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ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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Routine And Project-Based Leisure, Happiness And Meaning In Life.
Andrew Bailey
Assistant Professor, Calvin College
2347 Jefferson Dr SE
Grand Rapids, MI 49507
Awb7@calvin.edu
Irene K. Fernando
Executive Director, Students Today Leaders Forever
Irene@stlf.net
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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Abstract: The search for happiness and life meaning is an ancient quest. Positive psychology
has brought this topic to the forefront of modern research. Previous research has shown that
meaning and happiness can be found through one’s vocation and through leisure pursuits. The
purpose of this study was to determine the impact of routine and project-based leisure
experiences on meaning and happiness. Three-hundred and five college students participated in
the study. Structural equation modeling and regression analyses revealed significant relationships
between meaning, happiness, and routine leisure pursuits. Social engagement, personal
reflection, and time spent outdoors were potent predictors of happiness and meaning.
Implications for the leisure field are discussed in light of these findings and other relevant
research.
Keywords: Happiness, Meaning in Life, Social Capital
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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Introduction
More than sixty years ago, Victor Frankl attributed a notable increase in diagnosed
neuroses to a lack of meaning in life. His position was summed up in the now famous quote, “…
people have enough to live by, but nothing to live for; they have the means, but no meaning”
(Frankl, 2006, p. 140). This statement comes as no surprise to those who specialize in the fields
of psychology and human development. Increases in wealth and intelligence, two popular
indicators of progress, have done little to influence general happiness and well-being (Flynn,
1998, Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Ten percent of Americans now have mood disorders, and major
depressive disorder is the leading cause of disability in the US for15-44 year olds (WHO, 2004).
If Frankl is correct in asserting that meaning and happiness dwell together, then life purpose is
not just the culmination of a hierarchy of fulfilled needs (Maslow, 1954), but the driving force
behind a life of thriving. While meaning and happiness may emerge from a variety of
circumstances, leisure pursuits consistently rank high on the list of facilitators (Lyubomirsky,
King, & Diener, 2005). The term “leisure” may apply to any number of activities undertaken
during free time and/or for their own sake (Godbey, 2007). An understanding of how the type
and duration of leisure activities influence happiness and meaning would allow for a more
prescriptive program design, steering leisure programmers and participants toward purposeful
living.
Literature Review
The Will to Meaning
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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Frankl’s innovative branch of therapy, Logotherapy, is based on the principle that
humans are primarily motivated by a search for meaning and purpose. This theory is juxtaposed
to Nietzsche’s “Will to Power” and to Freud’s “Will to Pleasure”. While security, efficacy, and
enjoyment may motivate us to act in certain situations, an underlying sense of purpose drives us
to persevere through even the most difficult times. Life meaning, though defined in a variety of
ways, is consistently regarded as vital to thriving. Meaningful living has been tied to greater
work enjoyment, life satisfaction, and happiness (Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenmann, 2000;
Chamberlain & Zika, 1998; Debats, van der Lubbe, & Wezeman, 1993). Individuals that report a
lack of life purpose also report a greater need for therapy (Battista & Almond, 1973), higher
levels of depression and anxiety (Debats et al. 1993), and suicidal ideation and substance abuse
(Harlow, Newcomb, & Bentler, 1986). It is reasoned that a lack of meaning leads to
psychological distress, which is manifested in a variety of neuroses.
There is no universal meaning that applies to everyone’s life. Meaning must be found
individually within the present moment, and can be facilitated by: 1) creating a work or doing a
deed, 2) experiencing someone or something powerful, or 3) the attitude we take to unavoidable
suffering (Frankl, 2006). Recent research has identified similar antecedents to meaning,
including: the pursuit of important goals (Klinger, 1977), the development of a coherent life
narrative (Kenyon, 2000), and self-transcendence (Seligman, 2002). A meaningful life can help
to fend off depression, anxiety, and suicidal tendencies, thus paving the way for happiness and
life satisfaction to emerge (Debats et al., 1993; Harlow et al., 1986). Such is the basis of the
Positive Psychology movement, which endeavors to “improve quality of life and prevent the
pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000,
p. 5).
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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Happiness
The quest for happiness is universal and as old as human existence. The ancient Greeks
considered happiness the only true end worth striving for (Aristotle, 1996). In the US, the pursuit
of happiness is considered a fundamental human right. Bhutan has identified happiness as their
indicator for national progress. The rise of Positive Psychology has brought about a slew of
research centered on positive affect. So popular is the topic that entire journals have emerged to
disseminate research focused only on such themes (c.f. Journal of Positive Psychology, Journal
of Happiness Studies). Though happiness is a widely accepted and highly praised construct, its
elusive, ephemeral character renders it a difficult topic of study. Undaunted, researchers have
identified many predictors and correlates of human happiness.
Happiness, defined also as positive affect and subjective well-being, is a product of
inheritance, environment, and attitude (Seligman, 2002). Gender has a negligible effect on
happiness, though a more communal disposition, often regarded as a feminine trait, is associated
with greater happiness (Michalos, 1991). Despite stereotypes of the “grumpy old man”,
happiness has been shown to remain constant with age (Diener & Suh, 1998). Extraverts
consistently report higher levels of well being (Fujita, 1991; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005), while
neuroticism is highly predictive of negative affect (Watson & Clark, 1984). Self-esteem and self-
efficacy also predict subjective well-being, though this effect is much stronger in individualistic
cultures (Lucas, Diener, & Suh, 1996; Feasel, 1995).
Environmental predictors of happiness include: one’s level of education and income
(Diener et al., 1993), being married (Diener et al., 2000), physical health (Foster et al. 2004),
leisure satisfaction (Veenhoven, 1994), and consistent physical activity (Audrain et al., 2001).
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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Social interaction also has a powerful effect on one’s level of happiness. Number of friends,
frequency of engagement, and frequency of formal and informal social activities (i.e. parties,
clubs) are all associated with greater levels of subjective well-being (Argyle & Lu, 1990; Crede,
Chernyshenko, Stark, & Dalal, 2005). Finally, Time spent in the outdoors is associated with
positive mood (Maas et al., 2009), and religious experiences have been tied to life satisfaction
(Ellison, 1991).
Much previous research relied heavily on correlational analyses, leaving open the
question of causality. Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener (2005) conducted a meta-analysis of
previous research with the assumption that happiness was not the result, but the cause of positive
life events. The evidence is compelling, leaving us with the dilemma of whether or not happiness
can and should be sought after directly. Frankl held that “happiness cannot be pursued, it must
ensue…” (2006, p. 138). Chasing after happiness could be counterproductive, given the inherent
elusiveness of the construct. Furthermore, if one fails to achieve happiness, they may experience
further distress at their incompetence. This could lead to an endless cycle through which distress
breeds further distress. Alternatively, Frankl proposed a process of transcendence, through which
an individual “loses him/herself” through engagement with others and life events. In this way,
one creates his/her own life meaning through purposeful daily activities.
The Role of Leisure
"Happiness is thought to depend on leisure; for we are busy that we may have leisure,
and make war that we may live in peace." Aristotle
Meaning can come through a variety of mediums in life, not the least of which is one’s
vocation. Donovan (2000) reported a .50 correlation between job satisfaction and personal affect.
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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However, according to a recent survey only 45% of Americans are satisfied with their jobs (a
61% decrease from 1987) and only half of workers find their jobs interesting (The Conference
Board, 2010). Despite their dissatisfaction, those who plan on sticking with their current job will
do so because of a good friend at work, a good paycheck, or an easy commute: hardly the
material of a meaningful vocation. Given the lack of interest and satisfaction in the work
environment, Americans must find happiness and meaning through other outlets.
Leisure can be a powerful medium for the discovery of life’s meaning, whether it comes
through the experience of positive emotions, positive self-identity, the development of social
connections, or lifelong learning (Iwasaki. 2007). In fact, it is often argued that the pursuit of a
meaningful life is a function of leisure (Godbey, 2007). Commonly agreed upon components of
leisure include: voluntary activity, intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, and self-discovery (Godbey,
2007; Iso Ahola, 1980; Czichsentmihalyi, 1990). These components may be encountered
through short-term, project-based leisure experiences or through long-term commitment typically
associated with routine and/or serious leisure experiences (Stebbins, 2009).
Project-based Leisure and Volunteer Tourism
Stebbins (2009, p. 82) defined project-based leisure as, “short-term, reasonably
complicated, one-shot or occasional, though infrequent, creative undertaking carried out in free
time, or time free of disagreeable obligation”. Volunteer tourism was specifically identified by
Stebbins as a new type of leisure activity which combines travel and service to benefit a target
group. These experiences may include travel and service within one’s home country or abroad.
Interest in volunteer vacations is increasing across all age groups, with participants and host
communities often reporting powerful outcomes (Travel Industry Association, 2006). Participant
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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outcomes include: self-discovery (Lyons & Wearing, 2008), pro-social values, cognitive,
affective and reflective assets (Bailey & Russell, 2010), and increased social consciousness and
interest in activism (McGehee, 2002).
The experience utilized in this study was the Pay It Forward Tour (PIFT), a 10-day cross-
country service-trip. Participants elected to be a part of this tour during their academic spring
break. There were no incentives for participation other than the enjoyment of being involved.
Past participants identified a desire to enhance their skills and a willingness to help others as
their key motivators for attending this tour (Bailey & Russell, 2009). Daily activities included
travel by coach bus, community service (i.e. tutoring, homeless shelters), and reflective group
discussions. This experience was deemed appropriate to test Frankl’s (2006) theory of meaning-
making, as it could potentially address all three methods of finding purpose in life. Participants
on the PIFT would have the opportunity to perform a good deed, experience someone/something
powerful, and respond to the unavoidable suffering of others (i.e. poverty, inequality). Skeptics
may scoff at the idea of finding life meaning over the course of a 10-day tour. Frankl was fond of
responding to such skepticism with the following quote from Emil A. Gutheil; “one of the more
common illusions of Freudian orthodoxy is that the durability of results corresponds to the length
of therapy” (Frankl, 2006, p. 127).
Routine Leisure
Though not as novel or potent a form of leisure, one’s usage of daily free time may
provide happiness and a sense of purpose. It is not uncommon for individuals to contribute more
time, effort, and financial investment to their chosen leisure pursuits than their paid vocations
(Stebbins, 1996). Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) found a strong correlation (r = .51) between
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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satisfaction with recreation and subjective well-being. Many studies have also reported a strong
connection between quantity & quality of social activities and subjective well-being (Burger &
Caldwell, 2000; Kahana et al., 1995; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). The importance of social
relationships has been touted by researchers and practitioners alike. Many such relationships, of
course, are formed through leisure activities.
One positive outcome of social engagement is the building of one’s social capital. This
system of networks and relational ties has been shown to influence almost every aspect of one’s
life, from physical health, to academic & work success, and also happiness and life meaning
(Lyubomirsky et al. 2005; Putnam, 2001). These benefits can be realized through informal
activities (i.e eating out with friends) or through formal engagement (i.e. team sports, community
service). Those who are better connected may also benefit those around them, through an
overflow of social support and general positive affect (Lyubomirsky et al, 2005). Those born into
a socially active family or who find themselves surrounded by socializers may benefit from this
association.
Of course, social engagement is not the only source of positive influence through leisure.
Regular physical activity can improve objective and subjective well-being (Lyubomirsky et al.,
2005) and cognitive brain function (Voss et al., 2010) whether it is done individually or with
others. Time spent outdoors can improve mood, decrease symptoms of ADHD, and improve
physical health (Maas et al., 2005; Primack et al., 2009; Scopelliti & Giuliani, 2004). Artistic
pursuits (i.e. art, music) have been shown to influence awareness, perception, persistence, and
judgment (Hetland et al., 2007). Finally, reflective activities such as journaling and meditation
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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may influence wisdom, openness, compassion, and physical and mental health (Bailey &
Russell, 2010; Sanford et al., 2009).
Given the lack of work satisfaction, the ubiquitous nature of leisure, and the recent surge
of energy in the field of positive psychology, a better understanding of the impact of specific
leisure pursuits on meaning and happiness is in order. The purpose of this study was to determine
the impact of a short-term volunteer travel experience, routine social engagement and
participation in various leisure activities on one’s happiness and meaning in life.
Method
Surveys were distributed to 305 students at a university in the Midwest, ages 16 to 22 (M
= 20.6), two-thirds (65%) of whom were female. Two-hundred and four of these students
participated in an alternative spring break trip that included cross-country travel and community
service. A total of 184 surveys were returned complete, resulting in a response rate of 90%. An
additional 101 students who were not participating in the trip also completed the surveys (94%
response rate). This purposive sampling method was utilized in order to achieve a substantial
amount of variance in regular civic engagement. Participants completed the surveys one week
before spring break. Those attending the volunteer travel experience completed an additional
survey electronically (via email) during the week after spring break. This final assessment
achieved a response rate of 71%.
Measures
Meaning and purpose in life was measured by the Meaning in Life (MLQ) questionnaire,
a 10-item questionnaire with two subscales assessing one’s search for, and discovery of meaning
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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in life (e.g. “I am searching for meaning in life,” “My life has no clear purpose”). This
instrument was chosen due to its reported non-collinearity with similar positive constructs such
as happiness (Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006). Reliability for the MLQ and the two
subscales was robust (α = .77, .87, .89). Regular social engagement and community involvement
of the participant, their parents, and their closest friends was assessed with 22 items adapted
from the “Social Capital Short Form” (The Saguaro Seminar, 2002). These items assess one’s
routine involvement in informal and formal social activities over the past 12 months and their
trust of others. A CFA conducted on the social capital items indicated that one’s own social
capital, and that of their parents and friends could be combined into one, unobserved social
capital construct (TLI = 1.0, CFI = 1.0, RMSEA = .00 - .095).
Overall happiness was assessed with 4 items (i.e. I am content with what I have in life,
My friends would describe me as a happy person, It doesn’t take much to make me upset or
angry). Reliability for the happiness construct was acceptable (α = .70). Routine leisure
participation was assessed with six items describing how often one participates in the following
leisure activities on a monthly basis: team sports, journaling, art, music performance, watching
television for 3 hours or more, spending more than 20 minutes outdoors, and prayer or
meditation. Age, gender, and GPA were the only demographic measures addressed.
Analyses
Paired t-tests were conducted to measure differences in pre and post-test scores for
volunteer travel participants. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was utilized to assess the
relationships between social engagement items, meaning in life, and happiness using pre-test
scores. The model was first explored using half (n =140) of the participant data (randomly
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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selected), then a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using the other half of the
data. To elucidate the most salient predictors of meaning and happiness, a three-stage regression
analysis was conducted on each of the MIL subscales, and on the happiness construct with the
following progression: 1) Demographics, 2) Social Capital items, 3) Leisure activity items.
Results
Findings indicate that routine leisure had more influence on happiness and meaning than
did the project-based experience. There was no difference in pre and post test scores for
volunteer travel participants on the MIL Questionnaire (t = -.403; p = .687) nor on overall
happiness (t = .529; p = .93). SEM analyses provided support for the proposed structural model
(TLI = .911; CFI = .929; RMSEA = .071). As shown in Figure 1, one’s direct and indirect social
relationships (i.e. social capital) were directly related to both meaning (r = .282) and happiness
(r = .289). The discovery of meaning in life, however, demonstrated a much stronger direct
relationship to happiness (r = .644). One’s search for meaning was not significantly related to
happiness. Social capital and the discovery of meaning together account for over 60% of the
happiness construct.
A three-stage regression analysis helped to elucidate those social capital items and leisure
activities which were most influential for meaning and happiness. Neither demographics, nor
social capital, nor leisure activities had a significant influence on one’s search for meaning. The
only individual item to significantly predict one’s search for meaning was level of attendance at
Insert Figure 1 here
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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religious ceremonies. Surprisingly, one’s search for meaning was unrelated to one’s discovery of
meaning or happiness. One’s level of social capital did account for 17% of the variance in one’s
discovery of meaning. The most salient items for the discovery of meaning, with all other items
in the model, included: Age, having friends who participate in activities for personal
development, level of friends’ club attendance, and amount of personal time spent in prayer or
meditation.
Finally, demographics (p = .029), social capital (p = .002), and leisure activities (p = .
008) all accounted for a significant amount of unique variance in the happiness construct. The
items which accounted for the most unique variance in the happiness construct were the amount
of time spent outdoors, and amount of time spent in prayer and meditation. Trust also factored
into one’s level of happiness. Those who felt that people were generally trustworthy and who
disagreed with the statement, “I can only trust my core group of friends” reported higher levels
of happiness.
Discussion
Limitations
This study revealed a number of notable findings, which must be interpreted with the
awareness of a few limitations. While the sample size was appropriate for the analyses used, the
purposive sampling technique complicates claims of external validity. There is currently no
standard measure of happiness, and the subjectivity of the term should be acknowledged. Given
Insert Table 1 here
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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that the SEM is based on cross-sectional data, it is impossible to determine the true nature of
cause and effect. Finally, no follow-up measure was included to determine the long-term impacts
of the volunteer travel experience.
Project-Based Leisure
The volunteer travel experience did not significantly influence meaning in life or
happiness. This may be due to the short-term nature of the experience, or to a lack of time for the
experience to be digested. While powerful, project-based leisure experiences can be life altering,
it may take time for such changes to manifest themselves (Daniel, 2003; Wearing, 2001). Other
studies have reported a host of positive outcomes from short-term, service oriented experiences
including: wisdom, life purpose, academic achievement, and empathy (Bailey & Russell, 2010;
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2003; Lakin & Mahoney, 2006).
Perhaps ephemeral concepts such as meaning and happiness would be better assessed
longitudinally and/or qualitatively. Given Frankl’s (2006) assertion that there is no universal
meaning that applies to everyone, the rich, contextual evidence provided by qualitative research
may be more illustrative of changes in life meaning. For example, a participant might not be
aware that “their life has more purpose” after serving those in need. However, they may have
found a mission worth striving for; that of alleviating the suffering of others. Such changes may
not be adequately assessed through global research instruments, but case studies can point
toward these effects (Lyons & Wearing, 2008).
Given that short-term service projects can positively impact long-term civic engagement
(Astin, et al. 1999), it may be more constructive to focus on measureable program outputs of
project-based experiences which may lead to long-term meaning and happiness. Frankl’s (2006)
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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preferred method of therapy was to avoid hyper-reflection and to encourage the client to
transcend their own inadequacies by engaging them in meaningful tasks (i.e. volunteering). In
this way, individuals aren’t paralyzed and isolated by meaninglessness, but are energized through
purposeful encounters.
Social Engagement, Meaning, and Happiness
The SEM supports Frankl’s (2006) claim that happiness comes as a byproduct of a
meaningful life. Higher levels of regular social engagement can have a direct impact on one’s
overall happiness as well as an indirect impact by contributing to one’s sense of meaning in life.
It is noteworthy that, while the discovery of meaning was positively associated with happiness,
one’s search for meaning was unrelated to happiness. This may indicate that, like happiness,
meaning must ensue from engagement in positive activities and relationships. The active search
for elusive, indefinable terms such as happiness and meaning may be exponentially discouraging,
but their qualities may be found in purposeful living.
This imposes a dilemma for educators and practitioners; that of encouraging the
discovery of meaning without invoking the distress of meaninglessness. As daunting as this may
seem, it has been the domain of experiential educators from the beginning (Dewey, 1916). The
simple act of debriefing an activity can encourage the participant to reflect on the experience and
make the connections necessary for meaning to emerge. The focus of such reflection would be
on the activity (i.e. community service) and its purpose for those serving and those served, not
necessarily on its contribution to a life of meaning. Through such experiences the realization of
life purpose could slowly emerge, having been facilitated through meaningful action and
reflection. Many methods of reflection have been utilized, ranging from highly directive to
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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entirely open-ended (Luckner & Nadler, 1997). The method, though, may not be as critical as the
opportunity.
It is notable that three of the four strongest predictors of discovered meaning did not
involve one’s own social engagement, but that of one’s parents and friends. Parents who
intentionally interact with diverse groups, and friends who seek out opportunities for personal
development and participate in various clubs may benefit kith and kin more than themselves.
This may indicate that leisure programmers should take a broader view of program design. By
factoring in one’s full sphere of influence, leisure programmers could magnify positive
outcomes.
Other Leisure Predictors
The six leisure activities accounted for an additional 3% of variance in the discovery of
meaning and 5% in happiness. Weekly time spent in prayer or meditation influenced one’s
discovery of meaning and their happiness. It is curious that the search for meaning was not
associated with prayer given its relationship to religious participation. Previous research
highlighted the importance of personal reflection for personal growth and for retaining
programmatic outcomes (Bailey & Russell, 2010). Journaling did not have an influence on
meaning or happiness in this study. It is entirely possible that prayer and journaling overlap
substantially, but it is noteworthy that prayer and meditation appear to be the most salient of the
reflective activities in this study.
Finally, time spent outdoors emerged as the strongest direct predictor of happiness. This
outdoor time was not associated with a particular activity, but did require a minimum exposure
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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of 20 minutes. Even a short span of time spent outdoors may improve subjective well-being if
enjoyed on a regular basis. This has serious implications for an American population that spends
95% of their time indoors (Mayer & Frantz, 2004). The recent surge of energy incited by the
“Leave no Child Inside Movement” is encouraging in this regard. Programmers and policy-
makers need to consider methods of encouraging outdoor exposure and enabling access to
natural environments on a daily basis.
Conclusions
This study has relevant implications for leisure practitioners and researchers in positive
psychology. Life meaning is a salient predictor of happiness, but the direct pursuit of either asset
may prove to be an unfruitful strategy. Failure to achieve happiness may result in an added
burden, making one feel “sad about being sad”( Frankl, 2006, p. 144). Instead, it may be more
beneficial to encourage involvement in specific activities which may facilitate meaning and well-
being. In this study, higher levels of social engagement (i.e. club attendance, public outings with
friends, community service) were associated with higher levels of meaning and happiness. In
addition, prayer/meditation and time spent outdoors emerged as the most salient individual
activities for happiness. Natural environments have been shown to improve mood and relieve
mental stress (Maas et al., 2009), and the benefits of a reflective life have been touted for
millennia (Assman, 1994). Leisure advocates should take seriously their opportunity to facilitate
meaningful programs for their clientele. This may require the discretion to look beyond activities
which seem immediately pleasurable, to provide activities that have been shown to influence
meaning and happiness. Such intentional program design would demonstrate that “the true
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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meaning of life is to be discovered in the world rather than within man or his own psyche, as
though it were a closed system” (Frankl, 2006, p. 110).
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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Figure 1. Illustration of the Latent SEM for Social Engagement, Discovery of Meaning, and
Happiness.
Discovere
d Meaning
Happines
s
Social
engageme
nt
r = .644
r = .282
r = .289
ROUTINE AND PROJECT-BASED LEISURE, HAPPINESS AND MEANING IN LIFE
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Table 1. Regression Coefficients for All Items Predicting the Search for and Discovery of Meaning, and
Happiness.
Discovered
Meaning
Searching for
Meaning Happiness
Full Model tPart r t Part r t Part r
Gender 0.029 0.002 0.801 0.048 0.904 0.049
Age 1.993 0.111* -0.098 -0.006 0.725 0.039
Parents Volunteer -0.798 -0.044 0.822 0.049 0.535 0.029
Having friends over 1.221 0.068 0.596 0.036 0.766 0.041
Service 0.058 0.003 0.391 0.024 -0.523 -0.028
Personal Development -1.266 -0.071 -0.412 -0.025 0.437 0.024
Religious Services 0.348 0.019 0.466 0.028 -0.531 -0.029
Diverse groups 1.760 0.098 0.433 0.026 0.181 0.010
Friends Volunteer -0.217 -0.012 1.124 0.068 0.972 0.052
Having friends over -0.890 -0.050 1.085 0.065 -0.454 -0.024
Personal Development 2.785 0.155* -1.106 -0.067 1.006 0.054
Religious Services 1.219 0.068 -2.125 -0.128* 1.292 0.070
Diverse groups -0.996 -0.056 -0.383 -0.023 0.052 0.003
Club attendance -1.975 -0.110* 1.414 0.085 -0.306 -0.017
Self Club attendance 0.605 0.034 0.019 0.001 1.313 0.071
Team Sports -0.600 -0.033 -0.432 -0.026 0.996 0.054
Volunteer -0.668 -0.037 -0.892 -0.054 1.334 0.072
Club Leadership 1.105 0.062 0.727 0.044 -0.968 -0.052
Religious Attendance 1.351 0.075 0.098 0.006 0.123 0.007
Travel abroad -0.127 -0.007 0.611 0.037 -1.253 -0.068
Trust General Trust 1.071 0.060 -0.140 -0.008 2.528 0.136*
Trust other Races 1.391 0.078 1.089 0.065 0.398 0.021
Trust Schoolmates 0.639 0.036 -1.436 -0.086 -0.130 -0.007
Trust only friends -0.416 -0.023 0.084 0.005 2.268 0.122*
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Leisure Journaling 0.653 0.036 0.118 0.007 -1.127 -0.061
Art Production 0.403 0.022 0.551 0.033 1.479 0.080
Music Performance 1.050 0.059 -1.235 -0.074 -0.487 -0.026
Watching TV 0.310 0.017 -1.722 -0.104 0.012 0.001
Time spent Outdoors 0.109 0.006 0.453 0.027 2.486 0.134*
Prayer/Meditation 2.134 0.119* -1.435 -0.086 2.084 0.112*
