Content uploaded by Shikha Vyas-Doorgapersad
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Shikha Vyas-Doorgapersad on Apr 05, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 21
September 2014
405
Gender, ICT and Millennium Development Goals for
Sustainable Development in West Africa
Shikha Vyas-Doorgapersad
North-West University, Faculty of Economic Sciences and Information Technology
PO Box 1174, Vanderbijlpark, 1900, Republic of South Africa
Email: Shikha.VyasDoorgapersad@nwu.ac.za
Doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n21p405
Abstract
The year 2015, the target date to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, is fast approaching, and it is now time to assess
some significant landmarks. For example, to what extent is the gender component incorporated in MDGs? To what extent is
MGD 3 (gender equality and women empowerment) progressing towards its full achievement in West Africa? Are West African
countries committed enough to incorporate MDG3 in their national policies? How are MDG3 and MDG 8 (information and
communication technologies) linked in the progress towards sustainable development? What measures are in place to achieve
MDG 3 and MDG 8 for development at country-specific levels? To find answers to these pressing concerns, a descriptive and
analytical approach is utilized here. Case studies, government reports and country-specific MDG reports are considered in
order to deduce the relevant information. The findings reveal that there is a lack of gender-responsive ICT in West African
countries. This article aims to provide policy recommendations to improve the situation.
Keywords: gender; women empowerment; information and communication technologies; sustainable development; Millennium
Development Goals
1. Introduction
In many countries the argument is put forward that sustainable development and the needs of the community as a whole
must come first, rather than “providing a preferential focus on women’s development needs and their rights”. However, as
cited in Wikibooks (2013), this “ebb and flow of development priorities and choices … has yet to fully integrate a gender
perspective that is aimed towards the achievement of women’s empowerment”. A review of the literature in the field of
gender studies and policy studies (Jensen, 1989; Balit, 1999; Hafkin and Taggart, 2001; Gillard et al, 2008) explores the
nexus between gender, ICT and development. This linkage has raised global consciousness on gender analysis, gender
disaggregated data, and the clear stipulation of roles and responsibilities to identify gender needs as development
demands. These demands are apparent in the reasoning behind setting Millennium Development Goals to ensure
sustainable social, economic and technological advancement worldwide. “Gender-sensitive ICT applications to education,
health care, and local economies have helped communities progress toward the MDGs”. Importantly, they also “facilitate
rural health-care workers’ access to medical expertise through mobile phones and the Internet”. Dumas (2008:1) further
explains that teachers are able to “expand learning resources through the Internet and satellite services, providing a
greater knowledge base for learners ... although Internet access and landline numbers are still low” in Africa. This article
explores the linkages between gender, ICT and MDGs establishing their impact on sustainable development in West
countries.
2. Gender and ICT: An Overview
Gender is conceptually defined by various scholars and academics (Rubin, 1975; Molyneux 1985; Mackinnon, 1989;
Moser, 1993; Lars, 2003; Dhoj, 2009; Cherry, 2013) as varied attributes linking to feminine and masculine aspects,
namely differentiated roles and responsibilities, identity, attitudes, behaviour patterns, needs and requirements. In this
context, both women and men deserve equal respect, opportunities and appreciation in any given society (Reddy, 2006,
p. 28). This study is based upon the feminist aspect of gender; it explores the need for transformative divergence from
welfare to the empowerment of women. The article therefore employs the “empowerment approach of feminist theory”
(Govender & Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2013, p.107) as a theoretical scaffold. The empowerment approach seeks “to make a
place for itself among those new social theories that are attempting to connect the personal and the social, the individual
ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 21
September 2014
406
and society, the micro and the macro” (http://www.mpow.org). The approach is also substantially useful to translate the
“political ramifications of women’s empowerment, that is the transformation of gender relations, into gender planning”
(Wieringa, 1994) in policies and programmes required for sustainable development. Furthermore, this article aligns the
concept of women empowerment with IT/ICT, and recognizes this linkage as having “the potential to advance women
economically”, which may well be “the most exciting transformative feature of technology … [because] empowering
women and improving the efficiency of their work is critical for reducing poverty” (Gill et al, 2012).
According to Gillard et al (2007), the “IT/ICT workforce is a fairly new professional sector, particularly in many
developing countries, yet women occupy a minority of positions and gender inequalities that are well established in many
other sectors are being replicated in the IT/ICT industries” (p.10). While there is recognition of the potential of ICT as a
tool for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women, a ‘gender divide’ has also been identified,
reflected in the lower number of women accessing and using ICT compared with men. Unless this gender divide is
specifically addressed, there is a risk that ICT may exacerbate existing inequalities between women and men and create
new forms of inequality (Sandys, 2005).
Studies have revealed the fact that there is still “a common trend of male dominance of ICTs across the globe
(Formatex, 2006; NDP, 2007; Hafkin, 2003; Maleka, 2011). This is particularly prevalent in developing countries on the
African continent. Due to the fact that “technology is seen as gender-neutral” (Maleka, 2011, p.43) there is a lack of
coherent research practice to analyze gender disparities in ICTs across human levels of interaction (Fialova, 2006).
Although technological advancements have created opportunities for social and economic development, “their use
continues to be governed by existing power relations where women frequently experience relative disadvantage”
(Institute of Development Studies, 2013). Significant concerns can be raised in this regard, namely: “Who benefits from
ICTs? Who is dictating the course of ICTs? Is it possible to harness ICTs to serve larger goals of equality and justice?
Central to these concerns is the issue of gender and women’s equal right to access, use and shape ICTs” (Gurumurthy,
2004, p.1). Technological progression can enhance women’s empowerment by offering them opportunities in IT-driven
jobs, thereby promoting the “feminisation of employment” (Howcroft & Richardson, 2007). Yet there are vastly
exaggerated claims about the likely ‘impact’ of new technologies on social, economic, cultural and working lives (Huws,
2003; Woolgar, 2002; Gillard et al., 2007). In many societies, because of traditional role patterns, there are frequently
clear obstacles which mean that women and men do not benefit equally from the advantages of technological progress
(Elsaadani, 2012). This is clearly witnessed in situations where “women and men have different needs and constraints
when accessing and using ICT”. The World Bank Group (2013) points out that in many societies, “women’s and men’s
access to and use of technology are rooted in behavioral, cultural, and religious traditions” (p.3). Such circumstances may
confine women exclusively to household activities, making them financially dependent on men and excluding them from
decision-making processes.
It is evident that “policy-making in technological fields often ignores the needs, requirements, and aspirations of
women unless gender analysis is included” (Hafkin, 2002). A recent study of hundreds of development projects, either
with ICT as the major sector or with substantial ICT components, showed that “more than one-third of all projects had a
high degree of awareness of gender issues, but that the gender-sensitivity carried over to the ICT components in only 10
percent of the projects” (p.4).
In order to find solutions to meet these challenges and address or mitigate them, issues of gender in the ICT
domain were explored globally at the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), held in Geneva in 2003. The
following areas were discussed as possible plans of action (compiled from WSIS, 2003):
• Action is required to remove the gender barriers to ICT education and training and promote equal training
opportunities in ICT-related fields for women and girls. Early intervention programmes in science and
technology should target young girls with the aim of increasing the number of women in ICT careers. The
exchange of best practices on the integration of gender perspectives in ICT education should be promoted (11
(g)).
• It is imperative that programmes focus on gender-sensitive curricula in formal and non-formal education for all.
Enhancement of communication and media literacy for women with a view to building the capacity of girls and
women to understand and to develop ICT content is another important objective (23 (h)).
• In co-operation with each country concerned, there is a need to develop and launch a composite ICT
Development Index (Digital Opportunity Index). This could be published annually, or every two years, in an
ICT Development Report. The index could show the statistics while the report would present analytical work
on policies and their implementation, including gender analysis, depending on national circumstances (28 (a)).
• Gender-specific indicators on ICT use and needs should be developed, and measurable performance
ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 21
September 2014
407
indicators should be identified to assess the impact of funded ICT projects on the lives of women and girls (28
(d)).
This international exploration of bringing a gender aspect into the arena of ICT is a significant consideration for
women empowerment and sustainable development. Because this discussion raised some particularly valid concerns,
the issue was placed on the agenda for the second phase of WSIS, held in Tunis in 2005. These efforts resulted in the
establishment of the WSIS Gender Caucus, which has a number of important objectives, among which are to (compiled
from WSIS Gender Caucus, 2003):
• acknowledge gender equality and women’s rights as cross-cutting principles;
• include women as leaders and decision-makers in all planning processes for the Summit and recognize that
women’s perspectives can make a significant contribution to aligning the Summit with the Millennium
Development Goals;
• develop projects that will collect and analyze appropriate gender specific data and reporting mechanisms to
evaluate and monitor the impact of ICT developments on women and girls;
• implement an information dissemination campaign that includes a wide range of media such as radio, drama
and print and a variety of languages; and
• commission a study on the interaction between gender equality and ICT, which should include development of
a gender equality and ICT baseline study, indicators, conceptual tools and case studies on the impact of ICT
on achieving gender equality, to inform the dialogue of the Summit.
Despite all these efforts, it is (officially) recorded and witnessed that in African countries, especially the
francophone countries, women are deprived of information facilities and other communication devices and. hence they
experience significant ICT challenges. This has led to what can be described as a digital divide based on gender. In
terms of the MDGs and sustainable development, these countries are experiencing a ‘gender-based digital divide’ in
which women are ‘digitally deprived’. To bridge this gap, the WSIS Gender Caucus has opened the opportunity for
African organizations to list their representations as groups that are concerned about gender equality. Some of the
significant names on this list are: ABANTU for Development; the African Connection Programme; AMARC Africa; APC
Africa Women’s Programme; Network of African Women Economists; Zimbabwe Ministry of Transport and
Communications, to name but a few. In the case of West Africa, UNDP/SURF West Africa is also registered as a
participant organization.
3. Gender and ICT: Overview of the African Continent
Schapera (cited in Vyas-Doorgapersad and Lukamba, 2011, p.95) has observed that before the era of Christianity (pre-42
BC), men dominated the intellectual world and women had no legal status; they were at the mercy of their male relatives
and husbands; a woman’s destiny was marriage and motherhood. As Guy (1990) puts it, women in Africa were “precious
objects of exchange and control”(p.33). In order to fight for the rights of women, and advance women empowerment
globally, the feminist movements were instrumental in the compilation and implementation of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (1948); the Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1952); the Civil and Political Rights International
Act (1966); and the Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979). The African
continent was faced with significant global pressure and this resulted in an addendum being added to the African Charter
on Human and People’s Rights, known as the Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa. The Charter was adopted by
the African Union (AU) in 2003, followed by the Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa, adopted in 2004.
In addition, the Millennium Development Goals were drawn up to advance development in under-developed
countries. The significance of MDG 3 is identified in the report entitled African Common Position on the Review of the
Millennium Declaration and the Millennium Development Goals (African Union, 2006), stating that “the promotion of
gender equality and empowerment of women is vital to achieving sustainable development. Generally, in Africa, women
continue to suffer deep and systematic discrimination and exclusion. They also have less representation in political
leadership and decision-making process. As a prerequisite for sustainable development, African governments need to
address gender imbalances through the promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women”. This statement is
furthermore substantiated with an added justification by Professor Clement Dzidonu (2002) claiming that African
countries, “as part of their efforts to achieve the MDGs through the use of ICTs must take steps to identify and address
those critical success factors that will ensure progress towards achieving these developmental goals” (p.36).
Along with the bi-lateral and multi-lateral treaties and international agreements, regional African governments must
ensure that gender equality interventions are made at both policy and personal levels. After all, “if African women do not
ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 21
September 2014
408
take advantage of the opportunity offered by ICTs to ‘catch up’ technologically, they will find themselves further
marginalized” (cited in Huyer and Sikoska, 2003, p.5).
4. Gender and the Millennium Development Goals (Goals 3 and 8) in West Africa
West Africa (also known as the western part of Africa or Western Africa) incorporates a number of countries, namely
Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal,
Sierra Leone and Togo. These countries have faced the ordeals of conflict, war, and dictatorship. In order to bring peace
and enhance development, the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 was adopted in 2000, whereby the
significant involvement of women was considered in social restructuring. This feminist reform resulted in the
establishment of the Women in Peace-building Network (WIPNET) across West Africa. The Economic Commission of
West African States (ECOWAS) confirmed (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa Sub-Regional Office for
West Africa, 2012), “the cross-cutting nature of gender [and with] a major move to provide the necessary structures and
frameworks for gender mainstreaming, ECOWAS established a Gender Development Center in 2003” (p.11). The
success of this initiative correspondingly led the way towards the institutionalization of Women Peace and Security
Network-Africa (WIPSEN-Africa) in 2006. All these “efforts were strengthened by the adoption of the gender policy
document to mainstream gender in the sub-region and empower women” (p. 11).
The main function of gender-based empowerment structure(s) is to “mainstream gender in all legislation,
government policy and planning. However, although the legal and political environments can be regarded as enabling of
gender equality, the biggest challenge is the implementation of programmes aimed at attaining this goal” (Isaacs, 2007, p.
7). In the case of West Africa, the report entitled Tracking progress in the implementation of regional and international
agendas, including NEPAD and other special initiatives in the sub-region to promote gender equality and empower
women: MDG 3, released by the UN Economic Commission for Africa Sub-Regional Office for West Africa ECA/SRO-WA
(2012) states that “although periodic monitoring of implementation suggests considerable progress registered in attaining
some of the indicators, and the potential in others, challenges still persist and could jeopardize meeting the set target
date of 2015” (p.13). The report stresses that poverty remains widespread, mainly because of the dearth of economic
opportunities. This is the basic reason why women in West Africa are caught up in a “vicious circle deepening the already
critical access to health, education, and political participation”. The report on MDG 2013: Assessing Progress in Africa
toward the Millennium Development Goals – Food security in Africa: Issues, challenges and lessons (a collaborative
effort by the African Union Commission (AUC), the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), the African
Development Bank (AfDB) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2013), states that although the
progress towards achievement of MDG 3 in West African countries is fairly significant, “cultural practices (including
inequitable inheritance practices in a few countries, early marriages and household power dynamics), low economic
opportunities for women and limited political involvement continue to impede progress in meeting this goal” (p.47). The
report goes on to stress that if there is to be an improvement in this parlous situation, there must be cultural
transformation to reverse the “negative attitudes” towards gender equality and women’s empowerment. Policy changes
must be made to address all aspects of gender discrimination in the public education system and women must be
afforded sustainable economic opportunities. In other words, there must be “increased participation of women in
productive and remunerative economic activities” and women’s voices must be heard loud and clear in decision-making
“at all levels of society”.
In order to align MDG 3 and MDG 8, a Gender and ICT Network has been established in West Africa. This network
is a collaborative effort at global and regional levels, comprising the Environmental Development Action in the Third
World (ENDA) [an international body]; the Monitoring Centre for Information Systems and the Internet in Senegal (l’
Observatoire des Systèmes d’Information sur les Réseaux et Inforoutes du Sénégal – OSIRIS); and the Senegalese
Telecommunications Regulations Agency (l’ Agence sénégalaise de Régulation des Télécommunications – ART) [which
are regional bodies]. The aim of the network is to bring gender issues into the ICT sector. To analyse the significance of
ICTs (MDG 8) for fulfilling the objectives of MDG 3, a research initiative was conducted by the Gender and ICT Network
[Regentic] in West Africa. The research covered countries like Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Mali, Mauritania and
Senegal [the francophone countries]. The research was sponsored by the International Development Research Centre.
The findings of the research are presented below in summary form (compiled from Hafkin and Huyer, 2007):
• There is a gender digital divide in the six francophone countries in Africa. The composite indicator of women’s
participation in information technology circles is a mere 0.65, meaning that women have 35% fewer
opportunities and benefits than men with regard to ICT.
• In these African countries men have developed a level of skills in the use of computers in the jobs they hold;
ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 21
September 2014
409
the women tend to work at entry-level positions and while they are educated in computer use, the training
provided tends to be at elementary level. These young women were not involved in creating electronic texts or
using computers at a more advanced level. Women are not involved at all in developing ICT systems.
• While young women who are secondary school graduates have become the majority of those working in the
ICT sphere in these countries, they tend to remain at the level of users and do not become managers or
technical analysts. They gain computer skills as an entry tool for secretarial or data-entry jobs but rarely
advance beyond this level.
• Very little local content is available in the francophone countries on gender issues.
• Few people are aware of gender issues in ICT (p.31-33).
This research initiative in West Africa incorporates sections exploring ‘“Sustainable Development Policies’...
concerned with the necessity, at the dawn of the information society, for the inclusion of gender issues in ICT policies, ...
[and the] ‘Development of Relevant Indicators’ which relates to the method used to determine how to evaluate and meas-
ure the gender situation in the ICT sector”. The author maintains that there were “a multitude of inequalities” that came to
the fore in the on-site research. The final section provides a “composite analysis of this data, and suggests action plans
for the promotion of ‘gender equality in the African information society’” (Mottin-Sylla, 2005, p.22).
Another research project was conducted which links MDG 3 and 8. This study is entitled ICTs and gender in
primary and secondary education in West and Central Africa. The research was undertaken in the years 2004-2005 in 40
primary and secondary schools. The results indicate that “at school, priority ICTs access was given to the most motivated
pupils, regardless of sex, although the boys seemed to have more access to computers outside of school, e.g., at
cybercafés. Some teachers remarked that in terms of handling computer tools, in general, the boys seemed to have
mastered the computer better than the girls. In most cases, a few boys were labelled ‘ICT experts’ by their friends” (cited
in PanAfrican Research Agenda (PanAf), 2009, p.66). Another research initiative that is cited in the PanAfrican Research
Agenda on the Pedagogical Integration of ICTs: Phase 2, reveals that “the problem is exacerbated by the fact that girls
appear to be alienated by ICTs, considering them as belonging to the masculine realm”. A similar investigation of
“computer savvy” among university students indicated that female students were less skilled in the use of information
technologies than their male counterparts (p.66).
5. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
In order to bring gender equality and equity into the ICT sector, it is vital to consider the existing challenges and policy
gaps and to find solutions for improvement. This section explores some of the significant challenges regarding gender
and ICT and tries to make relevant policy recommendations for implementation in West African countries.
In Benin, the reason for lack of gender involvement in the information and technology sector is the shortage of
educational resources. The country is currently in a process to “narrow the gender literacy gap (47.9% for males and
23.3% for females in 2002)” (e-learning Africa news portal, 2014). A study on gender equity in ICT in Burkina Faso,
“published by Sylvestre Ouédraogo in September 2000” (Fall, 2007, p.7) indicated that “the Internet users polled were
mainly men (68.7%)” (p.7). In Cape Verde, the government has obtained the assistance of private sector to establish IT
centres, but, in reality, “only an insignificant fraction of the population can use these services because the majority of
families are poor. Added to this, the rural areas are not served at all. Currently the 20 cyber cafés on the islands are
restricted to Praia and Mindelo with little else on the other islands” (Agyeman, 2007, p.7). An exploratory study conducted
by the Panos Institute West Africa (PIWA) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 2009 covered the
countries Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Senegal. The aim was to explore gender inequalities that “are particularly reflected at
an economic level, with strong disparities between the incomes of men and women. It seems that in many cases, women
are not only excluded from equal social and economic opportunities but also from the benefits offered by ICT, from
access to new technologies and from a place within the information society” (Fraser-Moleketi & Senghor, undated, p.25).
According to the Republic of Gambia: Programme for Accelerated Growth and Employment [PAGE] 2012-2015
(Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, 2012), “Gambia is a patriarchal society characterized by male hegemony and
other socio-cultural factors that interplay to influence the interactions between the genders and social groups” (p.112). In
some cases these inequalities have led to the exclusion of women and girls, from “actively participating in the
development process of the country. Overall, gender responsiveness in Gambia is, low” (p.112).
Women “represent less than 10 per cent of the Internet users in Guinea” (United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development: Information Economy Report 2006, p.169). There is a similar scenario in Liberia. According to the Republic
of Liberia Agenda for Transformation: steps towards Liberia rising 2030 (undated), “the culture of patriarchy pervades
Liberian society, beginning in the family with men as heads of households, and serves as the model for organizing society
ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 21
September 2014
410
– its economy, politics and socio-cultural life” (p.126). Similarly, in Mali, a better understanding of the “interplay of
information and communication technology (ICT) and the role of women in facilitating social, political and economic
development” is needed. Mali is described as a least developed country (LDC). Women in this country face the
unenviable prospect of “low literacy rates, high birth rates, high infant and maternal mortality rates, and low incomes …
The benefits of ICT development [and its integration] with gender equity would go a long way to inform “policymakers’
understanding of ICT diffusion and its benefits to people in LDCs” (Dumas, 2008).
In general, women have one chance in three less than men of benefiting from the African information society in
Mauritania (Biztech Africa, 2012). It appears that the ICTs are seen as tools for transformation and are expected to
change the status quo. One cannot but wonder just how many African women in rural communities can access ICTs
services.
In Nigeria, there are no libraries or information centres in rural areas (Jorge, 2002), while ICT infrastructure in
Sierra Leone is in dire need of reform (World Bank , 2005; Government of Sierra Leone, 2005; US Department of State,
2003; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Information Economy Report 2006). According to
Agyeman-Duahl (2007) Togo has no official ICT policy (p.4).
Based on the challenges explored above, this article proposes the following recommendations to be included in
policy documents:
• Policy documents must accommodate the provision of free education for girls. This will improve female
enrolment at institutes of learning. Furthermore, the utilization of e-learning processes can enhance the level
of technological skills among female learners. This will, in the future, bring technological transformation and
the socio-economic advancement of women in society.
• In order to improve the gender-based technologically enhanced skilled force, West African governments need
to engage the stakeholders (men and women) from public and private sectors to discuss the varied roles for
mutual benefit.
• To accommodate gender issues in the ICT policy, research on gender disaggregated data is imperative to
identify the varied roles, responsibilities and requirements of men and women.
• Gender policies must be aligned with ICT policies in a cross-cutting manner, linking the development aspect of
education and training in an e-environment for improved technological development of girl/women learners.
• Political will is a vital component to structure legislative measures that accommodate gender equality in the
ICT sector.
• Capacity-building initiatives must be established for gender-based training for ICT.
• Gender-based ICT training for women empowerment needs an individual vote in the budget statements.
• Monitoring and evaluation procedures need to be established for quality evaluation, review and sustainability
of gender-based ICT for development.
In addition it is recommended that policy documents incorporate the establishment of one-stop call centres in the
rural areas. Once these centres are in place, community development workers should be deployed to educate women in
regional/local language(s). The West African governments need a dual approach: first, to improve the ratio of girls/boys
education in the schools for gender balance and equity (MDG 3), and secondly, to incorporate ICT in the school curricula
at educational and vocational levels (MDG 8). Incorporation of capacity-building programmes in national policies;
investment in girls’ education; provision in the budget for ICT training at country-specific levels; and introducing financial
opportunities for women in technologically enriched IT jobs, will assist West African countries to achieve women
empowerment (MDG 3) in ICT sector (MDG 8), and to gain an understanding of the empowerment approach utilized as a
theoretical framework in this article.
In order to address the challenges facing women empowerment in the African continent as a whole, the APC-
Africa-Women network has been set up for aligning MDG 3 with MDG 8. It is a network of varied institutions and
individual stakeholders aiming to empower African women’s organisations through the access and utilization of ICTs,
thereby working towards gender equity and equality. APC-Africa-Women network is a part of the Africa regional
programme of APC’s Women’s Networking Support Programme (APCWNSP). Another initiative is Africa: African
Women’s Development and Communications Network (FEMNET), which aims to promote the development of African
women.
A close examination of the available literature and official reports reveals that although certain West African
countries such as Ghana, Sierra Leone and Liberia are in a position to achieve MDG 3 and 8 (albeit it only to some
extent), the same cannot be said of other countries, notably Mali, Guinea Bissau and Cote d'Ivoire. These three West
African countries are still struggling under dictatorships, political uncertainty, poor leadership and weak governance.
ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 21
September 2014
411
Indeed, at this point in time, the road ahead to achievement of these MDGs is particularly demanding and challenging.
References
Agyeman, T.O. (2007). ICT in Education in Cape Verde: survey of ICT and education in Africa: Cape Verde Country Report. Retrieved
on April 10, 2012 from http://www.infodev.org/infodev-files/resource/InfodevDocuments_354.pdf.
Agyeman-Duahl, O. (2007). ICT in Education in Togo: survey of ICT and education in Africa: Togo Country Report. Retrieved on March
25, 2013 from http://www.infodev.org/infodev-files/resource/InfodevDocuments_433.pdf.
African Union. (2006). African Common Position on the Review of the Millennium Declaration and the Millennium Development Goals.
Ethiopia: Addis Ababa.
Balit, S. (1999). Voice for change: rural women and communication. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
BiztechAfrica. (2012). Gender ICT divide worsens in Senegal. Retrieved on March 23, 2013 from
http://www.biztechafrica.com/article/gender-ict-divide-worsens-senegal/4873/#.Ut0OzuKxUdU.
Cherry, K, (2013). What is gender? Retrieved on April 06, 2014 from http://psychology.about.com/od/gindex/g/gender.htm.
Dhoj, I. (2009). Gender and Communication: Critical Assessment on Theories on Gender Development. Regional Master Programme.
Bangladesh: Dhaka University.
Dumas, J. A. (2008). Gender ICT and Millennium Development Goals. Retrieved on June 24, 2013 from http://www.igi-
global.com/chapter/gender-ict-millennium-development-goals/22685.
Dzidonu, C.K. (2002). A Framework for Guiding the Development of ICT-led Socio-Economic Development Policies, Strategies and
Plans, Special Working Paper Series No.5. Nairobi, Kenya: Africa Technology Policy Study (ATPS).
e-learning Africa news portal. (2014). eLearning and sustainable development: perspectives from Benin. Retrieved on March 15, 2014
from http://www.elearning-africa.com/eLA_Newsportal/elearning-and-sustainable-development-perspectives-from-benin/.
Economic Commission ECA for Africa. (2012). Tracking progress in the implementation of regional and international agendas, including
NEPAD and other special initiatives in the sub-region promote gender equality and empower women: MDG 3. Niger: United
Nations Economic Commission for Africa Sub-Regional Office for West Africa ECA/SRO-WA.
Elsaadani, M. (2012). Teaching staff attitude toward ICT: Is Gender a Factor? International Women Online Journal of Distance Education
July, 1 (2), 1-10.
Fall, B. (2007). ICT in Education in Burkino Faso. Retrieved on August 26, 2013 from
http://www.infodev.org/infodev-files/resource/InfodevDocuments_388.pdf.
Fialova, K. (2006). Associating gender with ICT policy: Association for Progressive Communications Women’s Networking Support
Programme. Retrieved on March 17, 2013 from http://www.i4donline.net/articles/current.article.asp?articleid=590&typ=Features.
Formatex. (2006). Examining the level of penetration and impact of Internet usage amongst undergraduates in Nigerian Universities – a
case study approach. Retrieved on April 18, 2012 from http://www.researchgate.net/publication
/235959521_Examining_levels_of_penetration and impacts_of_internet_usage_amongst_undergraduates_in_Nigerian_Universities:
a_case_study_approach.
Fraser-Moleketi, G. and Senghor, D. (undated). E-governance and Citizen Participation in West Africa: Challenges and Opportunities.
New York: UNDP in collaboration with PIWA-West Africa.
Gill, K., Brooks, K., McDougall, J., Patel, P. & Kes, A. (2012). Bridging the gender divide: how technology can advance women
economically. UK: International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW).
Gillard, H., Howcroft, D., Mitev, N. & Richardson, H. (2007). ‘Missing Women’: Gender, ICTs and the Shaping of the Global Economy.
UK: Centre for Research on Socio-Cultural Change (CRESC).
Gillard, H., Howcroft, D., Mitev, N. & Richardson, H. (2008). ‘Missing women’: gender, ICTs, and the shaping of the global economy.
Information Technology for Development, 14 (4), 262-279.
Govender, S.D. and Vyas-Doorgapersad, S. (2013). The implementation of gender equality policies in achieving millennium development
goal three in the Sedibeng District Municipality. Journal of Public Administration, 8 (1),105-117.
Government of Sierra Leone. (2005). Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Retrieved on April 19, 2013 from
https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2005/cr05191.pdf.
Gurumurthy, A. (2004).Gender and ICTs: Overview Report. Institute of Development Studies September 2004. Retrieved on July 27,
2013 from http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SHS/pdf/Gender-ICTs.pdf.
Guy, J. (1990). Gender oppression in Southern Africa’s pre-capitalist societies, in C. Walker (ed.), Women and gender in Southern
Africa. London: James Currey and David Philip, 1990, 33–48.
Hafkin, N.J. (2003). Gender Issues in ICT Statistics and Indicators with Particular Emphasis on Developing Countries. Paper presented
at the Joint UNICE/UNCTAD/ITU/EUROSTAT Statistical Workshop. Geneva.
Hafkin, N. (2002). Gender Issues in ICT Policy in Developing Countries: An Overview. Paper presented during the Expert Group Meeting
on “Information and communication technologies and their impact on and use as an instrument for the advancement and
empowerment of women. Seoul, Republic of Korea 11 to 14 November 2002.
Hafkin, N. and Taggart, N. (2001). Gender, information technology, and developing countries: an analytical study. Washington, DC:
Academy for Educational Development.
Hafkin, N.J. and Huyer, S. (2007). Women and Gender in ICT Statistics and Indicators for Development. Information Technologies and
International Development, 4 (2), 25-41.
ISSN 2039-2117 (online)
ISSN 2039-9340 (print)
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy
Vol 5 No 21
September 2014
412
Howcroft, D. and Richardson, H. (2007). Gender Matters in the Global Outsourcing of Service Work. UK Centre for Research on Socio-
Cultural Change (CRESC).
Huws, U. (2003).The Making of a Cybertariat: Virtual Work in a Real World. London: Merlin Press.
Huyer, S. and Sikoska, T. (2003). Overcoming the Gender Digital Divide: Understanding ICTs and their Potential for the Empowerment
of Women. INSTRAW Research Paper Series No. 1. Retrieved on July 27, 2012 from http://www.iiav.nl/epublications
/2003/Overcoming.pdf.
Institute of Development Studies. (2013). BRIDGE Cutting Edge Packs Gender and ICTs. Retrieved on May 15, 2014 from
http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk.
Isaac, S. (2007). Survey of ICT and education in Africa: South Africa Country Report South Africa – 1. Retrieved on June 17, 2013 from
http://www.infodev.org.
Jensen, S.C. (1989). Gender and the information society: a socially structured silence. Journal of Communication, 39 (3), 196-215.
Jorge, S.N. (2002). The Economics of ICT: Challenges and Practical strategies of ICT use for Women’s Economic Empowerment. Paper
presented at the “Information and communication technologies and their impact on and use as an instrument for the
advancement and empowerment of women. Seoul, Republic of Korea 11 to 14 November 2002.
Lars, J. (2003). The role of men and boys in achieving gender equality. New York: New York Press.
Mackinnon, C. (1989). Toward a Feminist Theory of the State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Maleka, M.B.M. (2011). A gender-based analysis of ICT adoption and usage in South Africa. A research report. University of the
Witwatersrand: Faculty of Management.
Molyneux, M. (1985). Mobilization without emancipation? Women’s Interests, the State, and Revolution in Nicaragua. Feminist Studies,
11 (2), 227-254.
Moser, C.O.N. (1993). Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training. London and New York: Routledge.
Mottin-Sylla, M.H. (2005). The Gender Digital Divide in Francophone Africa: A Harsh Reality. Dakar: ENDA.
Mpow.org. (2012).Developing a Theory of Empowerment: in search of a meta-theory. Retrieved on August 17, 2013 from
http://www.mpow.org.
NDP (National Development Plan), (2007). Gender Equality in IT, Ecommerce and Internet Usage. Retrieved on March 13, 2014 from
http://ndpgenderequality.ie/downloads/factsheets/it&internet.pdf.
PanAfrican Research Agenda (PanAf). (2009). PanAfrican Research Agenda on the Pedagogical Integration of ICTs: Phase 2. Retrieved
on July 27, 2013 from http://www.observatoiretic.org/documents/IDRC-PHASE2-EN-All.pdf.
Reddy, P.S. (2006). A Strategic Framework for Gender Equality within the Public Service (2006-2015): a consultation document.
Pretoria: Department of Public Service and Administration.
Rubin, G. (1975). ‘The Traffic in Women: Notes on the “Political Economy” of Sex’, in R. Reiter (ed.), Toward an Anthropology of
Women. New York: Monthly Review Press: 157-210.
Sandys, E. (2005). Gender equality and empowerment of women through ICT: women 2000 and beyond. September 2005. United
Nations: Division for the Advancement of Women Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
The African Union Commission (AUC), the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), the African Development Bank
(AfDB) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2013). MDG 2013: Assessing Progress in Africa toward the
Millennium Development Goals – Food security in Africa: Issues, challenges and lessons. Retrieved on February 15, 2014 from
http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/Millennium%20Development%20Goals%20(MDGs)%20Rep
ort%202013.pdf.
The Republic of Liberia. (undated). Agenda for Transformation: steps towards Liberia rising 2030. Retrieved on November 19, 2013 from
http://mof.gov.lr/doc/AfT%20document-%20April%2015,%202013.pdf.
The Republic of the Gambia. (2012). Programme for Accelerated Growth and Employment [PAGE] 2012- 2015. Gambia: Ministry of
Finance and Economic Affairs.
The World Bank Group. (2013). Key Issues on Gender and Development. Retrieved on October 27, 2013 from
http://go.worldbank.org/JY9AZO39Z0.
United Nations. (2006). United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Information Economy Report. Retrieved on June 24,
2013 from http://unctad.org/en/docs/sdteecb20061ch3_en.pdf.
US Department of State. (2003). Sierra Leone. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2002. US: Bureau of Democracy, Human
Rights, and Labor.
Vyas-Doorgapersad, S. and Lukamba, T.M. (2011). The status and political participation of women in the Democratic Republic of Congo
(1960–2010): A critical historical reflection New Contree, No. 62, 91-110.
Wieringa, S. (1994). Women’s Interests and Empowerment: Gender Planning Reconsidered. Development and Change, 25, 829-848.
Wikibooks. (2013). Gender and ICT/Placing Women’s Empowerment: Back into the Gender Equality Framework. Retrieved on December 5,
2013 from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Gender_and_ICT/Placing_Women%27s_Empowerment_Back_Into_the_Gender_Equality_Framework.
Woolgar, S. (2002). Five rules of virtuality in Virtual Society? Technology, Cyberbole, Reality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1-22.
World Bank. (2005). Republic of Sierra Leone (Joint IDA-IMF Staff Advisory Note on the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Washington,
DC: World Bank.
World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS). (2003). Plan of action. Retrieved on November 7, 2013 from http://www.itu.int/wsis/
docs/geneva/official/poa.htm.
WSIS Gender Caucus. (2003). About us. Retrieved on November 16, 2013 from http://www.genderwsis.org/aboutus.0.html.
