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Sample size estimation and sampling techniques for selecting a representative sample
Abstract
Introduction: The purpose of this article is to provide a general understanding of the concepts of sampling as applied to healthrelated
research.
Sample Size Estimation: It is important to select a representative sample in quantitative research in order to be able to generalize
the results to the target population. The sample should be of the required sample size and must be selected using an appropriate
probability sampling technique. There are many hidden biases which can adversely affect the outcome of the study. Important factors
to consider for estimating the sample size include the size of the study population, confidence level, expected proportion of the
outcome variable (for categorical variables)/standard deviation of the outcome variable (for numerical variables), and the required
precision (margin of accuracy) from the study. The more the precision required, the greater is the required sample size.
Sampling Techniques: The probability sampling techniques applied for health related research include simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling. These are more recommended
than the nonprobability sampling techniques, because the results of the study can be generalized to the target population.
Keywords: Sample, sample size, sampling techniques
... Transparency and integrity can be upheld by rigorously documenting the methodology and strictly following established rules, thus ensuring the randomization process is both transparent and verifiable [17] (pp. [77][78]. Figure 5 illustrates the methodology for assigning participants to treatment and control groups using random values generated in an Excel spreadsheet. ...
... Sample: Accurately representing both study and target populations [78] (p. 143). ...
Evidence-based practices in agricultural extension programs must be guided by precise evaluation strategies and reliable data. Methods like randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are vital for assessing specific program interventions. However, not all studies use experimental designs, and their quality varies, as noted in a 2010 World Bank study. RCTs, known for providing robust impact assessments, involve complex steps and are applied in various fields. This guide focuses specifically on RCTs used for agricultural extensions; a topic covered less often than clinical trials. More precisely, this guide provides (1) definitions and key steps for RCTs, (2) a simplified RCTs study design methodology, (3) an exploration of challenges and mitigation, and (4) a summary of relevant RCTs studies in extensions. This guide is formulated to enhance the present understanding of RCTs and elaborate on the ways to use them in their application in agricultural research. Furthermore, the goal here is to make sure that our policies and methods are presented with solid evidence. This approach is meant to encourage the implementation of agricultural practices that are not only more effective but also sustainable.
... The population in this study were 17 Jayapura City Regional Apparatus Organizations in the scope of the Service and 6 Agencies. The sampling technique in this study was to use a purposive sampling method with the aim of obtaining a representative sample according to the specified criteria (Omair, 2014). The sample criteria to be used are: Head of Service/Agency/Secretary, Head of Planning and Reporting Subdivision and Staff. ...
This study aims to determine the influence of the internal control system, the use of information technology, and organizational commitment to the performance of Jayapura City government agencies. This type of research is quantitative research using a causal associative design. The data analysis method used in this study is multiple regression analysis with the help of SPSS version 22. The population in the study was 23 OPDs within the jayapura city offices and agencies, the research samples were the Head of the Office/ Agency/ Secretary, the Head of the Planning and Reporting Program Subdivision, as well as staff with data sources obtained through the results of filling out questionnaires. Based on the results of the partial research conducted, it can be seen that the internal control system, the use of information technology and organizational commitment have a significant effect on the performance of government agencies. And simultaneously the internal control system, the use of information technology, and organizational commitment have a significant effect on the performance of government agencies.
... An ethnobotanical approach involving interviews and interactive observations with 86 respondents who had been spices traders in the Jubilee and Kibuye markets for at least 5 years was used to identify respondents. The sample size was determined using Yamane's formula (Omair, 2014), in which numbers were written on bottle tops, placed in a tin, sealed, and shaken appropriately. One number was picked at a time and then vigorously shaken before the next step (Singh et al., 2011). ...
Spices are integral to Kenyan cuisine, adding depth of flavour and aroma to dishes. Information on the levels of macro- and micronutrients in these spices is scarce, as they are sold locally in Kisumu City, Kenya; however, these species have medicinal value. The study reports the trace elements composition of eight selected spices (black pepper, cloves, ginger, cardamom, turmeric, cumin, red chillies, and garlic) sold in two open-air markets in Kisumu City. The trace elemental compositions for Zn, Ca, Fe, S, K, Na, P, Mg, Mn, B, Co, Li, Cu, Pb, and Cd were analysed using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Ginger had the highest mean concentrations of most essential elements, K (5767.86 ± 43.44 mg/kg), Mg (4615.36 ± 76.27 mg/kg), B (132.08 ± 0.66 mg/kg), Li (33.52 ± 0.84 mg/kg), Mn (365.29 ± 2.22 mg/kg), and Zn (70.44 ± 0.85 mg/kg), followed by Ca (5290.44 ± 147.34 mg/kg), Na (1361.88 ± 41.01 mg/kg), P (3954.25 ± 122.68 mg/kg), and S (4031.88 ± 106.95 mg/kg), while turmeric had the lowest. The concentrations of macro-elements in spices from the Kibuye market were slightly higher than those from the Jubilee market; however, these differences were not statistically significant (p < 0.05). Concentrations of Pb and Cd heavy metals were detected and reported for all spices in the two markets, although the levels were below the WHO standard; hence, the spices are safe for use as supplements for essential trace elements in addition to their medicinal uses.
... Given that the labour ward at the hospital is the admission point for all mothers in labour irrespective of the underlying condition, it was desirable to use a consecutive sampling technique as it allows every participant who meets the inclusion criteria to be selected [20] until the requires sample size is achieved. ...
Background
Preeclampsia is the second leading cause of maternal death in Uganda. WHO recommends using magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) to prevent and treat preeclampsia with severe features (PEC) and eclampsia. MgSO4 is used to prevent eclampsia and treat women who experience an eclamptic convulsion to avoid severe maternal/infant illnesses and death. We set out to assess MgSO4 administration patterns in women with PEC or eclampsia and the immediate newborn outcomes of neonates.
Methods
This was an analytical observational cohort study at Kawempe National Referral Hospital in Uganda. Two hundred ten pregnant mothers with PEC or eclampsia were recruited in the study after receiving the loading dose of MgSO4 and then followed through labour and delivery to observe MgSO4 administration patterns and immediate newborn outcomes using Apgar and Thompson scores. SPSS version 23 was used to analyse data, and both bivariate and multivariate logistic regressions were used to determine factors associated with the low Apgar score at five minutes.
Results
Overall, majority of the patients received more than one dose with 33.3% received a sixth dose of MgSO4. The majority, 84.8%, of the mothers delivered live babies, 31.0% babies had complications, and were admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). NICU admissions were mostly due to respiratory distress21.4%, preterm delivery21.0%, and 5.5% died within seven days. Majority 93.3% of the newborns had an Apgar score of seven and above at five minutes, of the newborns who were Thompson scored, 70.4% scored between 1 to 10 which is mild HIE. Initiation of MgSO4 treatment within one hour from prescription (AOR = 0.49, CI: 0.01–1.94), 4-hourly timing of the first maintenance dose (AOR = 0.22, CI: 0.06–0.79) and having complete doses of MgSO4 treatment (AOR = 0.89, CI: 0.03–3.05) decreased the likelihood of having low Apgar scores at five minutes.
Conclusions
Timely administration of the first maintenance dose of MgSO4 decreases the likelihood of low Apgar score at 5 min and NICU admission in newborns, and most NICU admissions were due to respiratory distress and preterm delivery.
... The principal source of primary data stemmed from the inhabitants of the Nkwanta South Municipality. The interviewee was chosen through the snowball technique, which allows another interviewee to help researchers source another interviewee when it is challenging to identify them (Firchow & MacGinty, 2020;Omair, 2014). This was enhanced by secondary sources, academic journal articles, published books, and digital documents sourced from the internet. ...
The study examines the dynamics of the Nkwanta conflict from the lens of the causes, the effects of the conflict, and the measures that militate against the management of the protracted conflict in the Oti Region of Ghana. It draws the theoretical insights from Azar's "extended societal conflicts" which postulates that conflicts or disputes in society are because of interlinked networks of insufficient development, structural deficiencies, and divisions in identity among other factors. The study utilizes largely a qualitative research design in which 23 interviewees shared their views, opinions, and perspectives on the Nkwanta conflict in the Oti Region of Ghana. The Nkwanta area is also closer to the Togo border which makes the area strategic and could make the conflict have a spill-over effect on Ghana and Togo due to the close ethnic relations of the Nkwanta people of Ghana and those in Togo. The study found that chieftaincy and land ownership are the main causes of the conflict. Other factors that contribute to the conflict include partisan politics and the vested interest of some individuals in the area. In terms of the effects of the conflict loss of lives and properties are the main effects while effective conflict resolution stems from the involvement of all the parties through respect, compromise, and forgiveness from the parties involved in the conflict. The study recommends the involvement of unbiased external mediators with a high sense of professionalism toward the resolution of the protracted Nkwanta conflict in the Oti Region of Ghana.
... This proportionate representation aligns with the approach used for the 2019 IAAF participants (13). Results reflecting a similar proportion will be deemed representative (55). ...
This study examines the evolving perceptions of youth residents in Qatar, particularly university students, regarding the social impact of hosting major sport events from 2015 to 2022. It offers crucial insights into the contribution of sport tourism in fostering social sustainability, contrasting post-event perceptions of the 2015 Handball World Championship (HWC 2015), the 2019 IAAF World Athletics Championship (IAAF 2019), and the 2022 FIFA World Cup (FIFA 2022), using a cross sectional analysis. The impact is assessed across five dimensions: community pride, enhanced community attachment, event excitement, pride in community infrastructure, and community excitement. Participants are categorized based on nationality (Qatari nationals, Arabs excluding Qataris, and Non-Arabs) to capture cultural and demographic differences. Results reveal increasingly positive perceptions across events regarding the five dimensions. Significant multivariate effects are found on the combined dependent variables for event type and nationality. The study underscores the role of hosting sporting events in advancing social sustainability and community development in Qatar. Variations among national groups indicate a need to tailor policies and strategies to foster inclusivity. The work provides valuable baseline insights to inform future hosting bids and encourage regional collaboration.
The development of an effective and usable Instructional Design based on the principles of Aesthetic Visual Design (AVD), along with the incorporation of Gamification (GMF), is essential for students’ motivation, engagement, learning, and comprehension. The majority of online course developers do not fully utilize the world of Visual Design because they do not realize the significant role played by AVD courses in making essential content/information reachable and understandable to learners. Therefore, a study was conducted on academicians who delivered online education, and students who undertook online education in undergraduate and post-graduate degree programs at public & private universities in a variety of courses with the goal to examine the complex interactions between constructs (i.e. AVD, ID, and GMF) and their impact on e-learning usability through mixed-method approach. The analysis of the study revealed that academicians found the influence of game mechanics the most important followed by game dynamics, game elements, and motivation whereas students valued game elements the most important followed by motivation, game dynamics, and game mechanics. As the analysis among academicians and students revealed variation, it requires further validation with different samples.
This study's main objective was to analyse the perception of referees and general self-efficacy in Pakistan's
elite officials and athletes. Referees and technical officials are important for organized sports contests. But nowadays sports administrators are facing a problem. Day by day the number of qualified sports referees is on the
decline. The insufficient number of technical officials may directly have a negative impact on the quality and quantity
of sports. The sample of this study was referees football male (n=85) and female (n=2) and hockey male (n=45) and
female (n=5) from Pakistan. The Referee Self-Efficacy Scale (REFS) and General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) scale
utilized to measure these variables. The data analysis was completed through SPSS and it indicated that sub-dimension referee self-efficacy physical fitness, game knowledge, decision-making, communication and referee self-efficacy indicated that football referees had significantly better mean scores than hockey referees. The results also
indicate that football and hockey referees had similar general self-efficacy levels with less pressure than
football referees during matches. The correlation coefficients between all variables are significant except for decision-making and pressure, communication, and GSE. The results of this study concluded that football referees and technical officials have a higher level of physical fitness, game knowledge, decision-making, communication and referee
self-efficacy score than hockey referees. Although football and hockey referees have the same level of self-efficacy,
hockey referees have more pressure than football.
Keywords: Sports, Referees, Technical Officials, Self-efficacy.
One of the most common requests that statisticians get from investigators are sample size calculations or sample size justifications. The sample size is the number of patients or other experimental units included in a study, and determining the sample size required to answer the research question is one of the first steps in designing a study.
Although most statistical textbooks describe techniques for sample size calculation, it is often difficult for investigators to decide which method to use. There are many formulas available which can be applied for different types of data and study designs. However, all of these formulas should be used with caution since they are sensitive to errors, and small differences in selected parameters can lead to large differences in the sample size. In this paper, we discuss the basic principles of sample size calculations, the most common pitfalls and the reporting of these calculations.
It is well documented that nonresponse and noncoverage rates have increased steadily in random digit dial (RDD) surveys. As these rates continue to rise, there are increasing challenges to reducing bias and increasing operational efficiency. This paper discusses several methods to consider when conducting RDD surveys. We also discuss the benefits and shortcomings of the approaches – shortcomings if it is decided not to implement a particular procedure. For example, there is a growing concern with nonresponse bias; what is the impact of by-passing the household nonresponse adjustment? We also consider the impact of cell phone only households, purging nonresidential numbers, mailings incentives, subsampling of cases prior to refusal conversion, level of effort, and other uses of auxiliary data.
