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International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences | January-March 2014 | Vol 2 | Issue 1 Page 31
International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences
Bhat GM et al. Int J Res Med Sci. 2014 Feb;2(1):31-37
www.msjonline.org
pISSN 2320-6071 | eISSN 2320-6012
Review Article
Dermatoglyphics: in health and disease - a review
Gh. Mohd. Bhat*, M. Arif Mukhdoomi, Bahir Ahmed Shah, Mohd Saleem Ittoo
INTRODUCTION
Dermatoglyphics (from Greek: derma= skin, glyph=
carving) is the scientific study of the skin ridge patterns
on the fingers, toes, palms of hands and soles of feet. The
purpose of these ridges is to impart firmer grip and to
avoid slippage. Dermatoglyphics can be traced back to
1892, when one of the most original biologists of his time
Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, published
his work on fingerprints. The study was latter on termed
as Dermatoglyphics by Dr. Harold Cummins, even
though the process of finger print identification had
already in use for several hundred years.1
The most famous of ancient finger print designs are
carvings on the wall of Neothalic burial passage, situated
on the island of Brittany L’iie de Gavr’inis, its inner
walls are covered with incised designs of circular
patterns, spirals, arches, sinuous and straight lines
occurring on various combinations.2 In ancient time,
finger prints were used on pottery to indicate the maker
and brand of pottery. In ancient Assyria, finger prints
served as a seal to give authenticity to documents of
importance. They appeared in clay tablets, now treasured
in British Museum.3 An aboriginal Indian carving was
found at the edge of Kejimkoojir lake in Novascotia,
where within the outlines of human hand carved in stone
showed lines which represented dermatoglyphics and
flexions creases.1 Sir William Herschel, a collector in
Bengal (1858) was the first person to take finger and
hand prints of a contractor which is still preserved in
museum of London. He used the system for identification
of criminals.3
The Ridges are differentiated in their definitive form
during third to fourth month of fetal life and once formed
remain permanent and never change throughout the life
except in dimensions in proportion to the growth of an
individual. The original ridge characteristics are not
disturbed unless skin is damaged to the depth of 1mm.3
Development of dermatoglyphic pattern is under genetic
control. This is evident from the clear resemblance of
ABSTRACT
Dermatoglyphics is the study of finger print patterns and the term was coined by Harold Cummins in 1926. Finger
prints are imprints of epidermal ridges, which are formed in early embryonic life, during 10th to 16th week of
intrauterine life and remain permanent during whole life. Dermatoglyphic patterns have polygenic inheritance and are
affected by environmental factors in the uterus. Finger print patterns are mainly of three types: arches whorls and
loops; though there are more than 100 ridge characteristics, called Galton’s details, in a single rolled finger print.
Dermatoglyphics is not only used in the identification of an individual but also serves as a mirror of one’s potential
and talent. In this review, we will be discussing Dermatoglyphics and its important role in the diagnosis of
chromosomal disorders and other diseases which have some genetic bases.
Keywords: Dermatoglyphics, Finger prints, Arch, Whorl, Loop
Department of Anatomy, Govt. Medical College, Srinagar - 190001, J & K, India
Received: 12 November 2013
Accepted: 2 December 2013
*Correspondence:
Dr. Gh. Mohd. Bhat,
E-mail: gmbhat144@gmail.com
© 2014 Bhat GM et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
DOI: 10.5455/2320-6012.ijrms20140207
Bhat GM et al. Int J Res Med Sci. 2014 Feb;2(1):31-37
International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences | January-March 2014 | Vol 2 | Issue 1 Page 32
dermatoglypics among related persons. There are many
diseases known to be caused by abnormal genes.
Whenever there is any abnormality in the genetic makeup
of parents, it is inherited to the children and is reflected in
dermatoglyphic pattern.4
Dermatoglyphics as a diagnostic aid is now well
established in number of diseases which have strong
hereditary basis and is employed as a method for
screening for abnormal anomalies.5 Apart from its use in
predicting the diagnosis of genetic disease;
dermatoglyphics is also used in forensic medicine in
individual identification, physical anthropology, human
genetics and medicine. Sir Galton Francis (1892)
published a book “finger prints”, which included the first
classification of finger prints. He used ridge
characteristics called ‘minutea’, still called Galton’s
details.6
DEVELOPMENT OF EPIDERMAL RIDGES
The ridge pattern depends upon the cornified layer of
epithelium and dermal pattern. There is proliferation of
cells in the lower zone of epidermis which projects in the
dermis as regular spaced thickenings and the dermis
subsequently projects upwards in the epidermal hollows,
called dermal papillae. This is followed by appearance of
elevations formed by them on the skin surface which are
known as epidermal ridges.1
Differentiation of epidermal ridges takes place early in
fetal development. The ridge pattern is genetically
determined and is affected by environmental factors.
There exists relationship between epidermal ridge and
fetal volar pads, because in course of development the
ridge pattern is formed at the site of these pads.7
Environmental factors such as external pressure on fetal
pads and embryonic fetal finger movements could
influence ridge formation.8 Dermatoglyphics traits such
as such as finger ridge count develop between 10th to 17th
week post conception.9 Dermatoglyphic features are
inherited through a polygenic system with individual
genes contributing an additive genetic component.8,
10Ridge formation is influenced by individual differences
in developmental stability and first and second trimester
insults on the embryo result in dermatoglyphic
changes.8,11
FINGER PRINT TYPES
There are three types of finger prints:
1. Visible prints are also called as patent prints because
these are visible to the naked eye without
development and are left in some medium like blood,
dirt, ink or grease on the finger.
2. Latent prints are not apparent to the naked eye and
are formed from water, salt, amino acids and oils
contained in the sweat. These can be made visible by
dusting, fuming or chemical reagents.
3 Impressed prints or plastic prints. These prints are
indentations left on soft pliable surfaces such as clay,
wax, paint or another surface that will take the
impression. These are visible to the naked eye.
PATTERNS OF FINGER PRINTS
There are three basic finger print patterns a) Arches b)
Loops c) Whorls12
a) Arches: These are found in five percent of finger
print patterns. The ridges run from one side to
another of patterns, making no backward turns.
Ordinarily there is no delta in an arch pattern. There
are four types of arch patterns 1) Plain arches 2)
Radial arches 3) Ulnar arches 4) Tented arches.13
b) Loops: Loops occurs in about 60 to 70% of finger
prints. One or more ridges enters on either side of
impression, recurves, touches or crosses the line
running from the delta to the core and terminates on
or in the direction of the side ,where the ridge or
ridges entered. In ulnar loop the ridges open on the
ulnar side, in radial loops the ridges open on the
radial side.13
c) Whorls: These are seen in about 25 to 35 % of finger
print patterns. In a whorl some of the ridges make a
turn through at least one circuit. Any finger print
pattern which contains two or more deltas will be a
whorl pattern. There are six types of whorls: a)
concentric whorl - the ridges are arranged in
concentric rings around the core. b) Spiral whorl -
the ridges spiral around the core in clockwise or
anticlockwise direction. c) Mixed whorl- it contains
circles and spirals in same pattern. d) Central pocket
whorl-it contains a smaller pocket within a loop. e)
Twin whorl-in these ridges arising from each core
open towards the opposite margin of the finger. f)
Accidental whorls-these represents combination of
two or more of above configurations.13
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
A single rolled finger print may have as many as hundred
or more identification points, called as ridge
characteristics which are as follows: 8,14,15
1. Ridge dots - an isolated ridge unit whose length
approximates its width in size.
2. Bifurcation - the point at which one friction ridge
divides into two friction ridges. It can be double
bifurcation or opposite bifurcation.
3. Trifurcation - the point at which one friction ridge
divides into three friction ridges.
Bhat GM et al. Int J Res Med Sci. 2014 Feb;2(1):31-37
International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences | January-March 2014 | Vol 2 | Issue 1 Page 33
4. Ending ridge - a single bifurcation ridge that
terminates within the friction ridge structure.
5. Ridge crossing - a point where two ridge units
intersect.
6. Enclosure - a single friction ridge that bifurcates and
rejoins after a short course and continues as a single
friction ridge.
7. Spur - a bifurcation with one short ridge branching of
a longer ridge.
8. Bridge - a connecting friction ridge between parallel
running ridges.
OTHER LAND MARKS
a) Triradii - a triradius is formed by the confluence of
three ridge systems.
b) Core - it is approximate center of the palm. The core
may be of different shapes. In ridge counting the
point of core (not the whole core) is used.
c) Radiants - these are ridges that arise from triradius
and enclose the pattern area.
d) Delta - the point on a ridge, at or in front of and
nearest the centre of divergence of the type lines
delta area is a triangular area from where the ridges
radiate outwards.
Animal finger prints: Humans are not the only ones with
the finger prints. Some primates like gorillas and
chimpanzees and kola bear have their own unique finger
prints.
Adermatoglyphia: It is a rare condition which causes
people to be born without any finger prints. It is also
known as immigration delay, disease because affected
individuals report significant difficulties on entering
countries that requires finger print recording.16,17
DERMATOGLYPHICS IN HEALTH
The type of finger print is unique based on the genetic
characteristics of each individual. In addition of
predictive value of finger prints in various diseases
dermatoglyphics is used in identification of an individual.
Identification is a set of physical characteristics,
functional or psychic, normal or pathological that defines
an individual.18 Due to uniqueness of finger prints , these
can be used to identify the criminals at crime scene, dead
or unconscious person in blast injuries or mass disaster
injuries , accidental exchange of new born babies, in
prevention of impersonation of cheques, bank notes and
even for national identification.19 Dermatoglyphics can be
used to determine or exclude parentage under
circumstances of uncertainty of paternity of child.20
Dermatoglyphics is like a map that allows one to
understand his own potential and talent. Temperament
and character can be correlated with finger print pattern.
Whorl signifies stubbornness, composite is a sign of
faithless and unreliable character, loop signifies lack of
perservance, arch denotes merciless crude behavior. A
person with ulnar loop on all fingers is clear spirited,
mild mannered and strong willed person (melancholic),
cool in judgment and ruthless in business. A person
having whorls on all fingers is restless, doubting,
sensitive, clever, eager for action and inclined to crime. A
mixture of whorls and loops signifies a neutral character,
kind, obedient, truthful but often undecided and
impatient. Arches and radial loops occurs in person who
is ambitious, cool, stubborn, disobedient, defiant and
rebellious.20
There is a correlation between cephalic size, form of an
individual and type of finger print pattern. In Chinese
(brachycephalic) there is increased frequency of whorls
and arches, in English (dolichocephalic) there is
reduction of whorls and increase in arches. There is
association between whorls and blood group B, a loop
and blood group A, person with blood group O have
more loops and fewer whorls. In general females have
narrow ridges, more arches and fewer whorls. Females
also have large frequency of hypothenar IV interdigital
patterns. The finger prints of imbecile and idiots are
similar to the finger prints of monkeys. In these people
palmar hypothenar pattern is dominant, arches are more,
axial triradius located centrally and simian crease is
present. In imbecile persons there is great reduction of
whorls in the right index and ring fingers.20
Brown Caucasoid and Indians showed higher frequency
of patters in hypothenar area. Africans and Mongolians
showed highest frequency in the fourth interdigital
pattern, thenar and first interdigital pattern in Americans,
second interdigital pattern in Nigroes and third
interdigital pattern in Europeans. Dermatoglyphics has
been used to differentiate between mono and dizygotic
twins, which are not differentiable from DNA finger
printing.21
DERMATOGLYPHICS IN DISEASE
Dermotoglyphics as a diagnostic tool is now well
established in a number of diseases which have strong
hereditary basis.22,23 The dermatoglyphic patterns are
analyzed in various ways like a) Quantitative analysis of
finger prints i.e. loops, arches, whorls. b) Total finger
ridge count. c) Absolute finger ridge count. d) Position
of axial triradii. e) Total number of palmer triradii. f) a-b
ridge count g) ATD angle.8,24
Commins H (1936)25 was the first person to show the
possible use of dermatoglyphics in clinical medicine. In
the recent decades a considerable improvement has been
achieved in the concept of relations between the types of
fingers ridges and some individual disorders.26-28
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International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences | January-March 2014 | Vol 2 | Issue 1 Page 34
Epidermal ridges are formed between 11-24 weeks of
gestation and after this period epidermal ridges do not
change.9 Since skin and brain develop from same
ectoderm, dermatoglyphic variations are informative for
early developmental brain disturbances.29
Dermatoglyphics is considered as a window of a
congenital anomalies and is sensitive indicator of intra
uterine anomalies.30 The current status of
dermatoglyphics is such that the diagnosis of some
illnesses can now be done on the basis finger prints
alone.29 The ridge malformations may be congenital or
acquired. The congenital malformations of
dermatoglyphics are of four types: (a) Ridge aplasia
implies absence of pattern (b) Ridge hypoplasia implies
reduced height of ridges (c) Ridge dissociation means
breaking of ridge- inherited as autosomal dominant trait
(d) Ridge of the end indicates the vertical ridges which
run off the end of the finger prints- also inherited as
autosomal dominant triat.31
A. Dermaoglyphics in diseases which are purely
genetic disorders
1. Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21). These patients have
mainly ulnar loops, significantly different atd angle,
single transverse palmer crease (simian line), lower
ridge count along digital midlines.32,33
2. Turner’s syndrome. Predominance of whorls,
although the pattern of frequency depends on the
particular chromosomal abnormality.34
3. Klinefelter’s syndrome. Excess of arches on digit 1,
more frequent ulnar loops on digit 2, over all fewer
whorls, lower ridge count for loops and whorls and
total reduction of finger ridge count.35
4. Patau syndrome. Excess of arches on the finger tips
and single palmar crease in 60% people.35
5. Edwards’s syndrome (trisomy 18). 6-10 Arches on
finger tips and single palmar crease in 30% people.35
6. In inborn blindness there are abnormal triradii and
excess of arches on finger prints.36
7. Noonan syndrome. Increased frequency of whorls on
finger tips and the axial triradius ‘t’ and increased
incidence of single transverse palmer crease.37
B. Dermatoglyphics in other diseases which have some
genetic background
1. Neurological diseases:
Since brain and skin develop from same ectoderm,
dermatoglyphic variations are informative for early
developmental brain disturbances.8
a) Alzheimer’s disease: There is increased frequency of
ulnar loops and decreased frequency of whorls and
arches, radial loop on the 4th and 5th digits are more
frequent like in Down’s syndrome.38
b) Schizophrenia: There is significant increase in
whorls and decrease in loops in male Schizophrenics
and there is significant reduction in arches all in
patients.49
c) Cerebral palsy: There is increased frequency of
arches, radial loops and whorl pattern and decreased
pattern of ulnar loop, decrease in TFRC and ‘ab’
ridge count.40
d) Neurofibromatosis: There is increased frequency of
central pocket whorls on the little fingers of both
hands and left little finger shows increase in TFRC
and ‘ab’ ridge count.41
e) Epilepsy: These patients show significant changes in
‘ab’ ridge count, TFRC, AFRC, atd, tad, td angles,
lateral deviation, C-line, finger ridge count and distal
deviation.42
2. Heart diseases
a) Congenital heart diseases: There is overall increased
incidence in hypothenar pattern with increase in atd
angle. There is increased frequency in Sydney line in
Ventricular septal defect and Tetrology of Fallot,
distal displacement of axial triradius is increased in
PDA.43, 44
b) Rheumatic heart disease: There is decreased
frequency of arches in males and increased
frequency of whorls in females. There is increased
frequency of patterns in 3rd interdigital area in males
and decreased ‘td’ ridge count, increased multiple
axial triradius in females.45
c) Coronary heart disease: The etiology of coronary
heart disease is multifactorial, with genetic
predisposition having an important role. In these
patients there is significant decrease in loops and
increase in whorls in males. The palmer pattern is
significantly decreased in thenar area in females, 3rd
interdigital area in both males and females, increase
in '4' palmar triradii in males and '5' palmar triradii in
females and significant decrease in '6' palmer triradii
in both sexes.24
3. Diabetes mellitus
In type 1 DM there is increased frequency in whorls, and
decreased ulnar loop, increased frequency of Sydney line,
and increased incidences of arches in females.46 In
Maturity onset diabetes mellitus, there is decrease in
mean value of TFRC, AFRC, increase in arches and
decrease in whorls.47
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International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences | January-March 2014 | Vol 2 | Issue 1 Page 35
4. Cancer cervix
There is decrease in frequency of ulnar loops and increase
in arches with increase in ‘atd’ angle, decrease in TFRC
and decrease in 3rd interdigital palmer pattern.48
5. Leprosy
There is high frequency of palmer pattern in thenar and
1st interdigital area on left palm, with slight increase in
frequency of distal axial triradii.49
6. Essential hypertension
There is increase in TFRC, decreased frequency of axial
triradius ‘t’ in right palm of females and ‘t and t’ in right
palm of male, decreased atd angle and absence of axial of
triradii in 10% cases.50
7. Bronchial Asthma
There is higher frequency of whorls and lower frequency
of arch.51
8. Rheumatoid Arthritis
There is increase in arches and decrease in loops and
whorls in males, where as in females there is increase in
whorls and decrease in loops on the 1st finger of both
hands, with increase in arches on 3rd digit and whorls on
4th digit of left hand.52
9. Tuberculosis
There is predominance of whorls and decrease in loop
pattern; mean TFRC and AFRC are higher with narrower
atd angle.5
10. Carcinoma breast
The mammary buds begin to develop during 6th week of
intrauterine life and at the same time finger ridges also
begin to develop. In carcinoma breast patients there are 6
or more whorls in the total finger pattern, increase in
whorls in right ring and little fingers.54
11. Sickle cell anemia
There is increased frequency of whorls and decreased
frequency of ulnar loops and in some cases there are
Sidney creases.55
CONCLUSION
Dermatoglyphics is one of the oldest and still the most
useful techniques available to mankind. Finger ridge
patterns are formed due to underlying interlocking pattern
of dermal papillae which produce overlying
corresponding epidermal ridges. This pattern is unique to
an individual and is a classic model of polygenic
inheritance. Dermatoglyphics, as a means of
identification, has been used by man from ancient times,
but use of dermatoglyphic features in the diagnosis of
various diseases has received attention from 17th century.
Dermatoglyphics plays an important role in the diagnosis
of chromosomal disorders and other diseases which have
genetic background. Since dermal ridges develop during
6th-13th weeks of gestation, genetic message carried in the
genome - normal or abnormal - is deciphered during this
period and is reflected in dermatoglyphics. Many
structures of the body like the brain, mammary glands,
lips, alveoli, plate etc. develop during the same period as
the finger ridges, abnormal developmental insults on
these structures in uterus is likely to be reflected in the
dermatoglyphic patterns.
From the above discussion we conclude that
dermatoglyphics is a simple, inexpensive and bed side
diagnostic aid for conditions of chromosomal aberrations
and various inheritable diseases.
Funding: No funding sources
Conflict of interest: None declared
Ethical approval: Not required
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DOI: 10.5455/2320-6012.ijrms20140207
Cite this article as: Bhat GM, Mukhdoomi MA, Shah
BA, Ittoo MS. Molecular dermatoglyphics: in health
and disease - a review. Int J Res Med Sci 2014;2:31-7.