Self-efficacy in Second/Foreign Language Learning Contexts

Abstract

This study reviews the empirical literature of self-efficacy, a central component of social cognitive theory, in the area of second language learning by focusing on two research questions: first, to what extent, has self-efficacy, as a predicting variable, has been explored in the field of second language learning? Second, what factors affect learners' self-efficacy beliefs in learning a foreign/second language? On addressing the research questions, 32 articles published between 2003 and 2012 were selected. The articles were classified into two main categories - effects of self-efficacy and factors affecting self-efficacy. Then each category was divided into certain subcategories for discussion. The findings of the review revealed that several factors enhance the level of students' self-efficacy, and self-efficacy is a strong predictor of performance in different language skills and tasks. Limitations of the empirical studies discussed and directions for further investigation are also presented.

Full text

English Language Teaching; Vol. 5, No. 11; 2012
ISSN 1916-4742 E-ISSN 1916-4750
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education
60
Self-efficacy in Second/Foreign Language Learning Contexts
Saeid Raoofi1, Bee Hoon Tan1 & Swee Heng Chan1
1 Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, University Putra Malaysia (UPM),
Malaysia
Correspondence: Saeid Raoofi, Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication,
University Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Tel: 60-105-023-814. E-mail:
raoofisaeed2020@yahoo.com
Received: August 17, 2012 Accepted: August 31, 2012 Online Published: September 12, 2012
doi:10.5539/elt.v5n11p60 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v5n11p60
Abstract
This study reviews the empirical literature of self-efficacy, a central component of social cognitive theory, in the
area of second language learning by focusing on two research questions: first, to what extent, has self-efficacy, as
a predicting variable, has been explored in the field of second language learning? Second, what factors affect
learners’ self-efficacy beliefs in learning a foreign/second language? On addressing the research questions, 32
articles published between 2003 and 2012 were selected. The articles were classified into two main categories –
effects of self-efficacy and factors affecting self-efficacy. Then each category was divided into certain
subcategories for discussion. The findings of the review revealed that several factors enhance the level of students’
self-efficacy, and self-efficacy is a strong predictor of performance in different language skills and tasks.
Limitations of the empirical studies discussed and directions for further investigation are also presented.
Keywords: self-efficacy, a foreign language learner, language learning context
1. Introduction
There is a considerable body of research on individual differences in the area of foreign language learning.
Individual differences encompass a wide scope of domains including, personality traits, learning styles, learners’
beliefs, strategies, aptitude, age, motivation. Research indicates that individual differences predict success in
language learning. Individuals learning a foreign language have a lot of differences in their rate of learning and
the ways they follow to develop their skills (Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003; Sawyer & Ranta, 2001).
In order to understand why some learners learn language more successfully than others, with almost the same
aptitude and capabilities, researchershave focused their attention on the learners’ perceptions of the task
(Williams & Burden, 1997), learners’ beliefs in their abilities to perform a task (Bandura, 1997) and other
individualdifferences such aslearning strategies (Cohen, 1998; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990) and
motivation (Dörnyei, 2001, 2005; Gardner, 2000). Although learning process is multifaceted and complicated as
it involves different variables such as relevant knowledge, skills, intelligence and cognitive abilities, researchers
are increasingly directing their research efforts towards the important role of learners’ thoughts and beliefs in
learning and education (Schunk, 2003). Self-efficacy as individuals’ beliefs in their abilities to perform a task
(Bandura, 1986) proves to be a principal variable in predicting learners’ performance. SE appears to play a vital
role in predicting learners’ performance in educational contexts and it can predict performance even better than
actual abilities (Bandura, 1997), oraptitude (Schunk, 1991). Apart from influencing students’ learning,
self-efficacy also affects motivation as it has been substantiated by a solid body of research (Pajares, 1996;
Schunk, 2003).
SE is a significant component of social cognitive theory. SCT suggests reciprocal interactions among these
influences: environment, behaviour, and personal factors including physiological, cognitive and affective aspects
(Bandura, 1986). In this theory, human beings have the ability to affect and shape their environment rather than
passively react to it. With reference to the interaction among the three forces (personal, environmental and
behavioural), individuals’ beliefs in their capabilities to perform a task (e.g. self-efficacy) determine the efforts
and engagement they exert for the task (Bandura, 1999, Schunk 2003).
Given significant role of self-efficacy, it is seems relevant to do a comprehensive review on the role of
self-efficacy in learning a second/foreign language to gain a clear understanding ofthe development of

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self-efficacy in learning a second/foreign language, the ways in which self-efficacy affects language learning;
and how language teachers can help the learners to create positive beliefs about their abilities to learn a foreign
language. This review investigates research studies of self-efficacy in foreign language context by narrowing the
focus on two research questions: To what extent, has self-efficacy, as a predicting variable, been explored in the
field of second language learning? What factors affect learners’ self-efficacy beliefs in learning English as a
foreign language?
2. Self-efficacy and Second/Foreign Language Learners
2.1 The Construct of Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, as a key element of social cognitive theory, refers to “beliefs in one‘s capabilities to organize and
execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3). Learners’ beliefs in
their capabilities affect performance tremendously. Learners’ beliefs can predict performance better than their
real ability (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 1991). This is of considerable importance for educators in that students with
high self-efficacy actually engage in doing a task, therefore they achieve higher score than those learner with low
self-efficacy, even though they may have low ability. Self-efficacy is a motivational variable in learning and it
seems almost impossible to examine some aspects of human functions such as learning, motivation and
academic performance regardless of the role of self-efficacy beliefs of the learners (Pajares & Urdan, 2006).
Bandura (1986) proposed that, within this triadic reciprocality (interaction between three above mentioned
factors), individuals are endowed with five capabilities which help them to determine their own action:
symbolizing capability, forethought capability, Self-regulatory capability, vicarious capability, and self-reflective
capability. Among the five capabilities, self-reflection is the most significant and central capability in
determining human behaviour. Self-reflection enables human beings to assess, interpret and self-evaluate their
motivation, thoughts and behaviour. One of the most powerful arbiters of self-reflection is self-efficacy which is
a strong predictor of success (Bandura, 1986).
Bandura (1997) noted four sources which affect the development of self-efficacy beliefs: a) mastery experience,
(b) vicarious experience, (c) social persuasion, and (d) physiological states. People who have experienced
successful performance in accomplishing a task, tend to have high self-efficacy, therefore past experiences play a
vital role in developing self-efficacy beliefs.
When learners observe their friend and peers perform a task successfully; theydevelop positive beliefs about
their own capabilities in performing the task and hence this experience can enhance the learner’s self-efficacy.
Encouragement and positive feedback affects self-efficacy. Learners develop high self-efficacy concerning a
specific task when they receive encouragement from mentors, advisors, or superiors who are valued for their
expertise in the particular domain assessed. Lastly, physiological and emotional states such as fatigue and
anxiety affect self-efficacy. Learners who have low anxiety during a task performance, feel at ease and tend to
perceive the situation as pleasant, therefore they strengthen their self-efficacy beliefs.
2.2 Foreign/Second Language Learners’ Self-efficacy Beliefs
Self-efficacy is task-specific and differs from context to context. Bandura (1986) posited that various ways are
required to assess self-efficacy when tasks vary because assessment of self-efficacy is task-specific. Therefore,
self-efficacy needs to be measured specifically rather than generally. Since language learning differs from other
types of learning (Williams, 1994), more attention needs to be paid to how learners develop self-efficacy and
what factors affect their self-efficacy in second/foreign language contexts.
While a large number of researchers have investigated the role of self-efficacy in different areas of learning, less
research has focused on self-efficacy beliefs in the context of foreign language learning. However, there has been
a growing interest in self-efficacy beliefs within the field of second language learning in the last ten years.
Research results from several areas indicate that self-efficacy is a key factor that affects learners’ interest,
persistence, extent of effort students invest in learning, the goals they choose to pursue and their use of
self-regulated strategies in performing a task (Carmichael & Taylor, 2005; Lane, Lane, & Kyprianou, 2004;
Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003; Pajares, 1996, 2003; Schunk, 2003).
In foreign language learning contexts, Research studies have examined self-efficacy in relation to a limited
number of variables namely learning strategies, performance, causal attributions, and language anxiety. Still not
many research studies have been directed towards the development of self-efficacy in these contexts. Moreover,
most of the studies have investigated the correlational relationship between learners’ self-efficacy beliefs and
these variables, and only a few studies have focused on the casual relationship between self-efficacy and
mentioned variables. Research indicates that self-efficacy in the second language context influences learners’

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motivation and learning. Self-efficacy, as a central element of human agency, mediates between learners’
aptitude, past achievements and subsequent performances (Bandura, 2006).
Among the different findings, the most consistent one is that learners’ self-efficacy for foreign language affects
performance in different language domains (Abedini & Rahimi 2009; Hsieh, 2008; Hsieh and Kang 2010; Mills,
Pajares, & Herron, 2007, 2006; Tilfarlioğlu & Cınkara, 2011; Wang, Spencer, & Xing, 2009). Considering the
critical role of beliefs and thoughts, it is necessary to do much research on learners’ self-efficacy and how to
develop it in educational settings such as schools and universities.
3. Method
For this review, research synthetic techniques were used to collect a thorough if not exhaustive collection of
current research on self-efficacy. We searched the following databases: ERIC, Academic Search Premier,
Educational Search Complete, PsycINFO, SCIENCEDIRECT, SAGE and SCOPUS using the combinations of
the following key terms “second language”, “foreign language” and “self-efficacy”. We selected empirical
studies from 2003up to 2012. During this phase 58 hits were found. In the second selection stage, studies were
selected based on the following criteria: (1) the field of study had to be second /foreign language learning (2) the
variable ‘self-efficacy’ had to relate to the definition of Bandura’s self-efficacy construct; and (3) one of the main
variables of the study had to be self-efficacy; that is studies had to deal with self-efficacy as either a dependent or
independent variable.
By addressing these criteria, abstracts and initial paragraphs of the studies were read to exclude the irrelevant
ones. Twenty seven studies were thus selected and included in this review. In the third stage, the reference lists of
the selected studies were explored carefully for additional studies and 3 articles were added in this way. Finally,
to ensure a complete search and inclusion, the Google scholar database was searched and two relevant articles
were found. To analyse the studies, each selected study was codedbased onthe following characteristics: the
sample size, design features and study type, context of learning, task or skill type. Since the selected studies were
based on various types of research designs (e.g., experimental, correlational), we preferred to do a narrative
review. This type ofreview method summarizes the existing literature on a specific topic; and gives a systematic
and comprehensive overview of the topic from a theoretical point of view.The narrative reviews usually use
qualitative approach as well asprovide in-depthand up-to-date knowledge (Dochy, Segers, Van den Bossche, &
Gijbels, 2003).
In order to critically examine the research topic and also to scrutinize the scope of the research carefully, we
examine each study carefully and classify them according to the identified themes, as Creswell (1994) states that
the objective of research review is to summarize the knowledge gathered concerning a specific topic and to
identify the important issues that have not been explored adequately. This investigation pays to discover a
general portrait of where the self-efficacy is located in the contexts of language learning, and to what extent it
has been researched in these contexts as it is supposed to be the most influential predictor of performance after
aptitude. On the basis of the identified themes of the selected studies, the results of the review will be presented
in the following section.
4. Results
Following the criteria used for the present study, a total of thirty two studies were selected for inclusion in this
review (see Appendix A). The selected studies were carefully examined, and the specific characteristics of each
study was identified and compared with another to draw out the differences.After some description about the
characteristic features of the studies, the results will be presented. The studies were categorized into two groups:
the effect of self-efficacy and factors affecting self-efficacy. Each of the groups was classified into subcategories,
as shown in Table 1.
4.1 Characteristics Features of the Studies
The final sample for this review consisted of empirical studies published between 2003 and 2012. 66% of the
studies were conducted between 2009 and 2012 (July). This shows that the last three years have experienced a
drastic increase in the number of research studies on self-efficacy in the field of foreign language compared with
the period from 2003 to 2008.With regard to the context of foreign/second language, most of the research studies
investigated self-efficacy beliefs in relation to English language rather than other languages. The selected studies
were conducted in the context of the following languages as a second or foreign language: English (27 studies),
French (4 studies), Spanish (one study) German (one study) and Chinese (one study). It should be noted that in
one study the sample consisted of three different groups of students who were studying one of these languages
(German, Spanish and French) as a foreign language.

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With respect to the type of studies in the selection, the following features were identified: 28
without-intervention studies and 7 with-intervention studies. Only two qualitative studies were found in the
selected sample, i.e. Wang and Pape (2007) and, Graham (2006), but 5 mixed-method studies were identified:
Siew and Wong (2005), Çakır and Alıcı (2009), Egel (2009), Matthews (2010), and the rest were quantitative
studies. And lastly, among all of selected studies, only two studies, Çakır and Alıcı (2009) and, Wang and Pape
(2007), have evaluated the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and self-efficacy sources.
Table 1. Classification of Studies Based on Identified Themes
Category Sub-category
Effects of self-efficacy Effects of self-efficacy on performance
Effects of self-efficacy on affective domain
Factors affecting self-efficacy Contextual variables and sources of self-efficacy
Strategies
Styles
4.2 Effects of Self-efficacy
We found within our selection twenty studies in which researchers examined the relationship between
self-efficacy and performance or affective factors. These studies were categorized into two groups: Effects of
self-efficacy on performance and Effects of self-efficacy on affective domain
4.2.1 Effects of Self-efficacy on Performance
In this analysis, 12 articles were found to have examined the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and
performance as indicated by either course grades in the foreign language (Mahyuddin, et al., 2006; Mills, Pajares,
& Herron 2007; Hsieh & Schallert 2008) or proficiency in a specific domain of the target language – reading
(Mills, Pajares & Herron 2006; Mills, Pajares, & Herron 2007) listening (Abedini & Rahimi 2009; Mills, Pajares
& Herron 2006; Magogwe & Oliver, 2007; Tilfarlioğlu & Ciftci 2011). Findings of these studies were in
agreement with research in other domains such as math and education in general (Dennissen et al., 2007; Multon
et al., 1991; and Pajares, 1996; Pajares & Schunk, 2001) whichindicated that self-efficacy strongly predicted
performance.
Mills, Pajares and Herron (2006) surveyed 95 college students who were learning French as a foreign language
in the USA. The study found that there was a significant positive relationship between reading self-efficacy
beliefs and reading proficiency, whereas listening self-efficacy was positively correlated with listening
proficiency only for the females. Hsieh and Schallert (2008) also demonstrated that among the different variables
used in the study as predictors of achievement, self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of English achievement
among South Korean students.
Tilfarlioğlu and Ciftci (2011) surveyed 250 university students in Turkey. The survey study yielded results in
agreement with that in Hsieh and Schallert (2008). In a similar vein, Tilfarlioğlu and Ciftci (2011) conducted a
study on 250 students in Turkey. According to the findings of the study, there was a positive relationship between
academic success as defined by grades and learners’ self-efficacy beliefs. In another study, Abedini and Rahimi
(2009) also examined the relationship between self-efficacy and performance. The results of the study showed
that Iranian students’ self-efficacy beliefs were positively correlated to their Listening proficiency.
Nariman-Jahan and Rahimpour (2010) revealed the importance of learners’ self-efficacy in predicting their
achievement. In the line with previous research, the results of this study indicate that learners’ self-efficacy is
significantly related to their performance in learning English. However, Anyadubalu (2010) in a study that
involved 318 students in Thailand found no significant relationship between self-efficacy and English language
performance hence the result was not in line with previous studies which indicated that there is a significant
relationship between self-efficacy and performance. He claimed that these results were possible because the
participants were young (12) and the collective society as cultural factor appears to discourage students to make
decision on their own.
4.2.2 Effects of Self-efficacy on Affective Domain
There is a considerable body of educational research that supports the idea that learners’ self-efficacy influences
their motivation to learn (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Pajares, 2003; Schunk, 1991). There is a limited number of
studies that investigated the effect of self-efficacy on motivation within foreign language learning contexts. This

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review found 7 articles that attempted to investigate the effects of self-efficacy on anxiety (Mills, Pajares &
Herron; 2006; Erkan & Saban, 2011; Anyadubalu, 2010; and Çubukçu 2008) and attributions (Hsieh & Kang,
2010; Hsieh & Schallert 2008; and Graham, 2006).
Research indicates that self-efficacy beliefs affect the attributions learners make for their success and failure in a
given task. According to the results of these studies, students with different levels of self-efficacy make different
attributions for their success and failure in learning second language. For example, Hsieh andSchallert (2008)
conducted a study on self-efficacy and attributions. In the study, 500 undergraduate students learning French,
Spanish and German as a foreign language in the USA were examined. The study found that ESL learners who
attributed their failure to lack of effort as a controllable attribution had higher self-efficacy than learners who did
not attribute their failure to effort.
Similarly, a recent study into self-efficacy and attributions (Hsieh and Kang 2010) found that Korean students
who had higher self-efficacy made more personal control attributions such as effort than those with lower
self-efficacy. In contrast, students who had lower self-efficacy made more external attributions such as to the
teacher for their success and failure in their test. Graham (2006) also, in her qualitative research of students
learning French in the UK, found that students with low self-efficacy tended to attribute their failure to low
ability, a factor which is beyond students’ control, whereas students with high self-efficacy attributed their failure
to controllable attributions such as insufficient effort or lacking in the use of appropriate strategies.
Some studies have investigated self-efficacy in relation to anxiety. Erkan and Saban (2011) surveyed 188 EFL
students in Turkey to investigate the relationship between self-efficacy and anxiety. The study found that there is
a negatively significant relationship between learners’ writing self-efficacy beliefs and their writing anxiety.
Mills, Pajares and Herron (2006) also examined the relationship between self-efficacy and anxiety. The study
revealed that students’ self-efficacy was negatively associated with their reading and listening anxiety.
Nevertheless, Çubukçu (2008) found that there is not any relationship between self-efficacy and language
anxiety. He maintained that the results might be due to cultural and educational contexts in which students were
raised in Turkey, (students were studying at a boarding school and they were from villages and small towns),
students’Shy personality, lack of frequent chance to express themselves in their classes, their preference to speak
Turkish due to lesser anxiety and stress. Overall, except Çubukçu (2008)’ study, self-efficacy in these studies was
negatively related to anxiety (Erkan & Saban, 2011; Lucchetti, Phipps, & Behnke, 2003).
4.3 Factors Affecting Self-efficacy
In this review of research, we found several studies that attempted to investigate factors affecting learners’
self-efficacy within the contexts of second language learning. These studies were classified into three categories:
strategies, styles, and contextual variables.
4.3.1 Strategies
Researchers also attempted to investigate whether strategies and strategy training could enhance learners’
self-efficacy in learning a foreign language. We found 6 articles within our selection, in which researchers were
interested to investigate the effects of strategies on self-efficacy beliefs through the use of surveys (Yilmaz, 2010;
Wang & Li, 2010; Wong, 2005; Su & Duo, 2012; and Magogwe & Oliver, 2007) and also there was one
qualitative study (Mathews, 2010). Besides these survey studies, we found 7 intervention studies, in which
researchers examined the effects of strategy training on self-efficacy beliefs (Graham, 2007; Chularut &
DeBacker, 2004; Chan & Lam, 2008; Shang, 2010; Khajavi & Ketabi, 2012; Goker, 2006; and Zheng et al.
2009).
Results from the survey studies suggested that the use of strategies is significantly related to self-efficacy beliefs.
For example, Magogwe and Oliver (2007) did a longitudinal study on 480 Botswana students who were learning
English as a second language. The study found that there is a significant relationship between Botswana ESL
learners’ strategy use and their self-efficacy beliefs. In Taiwan, Su and Duo’s (2012) study of 200 students, found
that learning strategies are significantly associated with self-efficacy beliefs. Wong (2005) interviewed 6
Malaysian participants to explore their language learning strategies and self-efficacy beliefs. The study revealed
that high-self-efficacy learners used more language learning strategies. Furthermore, Wang and Li (2010)
discovered that reading self-efficacy was positively correlated to reading strategies namely metacognitive,
social/affective and cognitive strategies. Readers who had high efficacy used more reading strategies than reader
who had low self-efficacy.
Similarly, Yilmaz (2010) also found that learners who had higher self-efficacy beliefs showed more use of
different kinds of learning strategies. He carried out a study on 160 Turkish students and found that all types of

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learning strategies: memory, compensation, cognitive, metacognitive, social and affective strategies were
strongly related to self-efficacy beliefs. In a qualitative study, Mathews (2010) found that factors such as short
tutoring sessions, deep-level questioning, explicitexplanation of structural rules, and considering foreign
language as a learnable model, all affect students’ self-efficacy.
In studies with intervention, the following findings were reported. In a study conducted on thirty two
undergraduate students in Cyprus, Goker (2006) found that peer coaching training enhanced the self-efficacy of
the treatment group. Graham (2007) investigated the effects of strategy training on listening self-efficacy with 12
students learning French as a foreign language in UK. The study found that students who had received feedback
showed higher level of self-efficacy for listening, although the difference when compared with non-feedback
group was not great. Khajavi and Ketabi’s (2012) investigation on whether concept mapping strategy would
improve learners’ self-efficacy revealed that Iranian EFL learners who received concept mapping strategy
showed greater self-efficacy than the control group.
Additionally, Zhenget al. (2009) found that students who participated online in a 3D game-like virtual world,
Quest Atlantis (QA), obtained higher scores than the non-QA group in self-efficacy concerning skilful use of
English, attitude toward English, and self-efficacy toward electronic-communication. The findings also indicated
that the virtual world provides opportunities for learners throughout the globe to enhance the level of their
confidence and comfort and they can easily overcome cultural obstacles faced in the process of learning
English.Furthermore, Studiesby Shang, (2010); and Chularut & DeBacker, (2004) demonstrated the effectiveness
of strategies on self-efficacy beliefs within the context of foreign language learning.
4.3.2 Contextual Variables and Sources of Self-efficacy
In terms of the factors that impact the development of self-efficacy beliefs, a very little limited number of studies
in the area of second language learning have been conducted on the four main sources of self-efficacy proposed
by Bandura (1995). Findings of these studies indicate that both internal and external factors such as, learners’
interest, successful experiences, peers’ successful performance, knowledge in the content area, positive feedback
from others, social and cultural context all affect the development of learners’ self-efficacy beliefs.
Çakır and Alıcı (2009) found that past successful experiences and social persuasions are influential variables that
affect learner’s self-efficacy. The study alsoindicated that students’ perception of their self-efficacy was higher
than their instructors’ judgment about students’ self-efficacy. Some studies pointed out a variety of factors
affecting self-efficacy beliefs. In a qualitative study, Wang and Pape (2007) investigated the factors that affect
the development self-efficacy of three young Chinese students learning English as second language in the US.
The study revealed that factors such as learners’ past experience, interest, attitudes toward English language,
social persuasion, task difficulty, and social and cultural setting affected learners’ self-efficacy.
Moghari et al. (2011), in their survey study of 741 Iranian students learning English as a foreign language, found
that academic emphasis and teacher’s trust in parents and students had a direct and positive effect on learners’
English self-efficacy. Moreover, Egel (2009) interviewed 20 Turkish undergraduates about their self-efficacy
beliefs. Interestingly, the study found that teachers’ self-efficacy and ability had effects on learners’
Englishlanguage self-efficacy. Greta (2009) also reported that classroom climate, interaction between learners
and as well as interaction between teachers and learners affected learners’ self-efficacy.
4.3.3 Styles
Although learning styles and self-efficacy in second language have been investigated separately, there is a
general lack of research conducted on the relationship between learning styles and self-efficacy in language
learning. We found only one study has examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and
self-efficacy in second language learning. Moafian and Ghanizadeh (2009) found that there is a significant
relationship between EFL participants’ emotional intelligence and their self-efficacy. The study also revealed that
the three components of emotional intelligence namely emotional awareness, interpersonal relationship and
problem-solving were good predictors of self-efficacy. Research has consistently documented the link between
sources of self-efficacy namely mastery experience, vicarious experience social persuasion and emotional and
physiological states.
5. Discussion and Conclusion
This review found a number of limitations concerning previous empirical studies on self-efficacy within the
contexts of second language learning. The first limitation relates to surveys and self-reported data. The results of
survey studies indicate that self-efficacy beliefs predict performance or strategy training affects self-efficacy.
However, the validity of these results relies to some extent on the learners’ honesty. Respondents usually have a

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tendency to provide socially desirable answers, and hence tend to give a good picture of themselvesthrough their
answers (Hancock & Flowers, 2001; Rosenfeld, Booth-Kewley, Edwards & Thomas, 1996). Furthermore, the
vast majority of the studies used questionnaire to capture learners’ self-efficacy beliefs whereas only
interviewing with learners and teachers can provide deep insight into learners’ beliefs.
Another limitation concerns correlational studies. Correlational analyses cannotdetermine the causal relationship
between self-efficacy and other variables; they simply show the extent of relatedness of the variables (Green &
Salkind, 2005). The third limitation lies in sample size and generalizability of the previous studies. Although all
selected survey studies revealed that there is a significant relationship between some factors and students’
self-efficacy, the limitations such as sample size and use of correlational methods affected the validity of the
research.
Except for Magogwe and Oliver‘s (2007) study, almost all of the others examined self-efficacy over a short
period of time. They examined short-term influences on the self-efficacy and thus, these studies did not examine
whether students’ beliefs and perceptions change over a longer period of time.
With regard to the factors affecting self-efficacy beliefs, most of the studies investigated the strategies or strategy
training that affect students’ self-efficacy, only studies by Çakır and Alıcı (2009) Wang and Pope (2005),
Moghari et al. (2011), Egel (2009), and Greta (2009) investigated factors at the level of instructor or learner’s
classroom interactions. The findings of these studies concuron the four sources of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997)
which affect the development of self-efficacy beliefs. However no study has examined the combined effects or
separate effects of sources of self-efficacy on the development of self-efficacy beliefs.
With respect to the effect of self-efficacy on performance, findings of these studies (Mahyuddin, et al., 2006;
Hsieh & Schallert 2008, Mills, Pajares & Herron 2006, 2007; Abedini & Rahimi 2009 Tilfarlioğlu & Ciftci 2011;
Tilfarlioğlu & Cınkara 2009) indicate that self-efficacy strongly predicts performance. Findings of these studies
are in agreement with self-efficacy research in other domains such as math, science, and L1writing (Dennissen et
al., 2007; Multon et. al, 1991; Pajares, 1996; Pajares & Schunk, 2001). However Anyadubalu (2010) found
norelationship between self-efficacy and performance. Although he referred to the age of participants and
students’ background culture (collectivist society) as contributing factors to the results, self-efficacy
measurement could be another influencing factor. One of the main issues with self-efficacy research in foreign
language education and in educational research in general is how it is measured (Pajares, 1996). Many have
created surveys under the guise of self-efficacy – but are instead evaluating other variables such as motivation,
engagement, etc. It should also be noted that most studies examined the relationship between self-efficacy and
performance in reading and listening skills, fewer studies have investigated the relationship between self-efficacy
and performance in writing and speaking. One reason could be that reading and listening are more easily
evaluated by objective tests and the evaluation is easy to handle for large populations. On the other hand, it is
difficult to measure speaking proficiency and writingproficiency because they are measured by subjective tests
affected by raters. Nevertheless, it seems necessary to examine self-efficacy beliefs in relation to these skills too.
As Bandura, 1997, 1986) noted that self-efficacy is generally considered as a task-specific construct. This means
one’s self-efficacy to get good marks in writing may differ from his self-efficacy in reading comprehension.
Self-efficacy beliefs differ from one particular domain of language to another one.
Based on the findings of this analysis we can come to the following conclusions. First, in studies with
intervention, it is concluded that it is possible to affect learners’ self-efficacy in the field of second language
learning. The intervention studies indicated a significant relationship between the intervention set by researcher
and learners’ self-efficacy beliefs. Second, student self-efficacy has appeared as one of the most influential
independent variables on learner’s performance and achievement within second language learning contexts.
Third, contextual variables such as classroom interaction, teacher efficacy play a vital role in stimulating
students to exert the required effort in performing a specific task when students have experienced previous
success in the specific task. Fourth, in studies without intervention, most studies showed a significant
relationship between self-efficacy and other variables, but no one explicated causal relationship between
self-efficacy and other variables. Fifth, most of the studies assessed learners’ self-efficacy beliefs in a short term
period; they have not examined long-term influences.
6. Pedagogical Implications for L2 Learning/Teaching
Since self-efficacy is one of the most influential factors for L2 learning, it appears to be very important for the
teacher to help students develop their self-efficacy.Teachers can enhance the level of students’ self-efficacy
through several feasible teaching techniques. Performance accomplishment is a key factor for developing
self-efficacy. Leaners who have repeated experiences of success have higher self-efficacy than those students

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67
who experience repeatedfailure. Teachers should give learners some tasks that they can perform (Dörnyei, 2001),
hence learners can build successful experiences. As persuasion is one of the four sources of self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1986), positive feedback and encouragement from the teachers can enhance students’ self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy can also be developed through vicarious experience. Students should be provided with
opportunities to observe their friends and classmates do tasks successfully, these opportunities help learners to
foster positive beliefs about themselves.
7. Suggestions for Future Research
The findings of thisreview present some suggestions for further research. Because of the limitations of surveys
and questionnaires, it seems necessary to conduct qualitative research to investigate the construct of self-efficacy
more deeply among learners. Since the studies investigated self-efficacy on the short term bases, it appears to be
essential to do research in which self-efficacy is examined over long-term periods.
Another line of research is to investigate how the classroom interactions between tutor and tutee or learner and
peers can enhance self-efficacy. More research is needed to show how learners’ self-efficacy beliefs toward a
specific task in classroom context and out of the class context can be developed and enhanced. Furthermore,
more research is required to find the casual relationships between self-efficacy and other variables rather than
just establishing a simple relationship. Finally it seems necessary to examine self-efficacy beliefs with the
interaction of learning style, personality types, and cultural and social variables. Establishing that these variables
influence learners’ self-efficacy will help and guide educational and program planners in paving the way for the
development of learners’ self-efficacy.
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Appendix A. Summary of reviewed studies
Study participants context type of data basic findings
Khajavi & Ketabi (2012)
60 intermediate
students
(Iran)
Participants received
strategy instruction in
concept mapping
Survey
Students who received
concept mapping showed
greater self-efficacy than the
students in control group
Su & Duo (2012) 200 students
(Taiwan)
Students completed
two questionnaires
Survey There was a positive
relationship between
self-efficacy and language
learning strategy
Erkan & Saban (2011) 188
undergraduates
(Turkey)
Students completed the
questionnaires and
they were then given
45 minutes to write a
composition on a given
topic
Survey
Writing anxiety was
negatively related to writing
performance and also the
relationship between writing
anxiety and writing
self-efficacy was negatively
significant
Tilfarlioğlu & Ciftci
(2011)
250 university
students
(Turkey)
Students completed
questionnaires
Survey There was a significant
relationship between
self-efficacy and learner
autonomy, and also a
positive correlation between
self-efficacy and academic
success
Moghari et al. (2011) 741 high-school
students (Iran)
Students completed a
questionnaire and they
also a took exams
Survey Academic emphasis and
teacher's trust in parents and
students had a direct and
positive effect on English
language self-efficacy. Also
perception of academic
emphasis /trust and
perception of teacher
self-efficacy had an indirect
positive effect on English
language achievement
through student self-efficacy
Matthews (2010) 29 tutees (USA)
Students received
tutoring sessions, and
completed pre-tutoring
and post-tutoring
questionnaires
Video tape
transcription
and survey
Motivationally effective
sessions on self-efficacy
were short and concentrated
on deep understanding of the
foreign language through
explicit explanation of
structural rules and deep
questioning
Anyadubalu (2010) 318
middle-school
students
Students were given
the questionnaires to
mark their responses
Survey,
students’
course grades
There was no significant
relationship between
self-efficacy and English

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71
(Thailand) language performance , but
there was a significant
moderate negative
relationship between English
language anxiety and
self-efficacy
Yilmaz (2010) 140
undergraduate
students (Turkey)
The students filled out
a questionnaire
Survey
Learners’ self-efficacy
beliefs were strongly
correlated to the of use
different kinds of learning
strategies
Wang & Li (2010)
182 sophomores
(China)
Students completed the
questionnaires
Survey Reading self-efficacy was
significantly positively
correlated to reading
strategies Highly
self-efficacious readers
showed more use of reading
strategies than those who
had low self-efficacy
Shang (2010) 53 freshmen
(Taiwan)
Students received
reading strategy
instruction and
completed
questionnaires
Survey A significant relationship
was found between the use
of reading strategies and
self-efficacy beliefs
Hsieh & Kang (2010) 192 ninth-grade
English learners
(South Korea)
Learners answered
attribution and
self-efficacy ratings
upon receiving test
grades
Survey ESL Learners with high
level levels of self-efficacy
make more internal and
personal attributions than
low efficacious learners, and
also among unsuccessful
learners, high efficacious
ones make more personal
control attributions than
those with low level of
self-efficacy. And
self-efficacy predicted
achievement
Nariman-Jahan&Rahimpour
(2010)
144
undergraduates
(Iran)
Participants were
requested to execute
three tasks: a narrative
task, a personal task,
and decision-making
task and fill out the
self-efficacy
questionnaire
Survey,
learners’
grades
A significant relationship
was found between
self-efficacy and writing
performance in narrative and
personal tasks ,but there was
no relationship between
self-efficacy and
decision-making tasks
concerning concept load,
fluency, difficulty , and
accuracy in both participants
with high and low levels of
p
roficiency
Çakı
r
& Alıcı (2009) 39 undergraduates
(Turkey)
Participants completed
a questionnaire and
interviews with their
instructors were also
conducte
d
Interview and
survey
Students’ perception of their
self-efficacy was higher than
their instructors’ judgment
about students’ self-efficacy
Greta (2009) 150
undergraduate
students (USA)
Students responded to
an online questionnaire
Survey Learner showed slight
self-efficacy for those things
which their instructors
thought learners were able to
do
Egel (2009) 67 undergraduate
students (Turkey)
Participants completed
a questionnaire and 20
were invited for
interview.
Interview and
survey
Self-efficacy beliefs of the
students at the ELT
department of UU were high
and that they seem rather
confident about their
efficacy and no significant
difference between the two

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72
groups. The interviews of
the research have provided
evidence that the student
teacher’s efficacy also
depends on mentor’s
b
ehavio
r
Wang, Spencer, & Xing
(2009)
45
English-speaking
students
(China)
students completed a
questionnaire and took
tests
Survey Among learners’
metacogntive strategies and
beliefs, self-efficacy was the
best predictor of
achievement
Zheng et al. (2009) 61 students
(China)
Students participated
online in 3D game-like
virtual world, Quest
Atlantis (QA) during
their study hall time an
average of 60 minutes
once a week for 25
weeks
close-ended
and
open-ended
questions,
essay, survey
Students who participated
online in 3D game-like
virtual world, Quest Atlantis
(QA), obtained higher scores
than the non-QA group in
self-efficacy concerning
skilful use of English, their
attitude toward English, and
self-efficacy toward
electronic-communication
Abedini & Rahimi (2009) 61 freshmen
undergraduates
(Iran)
Students completed
questionnaires and
took TOEFL test
Survey,
learners’
grades
Listening comprehension
self- efficacy was
significantly related to
listening proficiency
Moafian & Ghanizadeh
(2009)
89 teachers (Iran)
Participants complete
d
questionnaires
Survey There was a significant
relationship between the
teachers’ emotional
intelligence and their
self-efficacy and also it was
found that problem solving
was a good predictor of
teachers’ self-efficacy
Hsieh & Schallert (2008) 500
undergraduates
(USA)
Questionnaires were
given to the students as
they received their
tests from their teacher
and asked them to fill
them out immediately
before any verbal
feedback was given by
the teacher
Survey,
learners’
course grades
Among the different
variables of the study as
predictors of achievement,
self-efficacy was the
strongest variable in
predicting of achievement,
and supported by ability as
an internal attribution. ESL
learners who attributed their
failure to lack of effort had
higher self-efficacy than
learners who did not make
effort attributions for their
failure
Çubukçu (2008) 100 junior level
students (Turkey)
Students were asked to
respond to a
questionnaire
Survey There was no relationship
between foreign language
learning anxiety and
self-efficacy
Chan & Lam (2008) 79 students
(Hong Kong)
Students received
summative feedback
and formative
feedback and then they
completed a
questionnaire
Survey Participants who received
formative feedback showed
higher level of self-efficacy
than those who received
summative feedback
Magogwe & Oliver (2007) 480 students
(Botswana)
Students completed
questionnaires
Survey,
learners’
grades
There was a dynamic
relationship between use of
language learning strategies,
p
roficiency and self-efficacy
Mills, Pajares, & Herron
(2007)
303 college
students (USA)
Students completed the
questionnaires and the
instructor also
provided the
researcher with
Survey,
learners’
grades
Self-efficacy for
self-regulation was a
stronger predictor of
language achievement than
French anxiety in reading

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73
students’ final course
grades
and listening, and French
learning self-concept.
Female students reported
greater self-efficacy for
self-regulation, interest,
value, and enjoyment in
learning about both the
French language and culture
than did male students
Graham (2007) 112 students aged
16 to 17 (UK)
Learners received
strategy training with
feedback on their
listening strategy use
and on the reflective
diaries, and took
p
erformance test
Performance
tests and
survey
Students who had received
feedback showed higher
level of self-efficacy for
listening, although the
difference with
non-feedback group was not
great
Wang & Pape (2007) 3 students (US) Students’ activities and
performance in class
and at home were
investigated
Interview,
observation
Variables such as inte
r
est,
attitude toward English,
social and cultural setting,
social persuasion, and task
difficulty affect self-efficacy
beliefs
Graha
m
(2006) 10 students
(UK)
Students were
interviewed
Interview,
questionnaire
Students with low
self-efficacy attributed their
failures to uncontrollable
factors such as lack of
ability.
Mahyuddin, et al. (2006) 1,146 students
(Malaysia)
Students completed the
questionnaires and also
the instructor provided
the researchers with
students’ final course
grades
survey,
students’
course grades
There was a positive
relationship between
self-efficacy and academic
performance in English
language
Mills, Pajares & Herron
(2006)
95 college
students (USA)
Students completed a
questionnaire (twice),
and their reading and
listening proficiency
was evaluated
Survey,
learners’
grades
There was a significant
positive relationship
between reading
self-efficacy beliefs and
reading proficiency, whereas
listening self-efficacy was
positively correlated with
listening proficiency only
for the females, and there
was a significant
relationship between
listening anxiety and
listening proficiency
Goke
r
(2006) 32 undergraduate
students (Cyprus)
EFL students receive
d
a peer coaching
training program
Video-tape
and audio-
tape data and
survey
Peer coaching training
enhanced the self-efficacy
level of treatment group
Wong (2005) 74 ESL
pre-service
teachers
(Malaysia)
Participants answere
d
a questionnaire, some
of them were invited
for interview
Interview,
open-ended
questions and
survey
Pre-service teachers who
had higher self-efficacy,
showed more frequent use of
language learning strategies
than did those pre-service
teachers who had low
self-efficacy
Chularut & DeBacker
(2004)
79 students
(USA)
Students received
concept-mapping
strategy and then they
were asked to answer a
questionnaire
Survey Students in treatment group
showed greater self-efficacy
than control group