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The Economic Value of Social and Emotional Learning
Abstract and Figures
There is a growing body of research emphasizing the advantages of teaching students social and emotional (SE) skills in school. Here we examine the economic value of these skills within a benefit-cost analysis (BCA) framework. Our examination has three parts. First, we describe how the current method of BCA must be expanded to adequately evaluate SE skills, and we identify important decisions analysts must make. Second, we review the evidence on the benefits of SE skills, again noting key methodological issues with respect to shadow pricing. Finally, we perform BCA of four selected social and emotional learning (SEL) interventions: 4Rs; Second Step, Life Skills Training; and Responsive Classroom. These analyses illustrate both methodological and empirical challenges in estimating net present values for these interventions. Even with these challenges, we find that the benefits of these interventions substantially outweigh the costs. We highlight promising areas of research for improving the application of BCA to SEL.
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... Teachers' social and emotional competencies have been less explicitly exposed, mainly in terms of supporting students' personal and social development as well as academic achievements. Teachers' SEDA competencies and wellbeing have thus long been treated as a means to other ends (e.g., Belfield et al., 2015) and not an end in itself. Yet, the question of whether this orientation (teachers' supporting others and not themselves) has caused teachers' low wellbeing, exhaustion and burnout is not reflected in the policy discussions on the EU level, at least not in the identified policy documents. ...
The chapter is based on summarised findings of both the HAND in HAND: Empowering Teachers Across Europe to Deal with Social, Emotional and Diversity-Related Career Challenges policy experiment (presented in volume 1) and analyses of current European Union and national policy frameworks (presented in this volume), and elaborates on the conditions needed to ensure the scalability, transferability and thus sustainability of the HAND in HAND: Empowering Teachers Across Europe to Deal with Social, Emotional and Diversity-Related Career Challenges project outcomes and the systematic policy and political support needed on the European Union and national levels. It sets out 39 guidelines organised in 5 areas: 1) Including social and emotional and diversity awareness content in teachers’ professional development; 2) Supporting the development and implementation of teachers’ social and emotional competencies and diversity awareness programmes; 3) Considering the role of working conditions in teachers’ well-being; 4) Enhancing teachers’ professional status in society; and 5) Improving policy frameworks for supporting teachers’ social and emotional competencies and diversity awareness on all levels of the European Union’s multi-level governance. While considering the differences in current national policy arrangements and challenges to teachers’ well-being and the development of their social and emotional competencies and diversity awareness in the HAND in HAND: Empowering Teachers Across Europe to Deal with Social, Emotional and Diversity-Related Career Challenges project field-trial countries (Austria, Croatia, Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden), the chapter also introduces specific guidelines concerning ways to foster teachers’ SEDA development in their respective national contexts.
... School-based mental health specialists are shown to decrease adolescent cocaine use by 45.8%, marijuana use by 11.5%, tobacco use by 10.7%, and binge drinking by 8% [22]. In addition, cost-effectiveness studies have shown that school-based mental health and substance use prevention programs can save $11 to $18 per dollar that is invested [22,23]. ...
North Carolina is facing a youth mental health crisis and there is an urgent need for alternative solutions. School-based models of delivering mental health services are associated with higher utilization and higher satisfaction compared to community-based services. Specialized Instructional Support Personnel can identify and address unmet needs and reduce barriers in access to care.
... SEL programs improve students' social-emotional skills and academic performance while reducing students' conduct problems and emotional distress both for students with and without behavioral and emotional problems (Durlak et al., 2011;Payton et al., 2008;Taylor et al., 2017). Moreover, quality SEL programs yield an 11:1 return on dollars invested (Belfield et al., 2015). Even when implemented in distance learning because of school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic, SEL programs have been found to positively affect students' social-emotional skills (Li et al., 2021). ...
To curb the spread of the coronavirus, almost all countries implemented nationwide school closures. Suddenly, students experienced a serious disruption to their school and social lives. In this article, we argue that psychological research offers crucial insights for guiding policy about school closures during crises. To this end, we review the existing literature on the impact of school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic on children's learning and mental health. We find that the unprecedented scale and length of school closures resulted in a substantial deficit in children's learning and a deterioration in children's mental health. We then provide policy recommendations on how to ensure children's learning and psychosocial development in the future. Specifically, we recommend that more attention should be paid to students from marginalized groups who are most in need of intervention, evidence-informed and personality-tailored mental-health and social- and emotional-learning programs should be implemented in schools, and generational labels should be avoided.
Although Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) has been used in schools, its success has prompted recommendations for its adoption in group home and day habilitation settings. This scoping review examines the literature on implementing MTSS in group home and day habilitation settings for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Of the 15 studies reviewed, most focused on Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) rather than a comprehensive MTSS framework, raising questions about the alignment of interventions with the three-tiered structure of MTSS. Additionally, PBIS in these settings appears restricted to an individualized approach to minimizing behavior instead of the comprehensive framework used in schools. Benefits of implementing PBIS include a reduction in challenging behavior, decreased use of restrictive interventions, and staff-related advantages such as improved organization and reduced turnover. Challenges are noted in time and resource constraints. Suggestions for implementing MTSS in residential and day habilitation settings are provided.
The COVID‐19 pandemic presented unprecedented learning loss for all students. Although researchers have indicated negative impacts across all age and demographic groups, learning loss is most pronounced in elementary school‐aged students and those from low SES backgrounds. Given the disproportionate impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic, the authors utilise multi‐tiered systems of support to provide targeted support to identified elementary students in an urban school in the south‐east United States. This study explores the efficacy of the tiered intervention (Tier I: social–emotional learning instruction, Tier II: Mentoring, and Tier III: Play Therapy) using third‐person action research design and the authors explore a quantitative analysis of pre‐ and post‐achievement data, as measured by state achievement reading and maths scores. Finally, the authors describe future directions for researchers interested in applying a similar tiered intervention to respond to learning deficits resulting from the COVID‐19 pandemic.
Today’s remarkable technological development challenges the teaching profession to develop new approaches to meet student needs for living in a rapidly growing digital society. The functionality of teachers becomes crucial, particularly related to their transversal competences, such as the competence in using artificial intelligence (AI) systems and competence in developing social-emotional learning (SEL) in students. In this study, we were interested in the synergy between SEL beliefs and attitudes towards AI in teaching from the perspective of prospective teachers. An empirical, quantitative online survey was conducted on 328 university students in pedagogical study programs (80.2% female, Mage=21.55 years). The findings showed that students assessed themselves as more competent in using SEL than AI in teaching. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed three groups of students related to the SEL and AI synergy, such as “SEL & AI advocates”, “SEL- believers & AI-sceptics”, and “SEL & AI sceptics”. The findings of this study are significant for the understanding that SEL can significantly contribute to innovative thinking about the use of AI in schools and its integration into human lives.
The present study was focused on determining and analyzing the extent of home learning environment and parentteacher ecology towards the academic performance and positive social behavior of Grade 6 pupils in the S.Y. 2022-2023. The target respondents of the study included Grade 6 students. The study utilized the descriptive quantitative research design in gathering data and information for the completion of this research endeavor. The survey questionnaire was utilized as the main tool for the data gathering process of the research. The researcher concluded that that based on the students’ experience in their home learning environment, this is more related to the way that they are being influenced by the kind of environment they have at home; that the established good relations between parent and teacher can be concluded to have a significant role in terms of helping children or learners learn better and integrate or incorporate important values and attitudes into their lives as part of their daily learning experience at school; and that academic success among the learners can be concluded to be attainable with the help of parents and teachers and the willingness of the pupils themselves. On the other hand, the researcher recommended that conduct parent-teacher conferences and meetings help the parents develop better attitudes and approaches to guide their children in doing assignments or projects; that in order to enrich the parent-teacher ecology aspect, parent-teacher conferences are again recommended in order to effectively address any emergence of problems and misunderstandings between parents and teachers.
UNITARY DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 2: A MODEL OF DEVELOPMENTAL LEARNING FOR CHANGE, AGILITY AND RESILIENCE
Myles Sweeney BA (Psychol.), MBS (Finance), PH.D (Business & Economic Psychol.)
To all Developmentalists, the failure rates for Developmental Interventions across the paradigms of Psychology, Organizational Science and Economics that range from 75% to 100% and verified beyond doubt for organizations in five dense pages in Managing Change by Burnes (2017, x-xiv), should be truly shocking; and while alarming in their own right, they also signal a fundamentally paradigmatic problem that is acknowledged across the board, e.g., in Economics where the leading Developmentalist Jeffrey Sachs refers to the paucity of the models of human-nature available to it, and on which Economics is actually based. Furthermore, across each domain, the same fundamental remedy has been prescribed – i.e., “Learning”, whether it is as Learning Life, Learning Organization, Learning Region, Learning Economy or more recently by Nobel Economist Joe Stiglitz, Learning Society which he even refers to as the only viable Government strategy. However, even though there is such external demand – as well as internal demand from prominent Psychologists such as Dan McAdams who have called for an integration of the theories from various schools to generate a normative model of personality and developmental learning – no such model has been devised – until now!
UDT is a model that not only answers the need in Psychology, but is equally valid and operationalizable across each of these paradigms, i.e., for developmental analysis and intervention for people, organizations, societies and economic systems such as nations when each are defined as Micro-, Meso- and Macro- Socio-Economic Systems as well as sub-systems such as Teams or Regions. The modeling for each of the three levels of system is presented in four different volumes with Vol. 1 dedicated to the Psychology behind the model and what it brings to the discipline in practice; Vol. 2 shows how its application to Organization Development advances prevailing practice; Vol. 3 addresses Societal systems such as Family, Education and Justice; and Vol. 4 does the same for Macro-Economic Development.
The model comprises a sequence of Developmental Phases through which humans naturally learn developmentally, and these phases correspond with – but also complete – existing models, whether that learning is the natural development of a young person or a developmental intervention in an organization. The model also shows how learning stalls in well-established patterns of corresponding Habituation Stages such as Groupthink in organizations which corresponds to Identification Habituation for individuals growing up within restrictive parameters of a parent’s identity. These Phases are grouped into seven Levels and from Immaturity to Maturity, they are called Inversion, Critical, Equilibrial, Operational, Complexity, Creativity and Leadership. The ultimate Level is divided into the Phases of Integrative Leadership and finally Regenerative Leadership which encompasses the ultimate expression of Maturity which is the Regenerative Eco-System whether referring to a family with that Level of parenting or an organization that seamlessly and without friction facilitates Spin-Off Enterprises, M&As, etc.
Along these Phases, Construct Capabilities that are significant to a system’s purpose can be assessed, and development occurs prescriptively along these Capabilities. Failure rates are shown to be either due to interventions being overpitched relative to the previously undiagnosable Learning Level/Change-Capacity of the system, or through missing any of the Phases. UDT diagnosis optimizes Traction for interventions which also gain Sustainability from the normatively prescribed Phases. Such methodology can be used in stand-alone interventions, or to guide and offer structure to post-modern approaches such as “Dialogue” methodologies.
Construct Validity is shown in the degree to which UDT corresponds with modelling from across schools such as Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Cognitive Psychology, and Humanist Psychology and also developmental modelling across Organizational Science and Economics. For example, in Psychology, uniquely, the three Stages of Level (1) correspond to DSM-5’s three Clusters of Personality-Disorders and adds value to understanding them. More importantly for OD, it is shown how this Level of Habituated Mindset/Culture is always a permanent drag on development in a process called Inversion that also finds common ground with established theory, and is very clearly observable in the demise of organizations, and the only defence is the internal processes of Regenerative Leadership which cyclically refreshes the developmental process for Capabilities.
Other issues that are elaborated include Linear, Lateral and Integrative Mindset/Culture
with each associated with different Phases of Development and Habituation patterns along the hierarchy. Newly understood is the fact that all human systems are existentially either Linear or Lateral and must build Integrative capacity as well as remaining aware of their underlying biases. While Linearity brings positives such as Purpose and Discipline, its negatives include features such as 1-Dimensionalism, Exclusive Goal Focus, Command and Control, and Red Tape across the Levels such as Self-Destructive Exploitation (1a), Autocracy (2a), Silos (2b), and finally, Bureaucracy (4b) which is the highest Level of Maturity available to Linear-based Culture, which is averse to Change and Creativity. Laterality has strengths related to Change, Social Conscience and Creativity, but is associated with deficits such as Neurotic obstruction of Goal achievement (1b), Paralysis by Analysis (1c), Chronic Inclusiveness (3), Over-Connectedness (5) and Creativity without market connectedness (6).
Most significantly, Culture which is regularly cited as the main intrinsic reason for OD/CM failure and has only been so poorly understood as, e.g., “the way we do things around here” is newly defined in terms of Habituated Stages which correspond to those Cultures described in the most advanced modeling on the subject, but of course, as with all Construct Correspondence, the UDT model fills in gaps and offers a complete and operationalizable solution to the Culture problem. This line of research also critically shows that the UDT Phases are positively correlated with Returns and Productivity for organizations and nations alike. This also suggests that Culture Change which typically focuses on personal issues like Values, Assumptions, Beliefs, becomes another normative praxis-based OD intervention focusing on maturing Capabilities.
UDT similarly transforms the concept of Agility which is shown as its highest three Levels. A a case study of an exemplar Agile Company is examined in detail to show how the organization’s Philosophy, Growth Patterns and prevailing functionalities map onto essential elements of the UDT modeling which ultimately offers a methodology to achieve such Agility for all organizations through their own planning, effort and intrinsic progression rather than trying to simply copy elements of such Complexity. Only 22% of organizations reach these Levels which average 30% premium, but a critical fundamental insight is the finding that systems functioning in the non-Agile Division of the Model (i.e., 78% of organizations) have limited intrinsic Integrative capacity and therefore must begin every CM/OD intervention at the beginning of the normative process rather than use a simple Next-Step strategy which is the typical prevailing approach.
It is also shown how the UDT diagnosis can predict Resilience and how its developmental process builds the espoused combination with increased Agility whereby Resilience progresses from planned responses through the Phases to a capacity at Level 7 for an organization to re-invent itself as required in the face of adversity, and surely, this is the key lesson about Resilience from the Covid Pandemic. Case studies are offered to show how the UDT modeling of maturation and inversion corresponds with historical examples of both successful growth and degradation, as well as good and bad interventions.
For organizations, the model is used in 3 ways: as a Discussion Tool or simple Catalyst for change; as a process of discrete Change Management; and as a more systemic diagnostic-and-developmental intervention for e.g., Team Development, Organization Development, Digital Transformation, M&A Integration, etc.; and examples are offered where the model has been successfully used for each of the three levels of intervention.
Background: We report results from the first randomized trial of the Positive Action (PA) intensive family program. Eighteen families (parents and teens) were randomly assigned to receive the program, consisting of 7 weekly meetings, with parents and teens attending separate sessions for the first half of each session (90 minutes) and then attending a joint session for the second half (90 minutes). Eleven families (approximately one-third) were randomly assigned to a wait-listed control condition.
Methods: We surveyed all parents before the program and at immediate posttest with 16 items assessing family conflict ( = .74), family cohesion ( = .79), and parent-child bonding ( = .75). Data were also collected from additional parents who participated in two subsequent rounds of the program.
Results: Results suggest that the PA intensive family program had immediate positive effects on all three outcomes with effect sizes (Cohen’s d) between 0.34 and 0.59. Significant interactions with pretest scores for cohesion indicated stronger effects for those families at highest risk among this high-risk sample. Data from subsequent pretest-posttest only groups replicated these results.
Conclusions: We conclude that this first randomized trial of the Positive Action intensive family program and the pretest-posttest replications provide results worthy of further follow-up.
The purpose of this longitudinal study was twofold: (a) to investigate academic, behavioral, and emotional outcomes for adolescents who were followed longitudinally from middle through high school and (b) to determine if early assessment of achievement and behavior predicts academic and behavioral outcomes for adolescents who were identified as at risk for developing emotional and behavioral problems when they were in primary school. Teacher ratings and student self-reports suggested that the behavioral and emotional symptoms for this school-based sample of predominately minority adolescents (n = 212, 91% African American and/or Hispanic, 45% boys, 55% girls) decreased across time, although there was significant variability for individuals. The at-risk students in special education had significantly higher self-ratings of emotional problems than the other groups and viewed school more negatively. Assessment of reading and math achievement and teacher ratings of behavior in primary school predicted achievement and behavior through middle and high school for at-risk students. Results have implications for early identification, prevention/intervention programs, and transition planning for children and youth at risk for developing problem behaviors.
This randomized controlled field trial examined the efficacy of the
Responsive Classroom (RC) approach on student achievement. Schools
(n = 24) were randomized into intervention and control conditions; 2,904
children were studied from end of second to fifth grade. Students at schools
assigned to the RC condition did not outperform students at schools assigned
to the control condition in math or reading achievement. Use of RC practices
mediated the relation between treatment assignment and improved math
and reading achievement. Effect sizes (ES) were calculated as standardized
coefficients. ES relations between use of RC practices and achievement were
.26 for math and .30 for reading. The RC practices and math achievement
relation was greater for students with low initial math achievement (ES =
.89). Results emphasize fidelity of implementation.
With budgets squeezed at every level of government, cost-benefit analysis (CBA) holds outstanding potential for assessing the efficiency of many programs. In this first book to address the application of CBA to social policy, experts examine ten of the mo
Purpose
: There is limited research on the costs of social and emotional learning (SEL) interventions [Crowley, Jones, Greenberg, Feinberg & Spoth (2012). Resource Consumption of a Diffusion Model for Prevention Programs: The PROSPER Delivery System.
Journal of Adolescent Health, 50
(3), 256–263]. This paper describes a comprehensive methodology for determining the costs of a successful universal, school-based SEL intervention that was implemented in nine public schools over 3 years.
Methods
: Resource costs were identified using the Cost–Procedure–Process–Outcome Analysis Model [Yates (1996).
Analyzing Costs, Procedures, Processes, and Outcomes in Human Services.
Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.; Yates (1999).
Measuring and Improving Cost, Cost-Effectiveness, and Cost-Benefit for Substance Abuse Treatment Programs
. No. NIH 99-4518, 135] and the ingredients model [Levin (Ed.) (1983).
Cost-Effectiveness A Primer
(Vol. 4). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage; Levin & McEwan (2001).
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis: Methods and Applications
. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications]. This involved careful identification of resource use, finding the cost per unit for each resource by intervention activity, and ultimately calculating the total resource cost (resource use
cost per unit).
Results
: Our analysis estimated the overall cost of this 3-year SEL and literacy intervention to be 67,825 yearly per school and 683,106) and then decreasing in Year 2 (566,426).
Conclusion
: This research emphasizes the need to study the costs of SEL interventions. By providing a detailed and standardized methodology, this cost analysis can provide added support for implementing an effective social and emotional learning intervention in a school setting. Furthermore, it provides groundwork for more advanced cost analyses, such as a cost–effectiveness analysis or a benefit-cost analysis (BCA).
Background/Context
This article addresses the classroom contextual effects of absences on student achievement. Previous research on peer effects has predominantly focused on peer socioeconomic status or classroom academic ability and its effects on classmates. However, the field has been limited by not discerning the individual-level academic effects of being in classrooms with absent peers.
Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the peer effects of absent students in urban elementary school classrooms.
Population/Participants/Subjects
The data set is longitudinal and comprises entire populations of five elementary school cohorts within the School District of Philadelphia, for a total of 33,420 student observations. Individual student records were linked to teacher and classroom data and to census block neighborhood information.
Research Design
To examine the educational effects of absent peers, this study employed an empirical specification of the education production function. The dependent variables were Stanford Achievement Test Ninth Edition (SAT9) reading and math scores.
Findings
Models differentiated between unexcused and total absence measures and indicated that the peer effect of absences was driven by negative effects associated with classroom rates of unexcused absences rather with rates of total absences. These findings were obtained after controlling for student, neighborhood, teacher, and classroom characteristics.
Conclusions/Recommendations
Not only are absences detrimental to the absentee, but they also have a pervasive effect on the achievement of other students in the classroom.
There is evidence suggesting that missing school negatively relates to academic achievement. However, it is a difficult task to derive unbiased empirical estimates of absences in their influence on performance. One particular challenge arises from the unobserved heterogeneity in the family environment, which may relate to both absence behavior and school performance. This article provides the first analysis aimed at reducing the family-specific omitted variable bias pertaining to measures of absences in their influence on standardized testing achievement. It does so by employing a model of family fixed effects on a longitudinal sample of siblings within the same household in a large urban school district over six years of observations. The results indicate a stronger, statistically significant negative relationship between absences and achievement than what would have been suggested otherwise. Implications are discussed.