
After reviewing the game characteristics identified by different SG researchers, this
section defines a classification of SG characteristics in relation to their potential for
developing and sustaining 21st century skills. Table 3 presents a classification of
game characteristics supporting the development of 21st century skills. It is based
on the works of Garris et al. (2002) and Charsky (2010) and shows five main char-
acteristics (left column/bold items). The game characteristics classification of Garris
et al. (2002), fantasy, sensory stimuli, challenge, mystery, and sense of control that
games provide foster a state of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flows’ theory under-
lies the highly accepted game characteristics framework of Garris et al. (2002) and
the subsequent development of Charsky (2010). In the light of Charsky’s work, a
second level of classification (right column) is presented that helps make the classi-
fication more complete. We describe the characteristics of the classification in rela-
tion to their potential for developing and sustaining 21st century skills subsequently:
Competition and goals. Clear rules, goals, and feedback on progress toward goals are
needed in SG, specifically rules and goals (Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002).
Charsky divides this category into three different characteristics.
Competition. Needed to make learning enjoyable and motivate learners to
complete the game. The achievement of goals reflects the effort invested. When
completed, we assume that learning took place.
Collaboration. Helps to teach leadership principles: delegation, empowerment,
crises handling, application of knowledge, and information analysis.
Complex collaboration. A greater degree of collaboration, as found in some multi-
player online role-playing games, can help develop a flexible knowledge structure
among gamers.
Table 3. Charsky (2010) Game Characteristics Classification.
Competition and goals Competition
Collaboration
Complex collaboration
Choice Expressive
Strategy
Tactical
Rules
Fantasy Fidelity
Context
Challenge
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Rules. This game characteristic is defined by Charsky (2010) as the constraints
that limit actions in games and such constraints may help learners achieve lower
order skills.
Choice. The number of options and decisions a gamer has before or during gameplay
are as follows:
Expressive. This involves choosing an avatar and designing an identity for a game.
It can be used to develop empathy, a sense of pride, identity, progress in the game,
and contributes to immersive learning.
Strategy. This provides a suitable level of difficulty and a powerful learning
experience. Debriefing could play a key role in assisting learners to understand their
errors, so that they can correct or overcome them.
Tactical. The gamer chooses a path or help. This involves decision making and
adaptation to ‘‘pushed’’ learning by providing key information, assistance, coaching,
or guidance.
Fantasy
Fidelity. The use of graphics, audio, video, three-dimensional virtual worlds, and
artificial intelligence to represent reality. This represents the game designer’s
attempt to provide motivating and exciting gameplay. The learner needs to engage
with exact replicas of devices or places when learning how to develop in a real
environment (as in simulations).
Context. The setting, narrative, story, scenario, characters, back story, problem,
and so on, for the gameplay (Crawford, 2003). A well-written story with resounding
characters and plot can enhance the authenticity. The gamer is not simply moving
along with the story but is crafting the narrative with decisions and performance that
can create a more authentic experience (Gee, 2005; Rollings & Adams, 2003).
Learning through authentic scenarios could involve learning complex management
and administrative practices.
Challenges. The challenge is the instructional content—answering the math
problem—and many edutainment games consist of drill and practice activities that
are sugar coated with game characteristics. The gamer typically acquires skills that
lead to more complex challenges and thus more opportunities to acquire more skills
and knowledge (Gee, 2003). Guiding the gamer to organize and reflect on their
understanding is as important in a serious game as facilitating knowledge acquisition
and transfer (Moreno & Mayer, 2005). Understanding could be deepened by offering
an optimal level of difficulty and uncertain goal attainment (Garris et al., 2002).
It is important to remark that although we have listed each characteristic sepa-
rately, they are inherently interdependent, and all have a similar overall purpose
in motivating the learner.
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Matching Game Characteristics and 21st Century Skills
To identify how to better tailor SG to fulfill the objective of learning 21st century
skills, we have paired each of the game characteristics with the 21st century skills
identified previously, based on the qualitative analysis of the literature reviewed
in Table 2. Table 4 shows the degree of relevance of each of the game characteristics
(competition, strategy, etc.) for each of the 21st century skills. Four levels of corre-
spondence have been identified: (1, High, XXX) an unquestionable relationship
between the presence of the game characteristic and the potential for developing the
skill; (2, Medium, XX) where the presence of the game characteristic could poten-
tially develop the skill; (3, Low, X) where a relationship between the game charac-
teristic and the skill is possible in certain conditions; and (4, Not defined) where a
priori, a clear relationship between the game characteristic and the development
of the skill cannot be established.
It can be seen that there is a direct connection between the competition and goal
characteristics for the development of collaborative and social skills. For the three
different choice characteristics, it is important to note that the ‘‘expressive’’ charac-
teristic is used for working on cultural and expression skills, as well as for ICT devel-
opment skills. However, strategy and tactical choices in SG could sustain the same
skills: critical thinking, problem solving, learning to learn, self-direction, planning,
flexibility and adaptability, risk taking, and a sense of initiative and entrepreneur-
ship. Game rules could help develop citizenship, adaptability, and productivity
skills. Fantasy characteristics are related to creativity—but few other skills; how-
ever, fidelity and context could help learning to learn, flexibility, adaptability, and
social and cultural skills. The great degree of flexibility and range of plausible paths
to success could help learners develop a flexible knowledge base that can be applied
to a variety of real-world situations (Koster, 2013; Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, &
Coulson, 1991). Such a knowledge base can be related to creativity, critical thinking,
self-direction, planning, flexibility, and adaptability, as well as sense of initiative
and entrepreneurship. Finally, the challenge characteristic in games is core for many
authors, but this characteristic does not develop many skills in itself, although it
might be essential for training concepts of entrepreneurship.
In summary, we can say that the key characteristics of SG enable the developing
and sustaining of 21st century skills. Figure 2 shows the degree to which each game
characteristic contributes to the development of 21st century skills.
Discussion
Complex collaboration is the game characteristic that contributes the most to the
development of 21st century skills. Complex collaboration and collaboration results
from Table 4 show the importance of these key characteristics when designing and
implementing SG to develop 21st century skills. Choice, strategy, and tactical
characteristics are three important features to develop these skills. Both of these
166 Games and Culture 10(2)
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Table 4. Pairing Serious Game Characteristics and 21st Century Skills.
Game characteristics skills
(a) Competition and goals (b) Choice
(c)
Rules (d) Fantasy
(e)
Challenge
Competition
(a.1)
Collaboration
(a.2)
Complex
collaboration
(a.3)
Expressive
(b.1)
Strategy
(b.2)
Tactical
(b.3)
Fidelity
(d.1)
Context
(d.2)
Collaboration/teamwork X XXX XX X X X X X
Communication X XXX XX X X X
ICT literacy X XX XX XX X X
Social and/or cultural skills;
citizenship
XX XX XX XX XX XX
Creativity X X X XX XX
Critical thinking X X XX XXX XXX X X X
Problem solving X X XX XX XX X X X
Develop quality/
productivity
XXX XX XX
Learning to learn X X X X X X
Self-direction X X XX X XXX XXX
Planning X X XX XXX XXX X X
Flexibility and adaptability X X XX XXX XXX X X
Risk taking XX X X X X XX X
Manage and solve conflicts XX XX XXX XX XX X X
Sense of initiative and
entrepreneurship
X X XX X XXX XXX X X X X XX
167
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game characteristics require learners to play in a computer-based environment with a
certain complexity, where the learner is allowed to develop strategies and tactics
within the game mechanics. We would like to highlight that, despite the underlying
presence of the ‘‘ICT literacy’’ skill in most of the SG analyzed, the search metho-
dology developed to identify the SG having been specifically designed or used for
developing these skills has not been identified. We assume the use of digital SG
implicitly includes this key skill of the 21st century skills framework as a part of the
digital artifice the students are proposed to use. Additional studies in these aspects
through qualitative methodologies should be developed in order to understand how
SG designers and instructors aim to develop (or not) their learners’ ICT skills.
According to the results found in Table 2, providing authentic and enriched learn-
ing scenarios is the second most important game characteristic that contributes to the
acquisition of 21st century skills. This characteristic can also be related to game
complexity. Competition with other learners, or with the SG, is another relevant
characteristic in the development of these skills. We can analyze these results in the
light of the current economic situation, where competition is practiced worldwide in
most human activities.
Game rules with endogenous and exogenous reinforcement also contribute to a
lesser degree to the development of 21st century skills. All of these characteristics
propose behaviorist approaches to games, where learner actions are guided through
rules and internal or external reinforcements—instead of acting in a complex envi-
ronment of collaboration, strategy, tactics, and authenticity. Graphic fidelity and
fantasy are the two game characteristics that least contribute to skills development.
Fidelity has been argued as a game characteristic that could boost knowledge and
skills transfer, especially in the context of cultural heritage awareness (Petridis,
Dunwell, de Freitas, & Panzoli, 2010). However, a high level of fantasy, as opposed
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Complex
Collaboration
Strategy
Tactical
Collaboration
Context
Competition
Rules
Endogenous
Exogenous
Choice
(Expressive)
Fidelity
Fantasy
Figure 2. Game characteristic contribution to 21st century skills.
168 Games and Culture 10(2)
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to fidelity, is also argued to encourage the development of 21st century skills (Tho-
mas & Brown, 2007). Our results show that these two game characteristics provide
the smallest contributions to 21st century skills support in SG.
Conclusion
Our investigation, where we have mainly examined SG from the viewpoint of
characteristics, indicates that SG could be productively adopted to support the
development of those 21st century skills required to live and perform successfully
in modern society. The analysis of the literature review on the use of SG for 21st
century skills development has shown that most SG have not been primarily cre-
ated with the aim of developing 21st century skills—despite the fact that they are
used and analyzed with this purpose. To the knowledge of the authors, only ATCS
(2012) has been explicitly conceived to develop 21st century skills (focusing on
collaborative problem-solving and ICT literacy). Most SG have been conceived
with domain-specific learning objectives, although the development of one or
more other 21st century skills has been considered as a complementary objective.
SG are still mostly designed from a curriculum perspective and have not been
adapted to the competence-based approach of current educational policies. These
results suggest the importance of convincing SG designers that the development of
21st century skills should be one of the key educational purposes and also suggest
that the analysis of skills development transfer from SG should be further pursued.
Despite wide agreement on the usefulness of SG in supporting the development
of 21st century skill frameworks (Kickmeier-Rust & Dietrich, 2012; Pivec, 2007;
Redecker et al., 2011; Westera et al., 2008), the transfer of these skills from SG
to the professional and personal worlds is a subject of further research. Some
researchers consider that the virtual worlds of SG could ‘‘facilitate by modes of
transfer that are no longer about fidelity between worlds, but are about the power
of imagination to explore the differences and similarities between them’’ (Thomas
& Brown, 2007, p. 169). However, other authors consider that there is a lack of sci-
entific evidence about skills transfer from SG to professional and personal worlds.
According to Squire (2002, p. 18), ‘‘research on transfer gives very little reason to
believe that players are developing skills that are useful in anything but very similar
contexts.’’ Further empirical studies should be conducted to analyze the level of
transferability of each of the core 21st century skills in different types of game
(Sawyer & Smith, 2008) and according to game characteristics (Charsky, 2010;
Garris et al., 2002).
In terms of game characteristics, the review of SG has highlighted that some skills
are better developed with certain game characteristics that involve collaboration,
competition, strategy, and tactical support—all of these being characteristics of
games that involve a gameplay open to complexity and action scenarios, coopera-
tion, and decision making. These characteristics are commonly implemented in
strategy games and virtual words, especially those open to learner communication
Romero et al. 169
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and cooperation. These complex characteristics are hallmarks of entertainment
games and are less frequently found in educational games (as these games are usu-
ally developed with smaller budgets). This observation points to the need to transfer
the complexity of entertainment-orientated games in terms of strategy, communica-
tion, and cooperation toward skill-oriented games.
The three main intertwined questions in the introduction remain open and hope-
fully invite further and more in-depth research. The first question regards 21st
century skills assessment in the context of SG; how should SG include assessment
of skills and which skills require human assessment in the context of collaboration,
strategy, and tactics in open scenarios; and how is this assessment supported within
the computer-based environment of SG (Romero, Usart, Popescu, & Boyle, 2012).
The second question regards how SG should be deployed to maximize effectiveness
when used in the development of 21st century skills; which are the best and most
effective learning/teaching techniques and educational approaches; what should the
role of the teacher be; how can collaboration and competition be orchestrated within
SG; and finally, how is it possible to build on informally acquired skills (Redecker
et al., 2011). The final question relates to the impact of noneducational games on the
development of 21st century skills. Although this study focuses on educational SG in
the context of formal learning, we should also consider the impact that entertainment
games may have in the development of skills such as ICT literacy, strategy, compe-
tition, and the other skills required to win. This future analysis could include an anal-
ysis of entertainment games as educational tools that help learners prepare for
modern life by engaging in games that require and contribute to the development
of 21st century skills.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article: Some of the research reported in the study has been partially funded
by the European Commission (Research. Executive Agency, grant no 270404).
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Author Biographies
Margarida Romero is an assistant professor in Educational Technologies at the Universite´
Laval (Canada) and a researcher in the FP7 Network of Excellence Games and Learning Alli-
ance (GaLA). She holds a PhD in Educational Psychology at Universite´ de Toulouse—UMR
CNRS (France) and at Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona (Extraordinary PhD Award in
Psychology). Her latest research on educational technologies and organizational learning has
been awarded by the Special Award ICVL 2012 and the Barry Armandi Award of the
Academy of Management in 2013.
Mireia Usart completed her MSc in e-learning at Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC).
She is a PhD candidate in the eLearn Center (UOC). Her PhD article awarded with first prize
in eLSE 2012 conference. Fellowship in the Direction of Educational Innovation and
Academic Quality in ESADE Law & Business School. Her research aims to advance the
understanding of the time factor, concretely time perspective, in game-based learning in the
contexts of blended learning.
Michela Ott is a senior researcher at CNR-ITD. She presently carries out research in the
fields of cognitive processes underpinning learning and educational use of software tools with
a special focus on serious games. She is the author of more than 150 scientific publications.
She is also the author of educational software packages and hypermedia systems. She has
participated in, led, and coordinated a number of national and international research projects
in the field of Educational Technology.
Romero et al. 177
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... Artificial intelligence, immersive technologies, the metaverse, and non-invasive neurotechnologies are considered the future of gaming. However, they remain underexplored [5,21,32]. Meta-skills are recognized as future skills, and serious games are considered the ideal tools for meta-skills development. However, less knowledge is available about the effectiveness of digitally assisted serious games in meta-skills training especially among populations with different training needs. ...
... Serious games are rapidly growing in academic research, especially in the domain of skills development [4]. According to recent studies, SGs can contribute to the development of effective training ecosystems capable of equipping individuals with a wide range of skills required for dealing with challenging situations [4,5]. ...
... Simulations allow trainees to apply skills in real-time. At the same time, players can enjoy attractive, immersive, and pleasant training environments full of entertaining components in combination with high esthetic quality [4,5,53]. ...
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Serious games (SGs) are primarily aimed at promoting learning, skills training, and rehabilitation. Artificial intelligence, immersive technologies, the meta-verse, and neurotechnologies promise the next revolution in gaming. Meta-skills are considered the "must-have" skills for thriving in the era of rapid change, complexity, and innovation. Meta-skills can be defined as a set of higher-order skills that incorporate metacognitive, meta-emotional, and meta-motivational attributes, enabling one to be mindful , self-motivated, self-regulated, and flexible in different circumstances. Skillfulness, and more specifically meta-skills development, is recognized as a predictor of optimal performance along with mental and emotional wellness. Nevertheless, there is still limited knowledge about the effectiveness of integrating cutting-edge technologies in serious games, especially in the field of meta-skills training. Objectives: The current systematic review aims to collect and synthesize evidence concerning the effectiveness of advanced technologies in serious gaming for promoting meta-skills development. Methods: The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology was employed to identify experimental studies conducted in the last 10 years. Four different databases were employed: Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Results: Forty-nine studies were selected. Promising outcomes were identified in AI-based SGs (i.e., gamified chatbots) as they provided realistic, adaptive, personalized, and interactive environments using natural language processing, player modeling, reinforcement learning, GPT-based models, data analytics, and assessment. Immersive technologies, including the metaverse, virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality, provided realistic simulations, interactive environments, and sensory engagement, making training experiences more impactful. Non-invasive neurotechnologies were found to encourage players' training by monitoring brain activity and adapting gameplay to players' mental states. Healthy participants (n = 29 studies) as well as participants diagnosed with anxiety, neurodevelopmental disorders, and cognitive impairments exhibited improvements in a wide range of meta-skills, including self-regulation, cognitive control, attention regulation, meta-memory skills, flexibility, self-reflection, and self-evaluation. Players were more self-motivated with an increased feeling of self-confidence and self-efficacy. They had a more accurate self-perception. At the emotional level, improvements were observed in emotional regulation, empathy, and stress management skills. At the social level, social awareness was enhanced since they could more easily solve conflicts, communicate, and work in teams. Systematic training led to improvements in higher-order thinking skills, including critical thinking, problem-solving skills, reasoning, decision-making ability, and abstract thinking. Discussion: Special focus is given to the potential benefits, possible risks, and ethical concerns; future directions and implications are also discussed. The results of the current review may have implications for the design and implementation of innovative serious games for promoting skillfulness among populations with different training needs.
... However, previous studies have not reached a consensus regarding the effect of different types of educational games on learning outcomes. For example, Romero, Usart, and Ott (2014) suggested that strategy games have a particularly significant effect on cultivating critical thinking skills. On the other hand, other studies have found that role-playing games are most effective in developing thinking abilities such as critical thinking and computational thinking (Lu et al. 2023). ...
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Full-text available
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... Games are a compelling activity providing a series of self-administered, level-based challenges, which are often self-regulated by the player. Games can help to develop the 21 st century skills (Romero, Usart & Ott, 2015) in an environment of relative risk-free failure exerting a level of control of the game (McGonigal, 2011). Skill is the part of the competence related to the ability to behave effectively and engage certain attitudes and knowledge in action-oriented situations (Argyris & Schon, 1974). ...
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Primary education has not evolved significantly in the last decades. In fact, if one observesphotos from 19th century and today’s classrooms, differences one expects to see do not exist.School buildings, classroom organization, curriculum and teacher-pupils interactions haveevolved far more slowly than other organizations in our society. Information andCommunication Technologies (ICT) and societal challenges changed in a much rapid pacethan most of the elementary school system. ICT opens new opportunities but also introducesnew lifelong learning challenges to the 21st century children (Lambropoulos & Romero, 2015).In this study we analyze the 21 st century skills and competencies developed by pre-serviceprimary education teachers in Québec (Canada) through an activity aiming to make themdevelop the 21st century skills through the integration of digital games in the classroom.
... Engaging in this phase of reflection is essential for solidifying the temporary progress achieved during gameplay, enabling a more lasting acquisition of abilities. Nevertheless, there remains a need to further explore the feasibility, effectiveness and extent of this skill transfer, identified by Romero et al. (2015) for digital gaming and the development of twenty-first century skills, and, logically, extendable to the analogue domain. ...
Chapter
This chapter explores the link between psychology and analogue GBL, by systematising empirical data and theoretical frameworks, to understand the psychological foundations of learning mechanisms within these gaming environments. The chapter identifies the psychological inquiry parameters relevant to analogue gaming and explores the behavioural disparities between intrinsic incentives for play and “serious” educational objectives. It also emphasises the tangible attributes of analogue games and their significance in human development and education, justifying their prioritisation over digital alternatives. Furthermore, it examines cognitive processes during gameplay, focusing on how analogue games promote learning, skill integration and practical application in real-life scenarios. The chapter also explores the motivational mechanisms inherent to analogue games, highlighting their potential to enhance player involvement and learning outcomes. As an ultimate goal, this work aims to clarify the complex relation between psychological processes and learning through analogue games, suggesting that they serve as a feasible platform for educational advancement.
... Consequently, activities that align with students' interests, especially those based on real-life experiences organized into narratives to solve contextual problems, are highly effective (Rocha & Dondio, 2021). Additionally, serious games are more effective when they contribute to developing 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration (Romero et al., 2015). This approach has been proven to enhance primary school students' logical-mathematical, naturalistic, and linguistic abilities (Pérez et al., 2018). ...
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This article investigates the impact of socio-technical and cultural factors on business management students’ learning of ethical skills in a serious gaming environment. A survey study ( n = 302) was conducted with participants from two British universities. SEM (structural equation modeling) was used to test the empirical model, and the results of this study show that technical enablers and social enablers impact learners’ performance and perception of serious games as pedagogically effective learning tools. Additionally, we observe cultural differences in learners’ conative behavior toward serious games when learners are drawn from Anglo and Confucian cultures, high-performance and low-performance orientation cultures, and emotionally oriented shame and guilt cultures. By applying and extending the socio-technical theory of information systems to a serious gaming environment, this article has identified some key social-technical and cultural enablers that can influence and facilitate the adoption of serious games as an effective practice-based learning or training instrument.
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