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Relationship between Organizational Commitment, Job Satisfaction, and Positive Psychological Capital in Lithuanian Organizations
Abstract
The article analyses current research trends on job satisfaction, organizational commitment and positive psychological capital. It also presents some results of the study on the mentioned constructs that were surveyed in various Lithuanian organizations (n=92). The subjects of the study were 44 (47,83 %) men and 48 (52.17 %) women. The methodology used in this survey: to assess personal job satisfaction (Job Satisfaction Survey, Spector, 1985), organizational commitment (Organizational Commitment Questionnaire, Mowday et al., 2000) and positive psychological capital (Psychological Capital Questionnaire, Luthans et al., 2007). It was found that job satisfaction, organizational commitment and positive psychological capital are related constructs. The study also showed statistically significant differences between these constructs and some socio – demographic characteristics. The data of this study revealed that salary is still one of the major motivational factors in Lithuania. The article also discusses what additional studies are essential for further development of research base on organizational and management effectiveness.
... Besides PLS, positive psychological capital (PsyCap), a relatively new area of study, has been associated with enhanced workplace environment as well as individual performances and organizational success Luthans, 2002;Luthans & Youssef, 2004). Besides, various previous studies have brought in light the social content of PsyCap in organizational relationship building as well as improvement of work and ethical environment (Golparvar & Azarmonabadi, 2014), employee social attitudes and their appropriateness (Larson et al., 2013) and citizenship behavior (Dirzyte et al., 2013;Shahnawaz & Jafri, 2009). Correspondingly, as a WAN itself is a social system, PsyCap should, in theory, affect the formation of advice-sharing ties too and, as a result, the position of actors. ...
... Again, as authentic and implicit leadership are two overlapping concepts, PsyCap should also be related with PLS. Moreover, there are several works that highlight the improvement of organizational social process through PsyCap (Dirzyte et al., 2013;Golparvar & Azarmonabadi, 2014;Harty et al., 2016;Larson et al., 2013;Shahnawaz & Jafri, 2009). This suggests a possible impact of PsyCap on WAN which are themselves social systems. ...
... Positive psychological capital (PsyCap) has vivid influence on an organization as it affects organizational environment and its ethical norms (Golparvar & Azarmonabadi, 2014), employee attitudes and their appropriateness (Larson et al., 2013), commitment and social behavior (Dirzyte et al., 2013;Shahnawaz & Jafri, 2009), leadership (Gupta & Singh, 2014;Norvapalo, 2014), goals accomplishment (Pillay, 2012), employee creativity (Sartori et al., 2013), retention (Ismail et al., 2014) and so on. Consequently, the development of PsyCap in employees has become an important managerial task across globe (Larson et al., 2013;Beal III et al., 2013;Donaldson & Ko, 2010;Harty et al., 2016). ...
This paper attempts to explore mediation by positive psychological capital (PsyCap)
between perceived leadership styles (PLS) and workplace advice network closeness.
Fifteen different groups with a composition of 20-25 members were randomly selected in
small workplaces which reached a total sample size of 329 cases. Data were collected
using a partly-borrowed questionnaire of 30 items (12 for total PsyCap; 18 for PLS) and a
sociometric matrix to measure workplace advice network closeness. Results of the
categorical regression analyses (CATREG) showed PLS moving from authoritative to
laissez-faire reduced the closeness of followers in the workplace advice network. The
same shift in the leadership styles from authoritative to laissez-faire improved followers’
PsyCap. Furthermore, an improved PsyCap of the followers tended to improve the
closeness centrality. As advice is a very comprehensive term, further studies into
knowledge sharing, flow instruction and directions may be carried out to advance the
field of knowledge. Further, studies on how individual components of PsyCap affect
closeness may also be considered.
... The leader has the desire to belong to an organization and willingness to make extra effort for the benefit of that organization (Dirzyte, Patapas, Smalskys, & Udaviciute, 2013;Luthans, 2012). AKEPT needs to assess the strength of the leader's organizational commitment towards their higher education institution, such as the level of attachment to that organization, his or her willingness to work on behalf of the organization, and also the likelihood of remaining a member of his or her higher educational institution. ...
This paper presents the development process of talent management in higher education institutions. Specifically, this study aims to identify clusters that best fit the leadership competency framework for those institutions. This study utilizes the qualitative approach via focus group discussion with the Leadership Competency and Instrument Committee in AKEPT, and also by interviews with academics in the public universities. The findings from the focus group discussion and interview demonstrate five clusters of leadership competency skills framework: personnel effectiveness, cognition, leading, impact and influence, and achievement and action. Within these clusters, issues were identified that need to be taken into consideration when selecting future leaders in higher education institutions. Based on the findings, a set of attributes were listed that can be adopted in the future to allow leaders of higher institutional education to enhance their sustainability performance. This paper provides an understanding to interested parties on the attributes of good leaders for higher education institutions. © 2021 by the authors; licensee Asian Online Journal Publishing Group.
... Organizational commitment refers to the strength of an employee's identification with an organization (Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974). This consists of three components, namely belief in the objectives and values of the organization, working hard for the benefit of the organization, and having a strong desire to continue working for the organization (Dirzyte, Patapas, Smalskys, & Udaviciute, 2013;Luthans, 2012). Hence, AKEPT needs to assess how strong a leader's organizational commitment is towards their institution, their willingness to work on behalf of the organization, and the likelihood of remaining a member. ...
... Studies hold that contemporary business is driven by inter generations of diverse human capital, each vying for vested needs that are increasingly scarce and geometrically valued. Inside business companies, interaction in the workplace--information sharing, decision making, delegation of authority, issuing directives, use of power, coordination of resources, motivation of employees-has been found to affect leadership, hope, and job satisfaction [1,2]. ...
... There are many studies consistently showing that psychological capital is positively related to in-role and extra-role performance and positive attitudes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and psychological well-being), while it is negatively related to misbehaviors and negative attitudes (intent to leave, cynicism, work stress, and anxiety) (Avey et al., 2011;Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017). More specifically, related research showed a negative relationship between psychological capital and negative attitudes such as stress (Bradley, 2014), anxiety (Liu et al., 2013), intent to leave (Tüzün, Çetin & Basım 2014), and burnout (Pu, Hou, Ma, & Sang, 2017;Rehman, Qingren, Latif, & Iqbal, 2017;Wang, Chang, Fu, & Wang, 2012); and a positive relationship between psychological capital and positive attitudes such as job satisfaction (Akçay, 2012;Erkuş & Fındıklı, 2013;Çetin & Basım, 2011;Kaplan & Biçkes, 2013;Luthans and Youssef, 2004;Schulz et al., 2014), job involvement (Yüksel & Akdağ, 2011), organizational commitment (Dirzyte, Patapas, Smalskys & Udaviciute, 2013), and motivation (Mortazavi, Yazdi & Amini, 2012). ...
This study aims to determine the relationship between psychological capital and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, motivation, and the intent to leave. The sample of this study consists of 323 teachers in 25 schools that were selected randomly with clustered sampling method from the schools. The structural equation model that yields the best-fit indices, states that as teachers’ psychological capital levels increase, job satisfaction levels also increase. Psychological capital has a positive effect on teachers’ commitment and motivation through the full mediation effect of job satisfaction. Psychological capital has a negative effect on intent to leave through the full mediation effects of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. It is beneficial for school managers to invest in developing and strengthening the psychological capital of teachers if they want to increase job satisfaction, organizational commitment and motivation levels of teachers and to decrease their intent to leave school.
Keywords: teachers, psychological capital, commitment, motivation, job satisfaction, intent to leave
... In organizations like microfinance banks, happy and satisfied employees will be attentive to customers which in turn may help to improve customer satisfaction with the services provided. Employee satisfaction can influence an organization's well-being with regard to job productivity, employee turnover, absenteeism, and life satisfaction (Diržytė, Patapas, Smalskys & Udavičiūtė, 2013). ...
This study examined information acquisition and ICT use as predictors of employee satisfaction in microfinance banks in South-West, Nigeria. Survey research design was used. Multi-stage sampling techniques were used in selecting 600 employees. An average of six respondents was selected from operation and marketing staff of each of the 95 selected banks across the six states in the South western Nigeria. The instruments for data collection were employee satisfaction scale (0.78), frequency of information acquisition of employee questionnaire (0.83) and ICT use scale (0.76). The data was analysed using frequency count, percentage distribution, mean and standard deviation scores and Multiple regression statistics at 0.05 level of significance. Results show that the respondents occasionally acquire information (mean =3.94) in their banks. It also, revealed that microfinance banks in South-West, Nigeria occasionally use ICT in their daily work routine (mean = 3.98. Information acquisition and ICT use when taken together accounted for 5.1 percent of the total variance in employee satisfaction in microfinance banks in South-West, Nigeria. ICT use (β = 0. 440, t = 3.045, p< .05) is shown as the variable highly responsible for the significant combined influence of information acquisition and ICT use on employee satisfaction in microfinance banks in South-West, Nigeria. It is, therefore, necessary for employees of microfinance banks in South-West, Nigeria, to embrace the frequent use of ICT for easy and effective service delivery in order to enhance employee satisfaction.
... Psikolojik sermaye üzerine yurt içi ve yurt dışında yapılan çalışmalar incelendiğinde (Keser ve Kocabaş, 2014;Çetin, Hazır ve Basım, 2013;Polatçı, 2014;Savur, 2013;Berberoğlu, 2013;Battal, 2013;Erkuş ve Fındıklı, 2013;Topkaya ve Korucu, 2018;Cömer ve Yürür, 2017;Çakmak ve Arabacı, 2017;Uygungil ve İşcan, 2018;Herbert, 2011;Avey, Luthans, Smith & Palmer, 2010;Patapas & Smalskys, 2013) otantik liderlik ile psikolojik sermaye arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olduğu, destekleyici örgüt kültürünün psikolojik sermaye üzerinde doğrudan bir etkiye sahip olduğu, psikolojik sermayenin performans üzerinde pozitif yönde etkili olduğu, psikolojik sermayenin iş stresi ve tükenmişlik üzerinde negatif anlamlı bir etkiye sahip olduğu, psikolojik sermaye ile iş tatmini ve örgütsel bağlılık arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olduğu, algılanan örgütsel desteğin çalışanların pozitif psikolojik sermayelerini arttırdığı, pozitif psikolojik sermaye ile örgütsel bağlılık ve iş doyumu arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olduğu, pozitif psikolojik sermaye ile örgütsel sinizm arasında negatif yönlü anlamlı ilişki olduğu sonuçlarına ulaşılmıştır. ...
p.p1 {margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px; font: 12.0px 'Minion Pro'; min-height: 14.0px} p.p2 {margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px; text-align: justify; line-height: 10.1px; font: 10.0px 'Minion Pro'; color: #2d2829} span.s1 {font: 12.0px 'Minion Pro'; color: #000000} Öğretmenlerin pozitif psikolojik sermaye düzeylerini belirlemek amacıyla yapılan bu araştırma, nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden ilişkisel tarama modelinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, Erzincan il merkezinde bulunan ilkokul, ortaokul ve liselerde görev yapmakta olan öğretmenler arasından rastgele örneklem yöntemiyle seçilen toplam 217 öğretmen oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmadan elde edilen veriler frekans, yüzde, ortalama, standart sapma t-testi ve tek yönlü ANOVA teknikleri kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Araştırmadan elde edilen bulgulara göre öğretmenlerin pozitif psikolojik sermaye düzeyleri oldukça yüksek çıkmıştır. Pozitif psikolojik sermaye alt boyutları açısından öğretmenlerin en yüksek ortalamaya sahip oldukları boyut, “güven” boyutu olmuştur. Öğretmenlerin pozitif psikolojik sermaye düzeyleri cinsiyetlerine göre “öz yeterlilik” boyutunda erkek öğretmenlerin lehine anlamlı bir farklılık gösterirken, “umut”, “psikolojik dayanıklılık”, “iyimserlik” boyutlarında ise anlamlı bir farklılık göstermemiştir.
... In work settings, previous studies have shown that overall PsyCap is linked to key organizational and well-being outcomes. Specifically, PsyCap positively predicted several positive employee outcomes including work engagement (Avey, Wernsing, & Luthans, 2008;Simons & Buitendach, 2013), work performance (Luthans, Norman, Avolio, & Avey, 2008), job satisfaction (Dirzyte, Patapas, Smalskys, & Udaviciute, 2013;Luthans et al., 2007;Luthans et al., 2008), wellbeing (Cullbertson, Fullagar, & Mills, 2010;Murray, Pirola-Merlo, Sarros, & Islam, 2010), organizational citizenship behavior (Beal, Stavros, & Cole, 2013;Shahnawaz & Jafri, 2009), and organizational commitment (Shahnawaz & Jafri, 2009). These findings clearly suggest that PsyCap has a role in fostering success in the workplace. ...
Psychological capital (PsyCap) has been associated with key organizational and well-being outcomes. However, limited investigations have been carried out regarding the role of PsyCap in the educational settings. The present study assessed the association of PsyCap with life satisfaction and school belongingness in the academic context. Four hundred and sixty-two Filipino high school students participated in the current investigation. Structural equation modeling showed that PsyCap was positively linked to school belongingness via the intermediate variable life satisfaction. An alternative structural model also provided evidence of the indirect effects of PsyCap on life satisfaction via school belongingness. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.
... Van Saane et al. (2003), in their investigation of 29 job satisfaction instruments, discovered the JSS yielded Cronbach alpha values of 0.60 to 0.80. The JSS displayed acceptable reliability, with a Cronbach alpha of 0.92 (Diržyté, Patapas, Smalskys, & Udaviciütè, 2013) and 0.91 (Van Saane et al., 2003) in separate studies, and was determined to meet the reliability criteria (Van Saane et al., 2003). In total, the survey consisted of the MLQ (5X) and the JSS. ...
... The significant correlation is similar to results elsewhere. The positive impact of hope on work place satisfaction has been studied in the workplace in the West and East (Dirzyte et al., 2013;Luthans et al., 2008;Luthans et al. 2004). High hope individuals tended to be certain of their goals and challenged by them; value progress towards goals themselves; enjoy interacting with others and readily adapt to new collaborative relationships; are less anxious, especially in evaluations, stressful situations, and are more adaptive in environmental change in their work context (Snyder, 2000;Snyder, 1997). ...
Whether brick and mortar business or virtual, leaders work industriously to attain company goals and may play a dynamic role in shaping perceptions of positive organizational behavior. Hope has the potential to re engineer organizational structure and bring about a new vibrant culture committed to positive behavior. This study is an exploratory one focusing on the role of hope and job satisfaction when paired with leadership in the business workplace. Research has found that hope is an observable and measurable phenomena in the workplace (Snyder 2005; Luthans 2007). This case focuses on perceptions of business leadership, hope, and job satisfaction inside business units in the Middle East and North African Region (MENA). The aim of this paper is twofold: (1) to determine whether business leaders are perceived as hopeful and (2) to correlate perception of hope to perception of job satisfaction. Data was gathered using a survey; analysis was conducted; recommendations were made based on the results.
... The significant correlation is similar to results elsewhere. The positive impact of hope on work place satisfaction has been studied in the workplace in the West and East (Dirzyte et al., 2013;Luthans et al., 2008;Luthans et al. 2004). High hope individuals tended to be certain of their goals and challenged by them; value progress towards goals themselves; enjoy interacting with others and readily adapt to new collaborative relationships; are less anxious, especially in evaluations, stressful situations, and are more adaptive in environmental change in their work context (Snyder, 2000;Snyder, 1997). ...
Hope is a critical element in the business environment. In the developed world, competitive businesses are functional: yet functional managers are business leaders who are most successful when leading and performing with hope. Research has also shown that positive and hopeful leaders cognizant of the organizational resource environments, consistently work side-by-side with their followers in order to create a hopeful and productive context. Even though research studies may have explored the role of hope for followers in the developed nations, research studies on the role of hope is still new in the Middle East and North African Area. An essential component in the competitive business context, hopeful millennial leaders may shape job performance, especially in the Middle East and North African Area (MENA). This case study focuses on the emergence of hope and job performance inside business self-directed work teams (SDWT). As a research study, the aim of this paper is threefold: (1) whether the leader is perceived as hopeful; (2) whether the followers perceive themselves as hopeful and (3) whether the level of hope is correlated to the level of job performance. In line with this, three research questions were generated. The participants in this study attend a private English speaking university in the Middle East and North African Area (MENA) and belong to the faculty of business administration and economics. Sixty-one were selected as participants. 17 are employed in domestic or foreign companies. There are 14 females and 47 males. The participants, as members in business units composed of five, are assigned a business project across six weeks. The project requires that all members participate. Data was gathered using a survey; analysis was conducted; recommendations were made based on the results.
... Psychological capital has different advantages in business. It leads to an increase in performance ( Luthans et al. 2005; Peterson and Byron 2008), greater levels of job satisfaction (Çetin 2011; Diržytė et al. 2013; Larson and Luthans 2006;), commitment to the organisation (Etebarian et al. 2012; Çetin 2011; Larson and Luthans 2006), and work well-being (Avey et al., 2010; Culbertson, Fullagar and Mills, 2010), organisational support (Hui, Cao, Lou and He, 2014) as well as the climate related to leadership (McMurray, Merlo, Sarros and Islam, 2010; Naran, 2013). All these factors ultimately benefit the organisation. ...
Investigating the relationship between Ethical Climate and Psychological Capital
Ms Lindiwe Sibiya
Ms Thelma Makoni
Prof René van Wyk vanwyk.rene@uj.ac.za * Corresponding author
Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management, Faculty of Management, University of Johannesburg
ABSTRACT
Ethical climate and psychological capital play an important role in the behaviouremployees. This quantitative investigation scrutinises the prediction of psychological capital (resilience, hope, self-efficacy and optimism) by the ethical climate (codes of caring, instrumental, rules, independence and laws). A total of 101 individuals from a banking branch in Gauteng South Africa took part. Principal Component with Direct Oblimin Rotation and Confirmatory Factor Analyses were used to verify the construct validity of the Psychological Capital and Ethical Climate scales. Structural Equation modelling and Confirmatory Factor Analysis with AMOS, determined the significance of prediction of psychological capital by means of the ethical climate scales. The caring and rules ethical climate factor significantly positively predicted optimism and hope. Both caring and rules as well as independence ethical climate scales significantly positively predicted self-efficacy. The instrumental ethical climate scale significantly negatively predicted adverse resilient experiences, and ethical climate. Law, code and caring significantly positively predicted positive resilient reactions and self-efficacy. The findings are an indication to management that the more employees experience ethical codes and law being enforced, the more resilient, optimistic and hopeful they are.
INTRODUCTION
Ethical climate forms an important part of the larger organisational climate (Cullen, Victor and Bronson, 1993). It determines policies, procedures, and processes that lead to moral and ethical outcomes (Mulki, Jaramillo and Locander, 2008). Ethical work climate forms the basis of employees’ attitudes and behaviours towards business ethics (Shafer, 2015). Qadeer and Jeffery (2014) reason that organisational climate could possibly guide and inspire employees’ psychological capital. The term ‘psychological capital’ is drawn from the emerging positive psychological movement, which focuses on strengths of individuals rather than their weaknesses (Luthans, Luthans and Luthans, 2004). Positive ethical climate components at individual level could empower employees by advancing psychological capital (Golparvar and Azarmonabadi 2014).
The shift from social and human capital to positive psychological capital emphasises the importance of employees overcoming challenges encountered in organisations (Luthans et al., 2004). Human capital plays an important role in this regard. It is an intangible asset of the value that an individual contributes to the business and assists in remaining competitive (Luthans et al., 2004). Human capital emphasises the “who I am”. This form of self-acknowledgment is as important as “who I know” and “what I know” in business. Positive Psychological capital: “who I am” is defined as the positive psychological state of an individual that comprises of self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resilience (Luthans, Youssef and Avolio, 2007).
Psychological capital has different advantages in business. It leads to an increase in performance (Luthans, Avolio, et al. 2007; Luthans et al. 2005; Peterson and Byron 2008), greater levels of job satisfaction (Çetin 2011; Diržytė et al. 2013; Larson and Luthans 2006; Luthans, Avolio, et al. 2007), commitment to the organisation (Etebarian et al. 2012; Çetin 2011; Larson and Luthans 2006), and work well-being (Avey et al., 2010; Culbertson, Fullagar and Mills, 2010), organisational support (Hui, Cao, Lou and He, 2014) as well as the climate related to leadership (McMurray, Merlo, Sarros and Islam, 2010; Naran, 2013). All these factors ultimately benefit the organisation. These advantages lead business to a competitive advantage and organisational success (Luthans, Avey, Avolio and Peterson, 2010).
Problem statement
The relationship between ethical climate and psychological capital should not be underestimated, considering the important roles they both play in effective business functioning. As far as could be established, only the Golparvar and Azarmonabadi (2014) study, done on 267 employees of a railway company in Iran, has investigated the prediction of psychological capital by means of ethical climate. It is not clear to what extent ethical climate influences psychological capital in the South African context.
Research Questions
1. Is the Ethical Climate Scale portable to the SA sample?
2. Is the Psychological Capital Scale portable to the SA sample?
3. Does Ethical Climate predict Psychological Capital?
Research aim and objectives
This investigation is directed at the prediction of psychological capital by ethical climate, similar to the Golparvar and Azarmonabadi (2014) study. The objective of this research is to apply the knowledge in organisations by making them aware of the possible outcomes of ethical climate practices on the psychological capital of employees.
LITERATURE REVIEW
There is a growing interest in the ethical responsibility and enforcement of ethical behaviour in businesses reflected on the bases of legal judgements against organisations (Victor and Cullen 1988). The psychological perceptions of ethical policies and procedures that govern a company may affect employees’ behaviour and emotions in the work environment (Golparvar and Azarmonabadi 2014). Organisational ethical climate, through the development and enforcement of ethical policies may play an important role in employees’ perceptions of right or wrong, moral and psychological commitment. A lack of leadership behaviour and poor working conditions may change the perceptions of employees (Ascigil and Parlakgumus 2012) to the detriment of the organisation.
Ethical climate is defined as “prevailing perceptions of typical organisational practices and procedures that have ethical content” (Victor and Cullen 1988:101) Ethical climate also focuses on the values, procedures and regulations within the organisation that include moral behaviour and attitudes (Birtch and Chiang 2014). It shapes ethical behaviour and aids members in distinguishing between appropriate and inappropriate behaviour in the organization (Hung and Tsai 2016). Ethical climate is therefore a shared perception amongst employees in an organisation, which includes company policies, procedures and practices (Guerci, Radaelli, Siletti, Cirella and Rami Shani, 2015). It further directs an organisation’s behaviour towards organisational support, rewards and ethics. An ethically sound environment may lead to positive outcomes work attitudes, values and behaviour such as work performance and job satisfaction (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012).
Ethical climate and its dimensions and principles
Victor and Cullen (1988), provide an ethical climate grid of two dimensions, with 3 components in a grid that leads to nine different principles. This grid identifies five ethical climate types: instrumental, caring, independence, rules as well as law and code (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012: 402). The two ethical climate dimensions of criterion and locus of analysis are verified on the ethical criteria of egoism, benevolent and principle, accommodating the ethical climate types. The Victor and Cullen (1988) grid is adapted by the current authors and presented in Table 1, incorporating the different dimensions, principles and types.
TABLE 1
VICTOR AND CULLEN (1988) DIMENSIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL CLIMATE TYPES THAT PLAY A ROLE IN ETHICAL DECISIONS
(ADAPTED BY CURRENT AUTHORS)
Dimension 1: Ethical Criterion Dimension 2: Locus of Analysis
(individual concerns in ethical decisions)
Individual Local Cosmopolitan
Egoism Self-interest (instrumental) Company profit (instrumental) Efficiency (caring)
Benevolence Friendship (caring) Team interest (caring) Social responsibility (caring)
Principles Personal morality (independence) Company rule (rules) Law and professional code (law and code)
Victor and Cullen (1988) used two dimensions to describe ethical climate types dealing with ethical decision making in an organization, namely (1) ethical criterion, and (2) locus of analysis. These two dimensions are supported by instrumental, caring, independence and law/code practices. The ethical criterion dimensions consist of egoism, benevolence and principles (Victor and Cullen 1988; Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012). The locus of analysis dimension has three categories; individual, local and cosmopolitan levels of analyses (Shacklock et al. 2011; Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012). A climate of egoism refers to self-serving behaviour of individuals (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012; Guerci et al. 2015) in gaining awards and preventing punishment (Tseng and Fan 2011). Contrary to egoism, individuals who care about the well-being of co-workers are guided by benevolent, altruistic behaviour (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012; Guerci et al. 2015; Shafer 2015). The principle ethical criterion refers to employees adhering to rules and regulations established by organisations (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012; Guerci et al. 2015).
The three ethical climate criteria dimension of egoism, benevolence and principle are interpreted in relation to the local analysis dimension of individual, local and cosmopolitan, forming the nine principles (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012; Victor and Cullen 1988) depicted in Table 1.
• The individual locus of analysis is an indication of the individual’s moral reasoning concerning personal benefits, values and beliefs. An individual locus of analysis could lead to actions of self-interest, friendship seeking or moral independence. All these actions take place on the three ethical climate levels or respectively egoism, benevolence and principles.
• The local locus of analysis, refers to the local application in the organisation (Rothwell and Baldwin 2007; Shafer 2015), implicating company profit, team interest and application of company rules on the three respective ethical climate levels.
• The cosmopolitan (community or societal) locus of analysis, is the action in the interest of the public and society, external to the organisation (Guerci et al. 2015; Rothwell and Baldwin 2007; Shafer 2015). This takes place on the respective egoism, benevolence and principle levels of efficiency, social responsibility and law and professional code applied by an organisation.
The instrumental, caring, independence and law/code practices are described as (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012; Victor and Cullen 1988):
• Instrumental climate relates to decision making, based on self-interest imposed by self-guidance or organisationally directed (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012).
• Caring refers to prioritising the well-being of stakeholders (Atabay, Cangarli and Penbek, 2015) that bonds friendships and sees to the well-being of others (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012; Shacklock et al. 2011). Therefore, a caring climate encourages good behaviour and work engagement (Schwepker and Schultz 2015).
• Independence is the independent conscience, devoted behaviour to moral principles (Wang and Hsieh 2012), that alleviates moral distress (Atabay et al., 2015).
• Law/code provides the regulations by which employees follow, apply and enforce ethical rules and practices (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012).
The ethical climate experienced in a business may contribute to the psychological capital security of individuals.
Defining Psychological Capital
The investment in psychological capital may help organisations to increase their competitive advantage and preserve their human capital (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007). Psychological capital is the positive “psychological state of development” of an individual (Luthans, Youssef, et al. 2007:3) characterized by hope (the desire to become successful), self-efficacy (the confidence to achieve challenging tasks) resilience (the ability to bounce back from failure or set- backs) and optimism (responding effectively to positive and negative situations). Psychological capital focuses on the establishment of strengths and virtues that will allow individuals to be content with themselves and their work (Wu, 2015). Such individuals are focused less on their personal psychological problems. The practical strengths provided by psychological capital practices may minimize stress levels and turnover rates (Avey, Luthans and Jensen, 2009), improving the psychological growth of employees (Şahin, Cubuk and Uslu, 2014). The four components of psychological capital, of hope, self-efficacy, resilience and optimism (Avey et al., 2009) are explained accordingly.
Hope refers to the self-motivation of becoming successful in personal, spiritual and occupational aspects of life (Hsu, Wang, Chen and Dahlgaard-Park, 2014). Hopeful individuals tend to show a willingness and have the means to achieve goals (O’Donohue, Martin and Torugsa, 2015). Should goal plans be blocked, individuals tend to creatively generate alternative options to gain solutions. Hope develops from the successful interactive exchange between agency and pathways to gain a positive motivational state (Avey et al., 2010) that drives perseverance and redirects goals (Hsu et al., 2014). Agency and pathway thinking are reciprocal in the maintenance of hope. Agency involves determination and self-driven forces in attaining goals through pathways of cognitive abilities and strategies aspiring certain outcomes (Avey et al., 2010). A person with an increased level of agency thinking will be motivated to draw up strategies, applying pathways alternatives to plan ambitions. People with high levels of hope are open-minded and persevere in seeking alternative strategies to achieve success (Hsu et al., 2014).
Self-efficacy is the confidence of the individual that success at a task will transpire by applying the necessary effort (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007). Self-efficacy is a motivational construct that assist individuals to remain goal oriented, continue to persevere in challenging tasks, build confidence and create coping methods to achieve desired goals. People who have high self-efficacy believe that they possess abilities to accomplish tasks, which lead to increased confidence and motivation. Self-efficacy plays an important role in decisions made in business, which may influence the goals, commitment, efforts and motivation of employees (Hsu et al., 2014).
Resilience is a competence presented in turbulent situations and an ability to recover when confronted with uncertainty (Luthans et al. 2004). Resilience is also regarded as a “fortitude” (Şahin et al., 2014). It is an ability to remain motivated, rapidly provide solutions to progress and increase performance, notwithstanding setbacks or challenges. Resilience is seen as the positive attribute that motivates an individual to stand firm, regardless of failure and challenges (Hsu et al., 2014). People with high resilience adapt very well when an organisation is going through changes and adversities. Such people are open to new challenges, often seeing it as an opportunity. Resilient individuals strive for success and don’t give up when faced with setbacks or negative feedback. Individuals with a resilient mind-set focus on positive and critical thinking strategies when enduring setbacks (Hsu et al., 2014).
Optimism is defined as the descriptive way of providing explanations in response to good or bad experiences (Seligman, 1988). Optimistic individuals provide an internal, stable, and global attributions to positive events and external, unstable attributes of negative events (Hsu et al., 2014). Optimistic individuals tend to assess positive outcomes as permanent, and negative outcomes as temporary (Luthans et al., 2004). People with an optimistic view are optimistically orientated to expect outcomes to be positive, opposed to pessimistic people who tend to expect negative results (Hsu et al., 2014). Being optimistic assists in remaining motivated in the face of adversities. When confronting challenges, optimistic individuals remain calm and persevere. This is opposed to pessimistic individuals, who consider quitting when situations are tough. Optimism should be faced realistically, as unrealistic optimism could also lead to stress and anxiety.
The relationship between Ethical climate and Psychological Capital
Ethical climate has different organizational outcomes that could lead to psychological well-being, job satisfaction, commitment, and if unhealthy, to deviant behaviours (Wang and Hsieh 2012). As far as could be determined, only the Golparvar and Azarmonabadi (2014) study investigates the impact of ethical climate on psychological capital. This study was done in a sample of 267 employees in a railway company in Iran. The current study seeks to investigate this prediction in a South African sample.
METHOD
This study is aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of the two instruments: Ethical Climate Questionnaire (Victor and Cullen 1988) and Psychological Capital Questionnaire (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007), as well as the prediction of ethical climate with psychological capital as the outcome variable.
Participants
Participation was gained from a Gauteng branch of a bank. Participants were selected from white collar workers and comprised of a diverse socioeconomic background, including different age groups, gender, level of education, language, and level of position. Socio-demographic characteristics suggest that non-response bias is unlikely to be present in the data collection (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2009). Permission was gained from the bank in the Johannesburg branch to contact employees per email to participate. The total number of participants were 101: 37 males (36.6%) and 64 were females (63.4%) in a female dominant in sector. Participants’ ages range from 18 to 64. The largest number of participants have grade 12 or equivalent (50.5%), 24 diplomas or BTech (23.8%), 17 bachelor’s (16.8%), six honours (5.9%), two master degrees (2%) and one participant did not indicate educational level. The largest proportion of respondents 75 (74.3%) were from non-management, followed by top-management 26 (25.7%).
Sampling Procedure
A census sampling procedure was used to collect data from every possible member of the group in the population (Saunders et al., 2009), in this case a large branch of a bank. This bank branch forms part of a larger population of the banking sectors in Gauteng Johannesburg, and South Africa. A total of 6.7% individuals responded, this is only 101 out of a census of 1500 individuals at one branch. This aim was to target all levels in the organisation: top management, middle management and non-management. Only middle management and non-management responded.
Measuring Instruments
The questionnaire consisted of biographic, demographic information, and two questionnaires: Ethical Climate Questionnaire (Victor and Cullen 1988) and the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007).
Ethical Climate Measure
Organisational ethical climate was evaluated by means of the Ethical Climate Questionnaire developed by Victor and Cullen (1988). This questionnaire comprised of twenty six items measuring five sub-scales: caring, law and code, rules and procedures, instrumental and independence (Aşcigil and Parlakgümüş 2012). Golparvar and Azarmonabadi (2014) report Cronbach Alphas ranging from 0.76 to 0.89, caring (0.89), rules and law (0.85), service (0.79) and independency (0.76). Responses were measured on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from completely false (0) to completely true (5) (Victor and Cullen 1988). An example item for law and code from this questionnaire is: “In this company, the law or ethical code of their profession is the major consideration” (Victor and Cullen 1988:122).
Psychological Capital
The Psychological Capital Questionnaire developed by Luthans, Youssef, et al. (2007) comprises of 24 items, measuring four subscales: hope, optimism, resilience and self-efficacy. Responses are measured on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, from 1= strongly disagree, to 6 = strongly agree. Luthans et al. (2007) report Cronbach Alphas as: hope (0.88), resilience (0.89), efficacy (0.89), and optimism (0.89). An example of an item is: “I feel confident in representing my work area in meetings with management” (Luthans et al., 2007:555).
Analyses
The questionnaire was distributed in the bank branch per email. SPSS was used to validate the instruments. Data was inspected for misplaced values. The plausibility of the values was identified by evaluating the minimum and maximum values as well as mean and standard deviation values. Skewness coefficients of >2 and kurtosis of >4 was used to exclude outliers or unsatisfactory items and fell within the prescribed parameters (Davis, Pecar, Santana and Burke, 2014). Investigation of the internal consistency reliability of both scales was undertaken by means of Cronbach Alpha, Principal Exploratory, and Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Items with weak or cross-loadings were removed, should the absolute loading be less than 0.30 or the difference between loadings is less than 0.30. Once the structure of the instruments was investigated the prediction of psychological capital by ethical climate was investigated by a Structural Equation Model.
RESULTS
The results are interpreted to answer the research questions:
Research Question 1: Does the Ethical Climate scale measure reliably?
In addressing research question one, Exploratory and Principal Factor Analysis was done. Four factors had Eigen values greater than one, confirmed by the Scree test, levelling off from the fourth factor. The Principal Factor Analysis with Oblimin Kaiser Rotation showed the patter matrix loadings in Table 2.
TABLE 2
PATTERN MATRIX OF THE ETHICAL CLIMATE SCALE BY MEANS OF PRINCIPAL FACTOR ANALYSIS WITH OBLIMIN KAISER ROTATION
Item Law/ code/care Instru-mental Caring & Rules Indepen-dence
People are expected to comply with the law and professional standards over and above other considerations 0.968 0.018 0.101 0.009
In this company, people are expected to strictly follow legal or professional standards 0.902 0.008 -0.018 -0.003
In this company, the law or ethical code of our profession is the major consideration 0.899 -0.078 0.022 -0.020
Everyone is expected to stick by company rules and procedures 0.884 0.061 0.038 -0.020
It is very important to follow the company's rules and procedures here 0.870 0.075 -0.065 0.107
In this company, the first consideration is whether a decision violates any law 0.728 -0.082 -0.128 -0.066
In this company, it is expected that you will always do what is right for the customers and public 0.545 0.075 -0.264 -0.014
In this company, each person is expected above all to work efficiently 0.534 0.049 -0.095 -0.190
People here are concerned with the company's interests-to the exclusion of all else 0.119 0.780 -0.152 0.107
There is no room for one's own personal morals or ethics in this company -0.036 0.708 -0.024 0.127
People are expected to do anything to further the company's interests, regardless of the consequences -0.163 0.701 0.042 -0.148
Work is considered substandard only when it hurts the company's interests 0.046 0.641 0.081 -0.198
The major responsibility of people in this company is to control costs 0.141 0.519 0.086 -0.084
The major consideration here is what is best for everyone in the company -0.054 -0.020 -0.923 -0.064
The most important concern is the good of all the people in the company as a whole -0.075 -0.054 -0.910 -0.170
In this company, people look out for each other's good -0.035 0.006 -0.785 -0.052
Our major concern is always what is best for the other person 0.077 0.120 -0.718 -0.033
Successful people in this company go by the book 0.135 -0.038 -0.704 0.102
People in this company strictly obey the company policies 0.156 -0.029 -0.675 0.106
In this company, people are guided by their own personal ethics 0.094 -0.101 0.059 -0.887
Each person in this company decides for themselves what is right and wrong 0.013
089
012
0.812
In this company, people are expected to follow their own personal and moral beliefs 0.038 -0.014 -0.116 -0.673
The most important concern in this company is each person's own sense of right and wrong -0.063 0.245 -0.166 -0.632
Table 2 depicts the factor loadings of the four factors of ethical climate, with the loadings in bold: Factor 1 (Law and code/ caring), Factor 2 (Instrumental), Factor 3 (Caring and Rules), and Factor 4 (Independence). The inter-correlation of the four factors is reported in Table 3.
TABLE 3
ETHICAL CLIMATE INTER-CORRELATION OF THE FOUR COMPONENTS
Factor Law and code/caring Instrumental Caring and rules Independence
1 1.000 0.190 -0.524 -0.178
2 0.190 1.000 -0.071 -0.328
3 -0.524 -0.071 1.000 0.247
4 -0.178 -0.328 0.247 1.000
Table 3 indicates a weak inter correlation between the four ethical climate factors. This indicates that the four factors are independent.
A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the four factors of ethical climate indicated a good fit with the data according to Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson and Tatham (2006). The indices are reported as: Bentler-Bonnet Non-Normed Fit = 0.92; Comparative Fit Index = 0.93; Bollen’s Fit Index= 0.96. The Root Mean-Square Error of Approximation approached zero at 0.07, falling within the 90% confidence interval of between 0.06 and 0.09. The Cronbach Alpha for the total scale was 0.890. The individual reliabilities of the scales had strong Cronbach Alphas: law and code/caring (0.94), instrumental (0.82), caring and rules (0.92), and independence (0.86). In answering research question 1, though the final 4-component structure measures reliably, it did not replicate the nine factors of the original scale.
Research Question 2: Does Psychological Capital scale measure reliably?
Exploratory and Principal Factor Analysis with Oblimin Kaiser Rotation indicated four components with Eigen values above one, supported by a Scree Plot levelling off after the forth factor. For this reason and due to the four factors of the original instrument, a four factor Principal Factor Analysis with Oblimin Kaiser Normalization was done. The pattern matrix loadings are reported in Table 4.
TABLE 4
PATTERN MATRIX OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL SCALE BY MEANS OF PRINCIPAL FACTOR ANALYSIS WITH OBLIMIN KAISER ROTATION
Item Optimism/Hope Self-efficacy Adverse resilient experiences Positive Resilient reactions
I approach this job as if "every cloud has a silver lining" 0.919 -0.370 0.069
0.377
I always look on the bright side of things regarding my job 0.796 -0.526 0.109 0.538
At this time, I am meeting the work goals that I have set for myself 0.769 -0.445 0.075 0.533
When things are uncertain for me at work, I usually expect the best 0.712
-0.283
0.067
0.344
I'm optimistic about what will happen to me in the future as it pertains to work 0.688
-0.322
-0.028
0.372
I feel confident contributing to discussions about the company's strategy 0.549 -0.874 -0.014 0.346
I feel confident helping to set targets/goals in my work area 0.435 -0.856 -0.086 0.236
I feel confident presenting information to a group of colleagues 0.425 -0.841 0.107 0.528
I feel confident in representing my work area in meetings with management 0.483 -0.820 0.112 0.576
I feel confident contacting people outside the company (e.g., suppliers, customers) to discuss problems 0.305 -0.758 0.040 0.277
When something can go wrong for me at work wise, it will -0.173 0.212 0.656 -0.303
In this job, things never work out the way I want them to 0.163 -0.071 0.650 0.078
When I have setback at work, I have trouble recovering from it, moving on
0.035
-0.101
0.426
-0.124
I can be "on my own", so to speak at work if I have to
0.439
-0.382
-0.178
0.793
I can get through difficult times at work because I have experienced difficulty before 0.474
-0.477
-0.105
0.769
I usually manage difficulties one way or another at work 0.377
-0.316
-0.123
0.715
I usually take stressful things at work in stride 0.330 -0.117 -0.080 0.526
Table 4 depicts the factor loadings of the four factors of psychological capital: Factor 1 (Optimism/Hope), Factor 2 (Self-efficacy), Factor 3 (Resilience to adverse experiences), Factor 4 (Positive Resilient reactions). Table 5 illustrates the inter-correlation if the four psychological capital factors.
TABLE 5
PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL INTER-CORRELATION OF THE FOUR FACTORS
Factor Optimism/Hope
Self-efficacy Resilience adverse experiences Positive Resilient reactions
Optimism/ hope 1.000 -0.436 0.051 0.490
Self-Efficacy -0.436 1.000 -0.034 -0.357
Adverse Resilient Experiences 0.051 -0.034 1.000 -0.129
Positive Resilient reactions 0.490 -0.357 -0.129 1.000
Table 5 shows a high common variance (24%) between optimism/hope with positive resilient reactions. All the other factors had a weak inter-correlation, showing their independence.
The Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the four-factor Psychological Capital Scale showed a reasonable fit with the data according to Hair et al. (2006), with Indices varying between 0.89 Bentler-Bonnet Non-Normed Fixed Index and 0.90 Bollen’s and McDonald’s Indices. Root Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was approaching zero at 0.10 falling within the 90% confidence interval of between 0.08 and 0.120.
In answering research question two, the Principal Factor Analyses with Kaiser Oblimin rotation delivered four factors that measured reliably. The four factors did however did not replicate the 24 items of the original Luthans et al. (2007) scale. Only 17 of the original 24 items loaded at an acceptable level >0.300. Items that loaded <0.30 or cross-loaded more than 0.25 were deleted from the analysis. The factor loadings differed from the original loadings. Where the original scale had four factors measuring self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism, the current scale measured optimism and hope on one scale, self-efficacy on another scale, and resilience was split into two scales: adverse resilient experiences and positive resilient reactions.
Research Question 3: Can Ethical Climate predict Psychological Capital?
The prediction of Psychological Capital by Ethical Climate factors are presented in Figure 1. In the Structural Equations Model, Ethical Climate factors are the independent variables and Psychological Capital factors are the dependent variables. The asterisk shows statistical significance at 95% level of significance.
FIGURE 1
STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL: ETHICAL CLIMATE PREDICTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL
Figure 1 indicates a significant positive prediction of psychological capital factor 1 (optimism and hope) by ethical climate factor 3 (caring and rules). Psychological capital factor 2 (self-efficacy) was significantly positively predicted by the ethical climate factor 3 (caring and rules) and factor 4 (independence). Psychological capital factor 3 (resilience adverse experiences) was significantly negatively predicted by ethical climate factor 2 (instrumental). Psychological capital factor 4 (positive resilient reactions) was significantly positively predicted by ethical climate factor 1 (law and code/caring). Therefore it can be concluded that there is a significant prediction of psychological capital components by some of the ethical climate scales. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Structural Equation Model, Figure 4.3, shows a weak fit with the data; Bentler-Bonnet Non-Normed Fit Index = 0.80, Comparative Fit Index = 0.82, and Bollen’s Fit Index =0.83. Root Mean-Square Error of Approximation was at an acceptable level at 0.06, approaching zero and falling within the 90% confidence interval of between 0.05 and 0.07. Further research with larger samples need to be done to verify the generalizability of these findings.
DISCUSSION
This study aimed to evaluate the prediction of ethical climate (laws and code, rules, caring, independence and instrumental) with psychological capital as an outcome variable (hope, self-efficacy, resilience and optimism). A number of predictions were achieved from this study. These results are similar to those obtained in the Golparvar and Azarmonabadi (2014) study where self-efficacy and hope is significantly predicted by service and independence, resiliency is significantly predicted by laws and rules, while self-efficacy was predicted by service. These significant influences are an indication that well governed ethical policies could lead to other positive outcomes in business such as lower turnover, work commitment, increased performance and an overall healthy psychological climate.
The main research question was answered by means of the Structural Equation Model. The findings predicted that psychological capital Factor 1 optimism and hope, was predicted significantly by ethical climate factor 3, caring and rules. This is an indication that the more people experience caring and rules the more optimism and hope they experience. Psychological capital Factor 2, self-efficacy was significantly predicted by ethical climate Factors 1 (law and code), Factors 3 (caring and rules) and Factor 4 (independence). This means that the more people abide and care about laws and rules, and are self-driven to comply to moral behaviour, the higher their self-efficacy. Psychological capital Factor 3, resilience to adverse experiences, was significant negatively predicted by ethical climate factor 2, instrumental. This is an indication that the more the company is concerned about its self-interest and cost control, than its moral interests, the significantly less resilient people become. Psychological capital factor 4, positive resilience was significantly positively predicted by law/code and caring. This is an indication that the more confidence there is in the application of law, code and caring in the business, the more resilient people become, as they probably feel protected by the enforcement of rules.
Limitations and future research
This study is South African based, in only one large branch of a national bank. The results are not fully generalizable. As this sample is selected in a bank branch, it is not representative of other branches in the bank, other business sectors in South Africa, or to other countries. The sample size was rather small, which could have led to the fact that the factors of the two instruments did not load similar to the original instruments.
Future research should duplicate the study across different organisations in South Africa and in other countries. The ethical climate framework is very complex. Researchers will have to explore the dynamics of ethical climate more in depth to understand the core principles and ethical climate types and the possible influence in business. Psychological capital could play a significant role in organisations. Practical guidelines should be developed to improve psychological capital excellence in organisations. The possible reciprocal effect of psychological capital on ethical climate should also be investigated.
Contribution
This study contributes to the existing knowledge of ethical climate and psychological capital. The difference in the factor loadings of the Ethical Climate Questionnaire (Victor and Cullen 1988) and Psychological Capital Questionnaire (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007) is informative. Only four factors featured in the factor analysis of the Ethical Climate Questionnaire (Victor and Cullen 1988), instead of the nine original factors. The factor loadings of the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (Luthans, Youssef, et al., 2007), indicates that this sample does not differentiated between hope and optimism, while resilience is seen as either positive controllable, or negative incontrollable. The prediction of psychological capital by means of ethical climate is a first in South Africa.
Implications for management
The indication is that people find it challenging to remain resilient when companies do not take ethical rules seriously. Management should be aware that the more people are aware that ethical codes and law are enforced, the more resilient, optimistic and hopeful their work-force will be, possibly feeling protected and secure by strict and enforced rules. This means that rules alone do not provide the protection; it is also the enforcement of the rules that encourages individuals to remain hopeful, optimistic and resilient with strengthened self-efficacy. Human resource management should apply this knowledge through their training and development programs, focusing on areas such as organisational behaviour, and ethical practices. Human resource management should also invest in psychological capital practices, as this attribute may help individuals deal with stress and anxiety at work. This could lead to improved overall self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism.
Conclusion
The current study has provided renewed insight into the prediction of psychological capital. The findings emphasise the importance that the enforcement of ethical rules provide security in strengthening workforce psychological capital. This is an indication that management should provide the security of a climate where rules are enforced and respected. Such a healthy ethical climate environment strengthens security of employees, enhancing their psychological capital. This in turn provides a competitive advantage to business.
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Psikolojik sermaye bireyin "kim olduğundan" ziyade gelişimsel bir anlayış ile "kim olmakta olduğu" ile ilgilenmektedir. Bu bağlamda bireyin hâlihazırdaki psikolojik kapasiteleri başlangıç ve bitiş noktası arasındaki farklılıkları tespit etmek bağlamında önem arz etmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, psikolojik sermayenin demografik özellikler açısından farklılıklarını belirlemektir. Araştırmanın örneklemini Bingöl Üniversitesinde görev yapan 295 akademik ve idari personel oluşturmuştur. Çalışmada veri toplama aracı olarak anket kullanılmıştır. Ölçeklerin güvenilirlik ve geçerlilik analizleri SPSS.21.0 ve AMOS istatistiksel analiz paket programları ile analiz edilmiştir. Araştırma hipotezleri T-testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) ile incelenmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda psikolojik sermayenin cinsiyet, medeni durum, statü, eğitim düzeyi, yaş, çalışma süresi ve toplam çalışma süresi gibi demografik değişkenlere göre anlamlı farklılıklar gösterdiği, bekâr, daha genç, kurumda çalışma süresi, toplam iş tecrübesi ve eğitim seviyesi daha az olan çalışanların psikolojik sermaye ve alt boyutlarında ortalamalarının daha düşük olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
ABSTRACT Psychological capital is concerned with "who you are becoming" with a developmental mentality rather than the "who you are" of the individual. In this context, the current pschological capacities of the individual are important in terms of determining the differences between the starting and ending points. The purpose of this study is to determine the differences in terms of demographic characteristics of the psychological capital. The research sample consisted of 295 academic and administrative personnel working at Bingöl University. Questionnaire was used as data collection tool in the study. Reliability and validity of the scales were analyzed with SPSS.21.0 and AMOS statistical analysis package programs. Research hypotheses were examined by T-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of the study showed that the psychological capital and sub-dimensions showed significant differences according to demographic variables such as gender, marital status, status, education level, age, work period and total job experience. It was found that employees who were single, younger and have lower work preriod, total work experience and education level were found to have a lower average in psychological capital and subscales
Psikolojik sermaye bireyin "kim olduğundan" ziyade gelişimsel bir anlayış ile "kim olmakta olduğu" ile ilgilenmektedir. Bu bağlamda bireyin hâlihazırdaki psikolojik kapasiteleri başlangıç ve bitiş noktası arasındaki farklılıkları tespit etmek bağlamında önem arz etmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, psikolojik sermayenin demografik özellikler açısından farklılıklarını belirlemektir. Araştırmanın örneklemini Bingöl Üniversitesinde görev yapan 295 akademik ve idari personel oluşturmuştur. Çalışmada veri toplama aracı olarak anket kullanılmıştır. Ölçeklerin güvenilirlik ve geçerlilik analizleri SPSS.21.0 ve AMOS istatistiksel analiz paket programları ile analiz edilmiştir. Araştırma hipotezleri T-testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) ile incelenmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda psikolojik sermayenin cinsiyet, medeni durum, statü, eğitim düzeyi, yaş, çalışma süresi ve toplam çalışma süresi gibi demografik değişkenlere göre anlamlı farklılıklar gösterdiği, bekâr, daha genç, kurumda çalışma süresi, toplam iş tecrübesi ve eğitim seviyesi daha az olan çalışanların psikolojik sermaye ve alt boyutlarında ortalamalarının daha düşük olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Özet
Bu çalışmanın temel amacı iş görenlerin sahip olduğu psikolojik sermaye düzeyi ile iş tatmini arasındaki ilişkiyi
belirlemektir. Alan yazın incelendiğinde psikolojik sermaye ve iş tatmini ilişkisi ile ilgili yazında pek çok çalışma
görülürken, yiyecek içecek işletmeleri üzerinde bu konuda az sayıda çalışma olduğu görülmüştür. Bu noktada
çalışma önemli görülerek, gerçekleştirilmesi gerektiği düşünülmüştür. Araştırmanın örneklemini, Tekirdağ’da
faaliyet gösteren yiyecek içecek işletmelerinde çalışan 368 işgören oluşturmaktadır. Veriler, psikolojik sermaye
ölçeği, iş tatmini ölçeği ve demografik sorulardan oluşan bir anket kullanılarak elde edilmiştir. Korelasyon analizi
sonucuna göre, iş tatmini ile psikolojik sermayenin öz yeterlilik, umut, psikolojik dayanıklılık ve iyimserlik alt
boyutları arasında pozitif yönde ve anlamlı ilişkiler bulunmuştur.
This study was conducted to explore the relationship between different leadership styles and organizational commitment. Furthermore, it attempts to clarify the role of justice perceptions and job satisfaction as mediators of the relationship between (active and passive/avoiding) leadership styles and organizational commitment. The structural equations modeling was used to analyze data collected from a sample of participants recruited from different organizations. The results have indicated that perceived supervisors active leadership styles are positively linked, and have both, direct and indirect effects on employees' organizational commitment. Perceived passive/avoiding leadership styles do not have any effect on organizational justice, job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Employees' job satisfaction depends directly on the level of organizational justice being perceived by the employees. Job satisfaction also significantly contributes to organizational commitment. Implications of the results concerning job and organizational attitudes are discussed, and suggestions for managing human resources are given.
This study's aim is to examine the relationship among job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention of employees. A model of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention is developed and tested in one field study. In this study, using a 250 employees of a Turkish manufacturing company, were given questionnaires to complete during regular working hours; 188 completed questionnaires were returned.. Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention are popular topics in the study of work related attitudes. The main objective of this article is to test the relationships among job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intention. The model that has high reliability and validity is developed and structural equation modeling is used to test research hypotheses. The results indicate that job satisfaction is one of the most antecedents of organizational commitment and turnover intention and suggest that high levels of job satisfaction results in higher commitment and lower turnover intention so job satisfaction positively influences on affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment while it is negatively impact on turnover intention. The results emphasize the need to consider the factors can be having effects on the relationship by highlighting to studies conducted on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention.
Employee commitment is one of the most important elements that help organizations to achieve their goals. This study investigates the impact of gender differences on organizational commitment.108 employees of a private small and medium enterprise (SME) company in Iran are randomly selected for this study. The organizational commitment instrument used in this research is adopted from the Allen and Meyer (1990) scale. Based on this scale, three organizational factors (affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment) are evaluated. The findings indicate that men and women have the same level of affective commitment, continuance commitment, and an overall organizational commitment. However results reveal that women have a greater level of normative commitment than men within the SME.
A mudança organizacional é uma área de acção de crescente preponderância para o desenvolvimento estratégico das organizações. Gerir eficazmente processos de mudança organizacional representa um imperativo de sucesso para organizações competitivas, bem como uma solução de resposta aos constrangimentos internos e externos que lhes são impostas.
O presente estudo pretende averiguar em que medida a eficácia percebida na gestão dos processos de mudança organizacional se encontra associada à satisfação com o trabalho, e de que forma a implicação organizacional actua nesta relação.
Participaram neste estudo 152 colaboradores de uma organização do sector hoteleiro, que responderam voluntariamente a um questionário composto por medidas de implicação organizacional, percepção de eficácia na gestão de processos de mudança e satisfação com o trabalho.
Os resultados evidenciam que a implicação afectiva exerce um efeito mediador na relação entre a percepção de eficácia na gestão de processos de mudança e a satisfação com o trabalho.
Conclui-se que a eficácia na forma como os processos de mudança organizacional são geridos influenciam positivamente o vínculo afectivo com a organização, o que, por seu turno, conduz a uma maior satisfação com o trabalho.
A importância destes resultados e destas conclusões é discutida e interpretada sob o ponto de vista das mais-valias associadas à gestão da mudança para o desenvolvimento das organizações e ao papel dos recursos humanos neste contexto.
As China continues its unprecedented economic growth and emergence as a world power, new solutions must be forthcoming to meet the accompanying challenges. We propose a positive approach to Chinese HRM that recognizes, develops and manages the psychological capital (PsyCap) of workers. After providing a brief overview of hope, efficacy, optimism, resilience and overall PsyCap in today's Chinese context, the results of a follow-up study provide further evidence that the PsyCap of Chinese workers is related to their performance. The implications that this evidence-based value of Chinese workers' psychological capital has for China now and into the future concludes this study.
We studied 199 working adults from a cross section of organizations in the United States to examine the relationship between positive psychological capital and organizational identity on employee deviance and organizational citizenship behaviors. Organizational identity was found to moderate the relationship between psychological capital (PsyCap) and both employee deviance and organizational citizenship behaviors such that employees highest in PsyCap and most strongly identified with the organization were most likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors and least likely to engage in deviance behaviors. We discuss implications for research and practice in the areas of PsyCap and employee identification with the organization.
Drawing from positive psychology and positive organizational behavior (Luthans, 2002a, 2002b) this study utilized a field study in a high tech manufacturing firm to demonstrate how positive psychological capital reduces levels of both involuntary and voluntary absenteeism. Previous studies setting out to determine job attitude antecedents of absenteeism have been generally disappointing and account for only small levels of variance. In addition, with few exceptions conceptualization of absenteeism has been uni-dimensional despite calls by previous researchers to consider the significant differences in semantic networks of voluntary and involuntary absenteeism as separate metrics. We make this dual dimension distinction and show how previous antecedents of absenteeism contribute to one dimension more than the other. The utility of the study findings conclude the article.
Job satisfaction is an important topic in teacher education research. Exploring the issue of teacher job satisfaction helps us gain a deeper understanding of teachers' mental state, such as their occupational attitudes, zeal for teaching, and work enthusiasm, which affects the quality of teaching and education. From an examination of teachers' job satisfaction studies conducted in China (including Hong Kong) in the past ten years, we identified changes in job satisfaction among China's teachers and proposed suggestions that school and educational administrators may find relevant in their decision making and administration.
This article develops and tests a conceptual model of followers' perceptions of transformational leadership as an antecedent to their positive psychological capital—a higher-order construct that represents an individual's motivational propensity and perseverance toward goals. Positive psychological capital, in turn, has in-role performance and organizational citizenship behavior as consequences. Structural equation modeling results support the relationship between followers' perceptions of transformational leadership and positive psychological capital, as well as the relationship between positive psychological capital and each performance outcome. Implications of these results are discussed regarding the literatures of transformational leadership and positive organizational behavior.
This study examined the validity of a multidimensional model of employee commitment in Europe. The study was conducted using a sample of employees working for the translation department of the European Commission, located in Brussels. The survey questionnaire included measures of affective and normative commitment to the organization, the occupation, the work group, and Europe; continuance commitment to the organization and the occupation; and intent to quit. Participants (N = 580) pertained to 12 European nationalities and responded to a French or an English version of the questionnaire. Results showed that (a) for normative and continuance commitment, the organizational and occupational foci were not empirically distinguishable and that (b) both the commitment model and the relationships between commitment components and intent to quit were culturally invariant. On the other hand, evidence also emphasized the importance of considering multiple commitment components in predicting intent to quit. The implications of these findings are discussed.
The determinants of job satisfaction are estimated for Ph.D. level scientists in the United States across academic and nonacademic sectors. Female scientists report lower job satisfaction than males in academia but higher job satisfaction than males in the nonacademic sector. Academic scientists with tenure have substantially greater job satisfaction than non-academic scientists but academic scientists without tenure report similar levels of satisfaction as non-academic scientists. Finally, in each sector, job satisfaction is greater when comparison income is greater in their own sector, while comparisons across sectors generally do not affect job satisfaction.
The purpose of this study was to determine if selected personal characteristics, facets of job satisfaction, and the two dimensions of organizational justice (distributive justice & procedural justice) significantly explained variance in the organizational commitment of Pakistani university teachers. In addition, the present study examined the influence of organizational commitment on two organizational outcomes—job performance and turnover intentions. Data were gathered from 125 full-time teachers from 33 universities in the three major cities of Pakistan: Lahore, Islamabad/Rawalpindi, and Peshawar. The results of the study indicate that the personal characteristics, facets of job satisfaction and two dimensions of organizational justice as a group were significantly related to organizational commitment of teachers. Individually, distributive justice and trust in management were found to be the strongest correlates of commitment. Moreover, commitment was found to be negatively related to turnover intentions (- .40) and positively related to a self-report measure of job performance (.32).
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is emerging paradigm discussed and researched widely within the domain of
organizational behavior and leadership research continuum in the workplace. This has further been recognized as
an effective tool along with organizational commitment (OC) in assessing the job satisfaction. Keeping in view
the relative importance and the potential of these two domains; EI and OC to the job satisfaction among
academics, this pioneering study was conducted among the 90 academic staff of a technical university in Brunei
Darussalam. The study using survey methodology aims not only to establish empirical evidence of examining
academics’ relationship between EI, and OC but also to find out their level of job satisfaction. The result
indicates that two out of seven dimensions of EI and effective component of organizational commitment strongly
predict the job satisfaction. The results are discussed and recommendations are made based upon the data
analysis and conclusion.
The aim of the study is to investigate the impact of job satisfaction and job control on organizational commitment in air traffic controllers of Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). The study is mainly based on review of existing literature and collection of data through an adopted questionnaire survey, conducted from selected sample of Air Traffic Controllers of CAA. Total 134 questionnaires were distributed among the sample using proportionate stratified random sampling technique. One hundred and twenty two (122) respondents returned the questionnaire, which are utilized for the analysis purpose. The results of the study indicate that there is a positive impact of job satisfaction and job control on organizational commitment. Those air traffic controllers who had high level of job satisfaction and job control had high level of organizational commitment. This research paper is based on a specific case of Air Traffic Controllers. So the results are applicable to Air Traffic Controllers of CAA. A quantitative methodology is used to investigate the problem. Future research can investigate the problem by using a mix of quantitative and qualitative research methodology. The practical implications of the paper include implementation of the results provided by the researcher to increase employees' job satisfaction and job control and increasing organizational commitment level. Introduction Workplace emphasizes various issues related to organizational psychology, for example, job satisfaction, job control, employees' performance, and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction is considered as a central concept in the work and organizational
The positive core construct of psychological capital (or simply PsyCap), consisting of the psychological resources of hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism, has recently been demonstrated to be open to human resource development (HRD) and performance management. The research stream on PsyCap has now grown to the point that a quantitative summary analysis of its impact on employee attitudes, behaviors, and especially performance is needed. The present meta-analysis included 51 independent samples (representing a total of N = 12,567 employees) that met the inclusion criteria. The results indicated the expected significant positive relationships between PsyCap and desirable employee attitudes (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychological well-being), desirable employee behaviors (citizenship), and multiple measures of performance (self, supervisor evaluations, and objective). There was also a significant negative relationship between PsyCap and undesirable employee attitudes (cynicism, turnover intentions, job stress, and anxiety) and undesirable employee behaviors (deviance). A sub-analysis found no major differences between the types of performance measures used (i.e., between self, subjective, and objective). Finally, the analysis of moderators revealed the relationship between PsyCap and employee outcomes were strongest in studies conducted in the United States and in the service sector. These results provide a strong evidence-based recommendation for the use of PsyCap in HRD and performance programs. Theoretical contributions, future research directions, and practical guidelines for HRD conclude the article. Gallup Polls in recent years suggest that Americans are pessimistic about incremental
Two studies were conducted to analyze how hope, resilience, optimism, and efficacy individually and as a composite higher-order factor predicted work performance and satisfaction. Results from Study 1 provided psychometric support for a new survey measure designed to assess each of these 4 facets, as well as a composite factor. Study 2 results indicated a significant positive relationship regarding the composite of these 4 facets with performance and satisfaction. Results from Study 2 also indicated that the composite factor may be a better predictor of performance and satisfaction than the 4 individual facets. Limitations and practical implications conclude the article.
This study conducted on 100 employees from production sector and 82 employees from service provider sector. The relationship among job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intention are investigated to determine statistically significant relations. The results of the study support the hypotheses. Job Satisfaction has a significant and positive relationship with three dimensions of organizational commitment and turnover intention has a significant and negative relationship with job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Although much attention has been devoted to understanding employee resistance to change, relatively little research examines the impact that positive employees can have on organizational change. To help fill this need, the authors investigate whether a process of employees' positivity will have an impact on relevant attitudes and behaviors. Specifically, this study surveyed 132 employees from a broad cross-section of organizations and jobs and found: (a) Their psychological capital (a core factor consisting of hope, efficacy, optimism, and resilience) was related to their positive emotions that in turn were related to their attitudes (engagement and cynicism) and behaviors (organizational citizenship and deviance) relevant to organizational change; (b) mindfulness (i.e., heightened awareness) interacted with psychological capital in predicting positive emotions; and (c) positive emotions generally mediated the relationship between psychological capital and the attitudes and behaviors. The implications these findings have for positive organizational change conclude the article.
Study Objectives: The purpose of this investigation was to determine the impact of teachers’ satisfaction with job dimensions on perceived organizational commitment in public sector universities of Pakistan. In addition, the study aimed at exploring to what extent these teachers are committed to their universities and satisfied with different dimensions to their job. Research Design/Methodology: A survey-based descriptive research design was used. The study was carried on teaching faculty working in two public sector universities of Pakistan. About 650 survey questionnaires were distributed in October, 2009 by employing diverse modes of communication such as email, in person and post. Multiple follow ups yielded 331 statistically usable questionnaires. Stepwise regression analysis and one sample t-tests were used to confirming the research hypotheses. Results: The findings of the study indicated that the satisfaction with work-itself, quality of supervision and pay satisfaction had significant positive influence on university teachers. They had high degree of organizational commitment and satisfaction with work-itself, supervision, salary, coworkers and opportunities for promotion.Research limitations/implications: The focus of the study was teachers working at public sectors universities in Pakistan only. Teachers working at private sector may have varied commitment and job satisfaction levels. The differences between public and private sector teachers regarding organizational commitment and job satisfaction with underlying reasons could be probed. Practical implications: Considering the importance of university teachers’ organizational commitment and their effects on effectiveness of the universities, policy makers and academic administrators should take necessary measures for the optimal provision of intrinsic and extrinsic job rewards to make their core workforce highly satisfied and committed. Originality/value: The relevant literature shows that university teachers’ commitment and job satisfaction is under-researched area particularly in the public sector institutions of higher learning in Pakistan. So, the current investigation has contributed to improve the understanding of practically significant issues. Besides, the study findings are discussed in perspective of practical implications in public sector universities.
A dominant theme within the HRM literature concerns the identification of 'best practices' that will enhance both organisational performance and employee commitment. Though research exploring the impact of these practices at the level of the individual is considerably limited, it is implied that they may be applied both across and within organisations, yielding favourable firm level outcomes and
employee behaviours. There is growing support among researchers for a more complex understanding of commitment. Meyer and Allen (1997) suggest that commitment is best viewed as multi-dimensional, comprising affective, continuance and normative dimensions. Employees displaying each dimension of commitment will remain in an organisation because they feel that they want to, need to or ought to do
so. Research suggests that certain organisational and individual variables are related to different forms of commitment. There is also evidence that both commitment and
work attitudes differ over the stages of an employee's career. This presents the possibility that organisations seeking to promote commitment may need to tailor HR
practices to suit employees' needs, thus challenging the best practice perspective at the employee level. This paper extends on the literature by examining whether career
stage has a moderating influence on the HR-commitment relationship. The empirical research is based on an employee attitude survey within three financial service
organisations in Ireland (N= 288). Using moderated multiple regression, the findings highlight the extent to which interaction effects are evident regarding attitudes
towards HR practices and continuance and normative commitment, though not affective commitment. The implications of these findings for the management of
commitment are discussed.
Job satisfaction is often described as an affective response to one's job, but usually measured largely as a cognitive evaluation ofjob features. This paper explores several hypothesized relationships between real time affect while working (50 observations ofmood and emotions over two weeks) and measures ofjob satisfaction. As expected, affect measures predict satisfaction but are not identical to satisfaction. Affect is more strongly related to a faces measure ofsatisfaction than to more verbal measures of satisfaction. Positive and negative emotions both make unique contributions to satisfaction, and contribute to the prediction of overall satisfaction above and beyond facet satisfactions. Frequency ofnet positive emotion is a stronger predictor of satisfaction than is intensity ofpositive emotion. Implications for further research and improving job satisfaction are discussed.
Theorists and researchers interested in employee commitment and motivation have not made optimal use of each other's work. Commitment researchers seldom address the motivational processes through which commitment affects behavior, and motivation researchers have not recognized important distinctions in the forms, foci, and bases of commitment. To encourage greater cross-fertilization, the authors present an integrative framework in which commitment is presented as one of several energizing forces for motivated behavior. E. A. Locke's (1997) model of the work motivation process and J. P. Meyer and L. Herscovitch's (2001) model of workplace commitments serve as the foundation for the development of this new framework. To facilitate the merger, a new concept, goal regulation, is derived from self-determination theory (E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 1985) and regulatory focus theory (E. I. Higgins, 1997). By including goal regulation, it is acknowledged that motivated behavior can be accompanied by different mindsets that have particularly important implications for the explanation and prediction of discretionary work behavior.
Business publications and the popular press have stressed the importance of creating conditions for meaningful employee expression in work roles, also known as engagement. Few empirical studies, however, have examined how individual or situational factors relate to engagement. Consequently, this study examines the interplay between employee age, perceived coworker age composition, and satisfaction with older (older than 55) and younger (younger than 40) coworkers on engagement using a sample of 901 individuals employed in the United Kingdom. Results indicated that satisfaction with one's coworkers related significantly to engagement. Moreover, perceived age similarity was associated with higher levels of engagement among older workers when they were highly satisfied with their coworkers over 55 and lower levels of engagement when they were not.
The study aimed at exploring psychological capital in two kinds of organizations (public and private). The study further explored how psychological capital influences organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour in public and private organizations. The sample comprises 160 junior and middle level managers, 80 each from two organizations. Dimensions of psychological capital were measured by four different scales. Hope was measured by Snyder et al scale, resiliency by Neil and Dias scale, self efficacy by Jerusalem and Schwarzer ‘s scale and optimism was measured by Scheier & Carver’s scale. Organizational Commitment was measured by Allen and Meyer’s scale and organizational citizenship behaviour by a scale developed by Chattopaadhyay. The results showed that all the dimensions of psychological capital were significantly different in the two organizations. Regression analyses showed that psychological capital as a whole couldn’t predict organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour in both the organizations.
Organizations want to maximize productivity by minimizing stress, as increased levels of stress and burnout may have significant implications for organizational performance such as reduced job satisfaction and lowered organizational commitment. Also certain occupations are linked more to burnout than the others. The present exploratory study undertakes the examination of burnout among teachers in the university as they are an essential part of a successful educational system. Organizational commitment is essential for retaining and attracting well qualified workers as only satisfied and committed workers will be willing to continue their association with the organization and make considerable effort towards achieving its goals.
This work is significant for two reasons: It attempts to develop and test a model for burnout and its effect on job satisfaction and the subsequent effect of job satisfaction on organizational commitment; It signifies one of the first attempts to develop a linkage among burnout, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment among teachers.
This study examines three factors of burnout as potential antecedents of 153 university teacher's job satisfaction, and the effect of increased job satisfaction on commitment among employees toward their organization.
Structural Equation Modeling results indicate that: All three factors of burnout namely, depersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment, and emotional exhaustion lead to decreased job satisfaction. Greater job satisfaction contributes significantly towards an increase in organizational commitment. Out of the three dimensions of burnout, female teachers score higher on emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment indicating that they could not work the way they wanted to with their students or that they have less influence on their students, whereas male teachers score higher on depersonalization. In terms of job satisfaction, females show higher levels of job satisfaction as compared to men, perhaps due to low expectations about job status among female teachers as compared to male teachers. A perceived difference in alternative employment opportunities between genders offers an explanation to the finding that women are more committed to organizations than their male counterparts
The results of the study have implications for the management of educational institutions as employee burnout may have important consequences for the organization. Since teachers are a valuable resource to educational institutes, management must invest significant resources in the assessment of their working environment, both mental and physical, to maximize the quality of service delivery.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of gender on employees' perception of job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Gender plays an important role in creating individual attitudes pertaining to the workplace and in interpreting the meaning of these attitudes. Survey data was gathered from 112 employees in Labuan. Regression results showed that both male and female employees in Labuan have the same level of perception of job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Implications and recommendations were also discussed.
Psychological capital with components of hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resiliency has recently emerged as a core construct in taking positive psychology to the workplace. A distinguishing feature is that it is "state-like" and thus open to development. We analyze whether such psychological capital can be developed through a highly focused, 2-hour web-based training intervention. Using a pretest, posttest experimental design (n = 187 randomly assigned to the treatment group and n = 177 to the control group), we found support that psychological capital can be developed by such a training intervention.
High performance of the lecturers in the majority of Private Universities in Indonesia is still something beyond reachable. This article tries to dissect the underlying problems that hinder the target. To solve this problem, the researcher conducted a research among the lecturers form the private universities in West Java and Banten. The method used in this research is survey method, namely descriptive survey and explanatory survey. To test the hypothesis, the researcher uses the multivariate statistics with the structural equation model instrument, meanwhile to process the data, the LISREL 8.51 program is used. There are 560 respondents out of 3007 population for the whole lectures The research results proves that job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intention both simultaneously and partially have a significant influence on the performance.
Management and professional Americans in diverse occupational settings (N = 178, 84 women and 94 men) were tested. An analysis was made of the relationship among certain personal variables (including intrinsic motivation), family characteristics, family pressure, job satisfaction, sex-role conflict, and need fulfillment as well as of their relationship to level of job commitment. The results generally confirmed the theoretical model of the job commitment process applicable to both women and men and presented by Chusmir (1982) but previously not tested.
Meeting the challenge of effectively managing human resources requires new thinking and approaches. To extend the traditional perspective of economic capital, increasing recognition is being given to human capital and more recently social capital, this article proposes and empirically tests the potential added value that psychological capital may have for employee attitudes of satisfaction and commitment. After first providing the background and theory of PsyCap, this article reports a study of manufacturing employees (N = 74) that found a significant relationship between PsyCap and job satisfaction (r=.373) and organization commitment (r=.313). Importantly, the employees' PsyCap had a significant added impact over human and social capital on these work attitudes. Future research and practical implications conclude the article.
Using a racially diverse sample of 234 professional employees, this research investigated the impact of psychological contract breach and psychological contract violation on several work outcomes. Specifically, this research examined psychological contract violation as the key intervening (mediating) variable between psychological contract breach and various employee attitudes and behaviors. The results suggest that psychological contract breach is positively related to intent to quit, negatively related to professional commitment, and negatively related to employees' in-role and extra-role work performance. Moreover, psychological contract violation fully mediated the relationship between psychological contract breach and intent to quit and professional commitment.
The present study assessed the organizational commitment of 189 correctional officers at four Maryland State prisons representing multiple security levels (pre-release, minimum, medium, and maximum) using the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) (Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979). Results indicated that officers with greater years of military service and those that chose corrections as a career reported higher OCQ scores while those with a college degree or graduate school education reported lower OCQ scores. However, in the multivariate analysis, having more years of military service was the only predictor of OCQ. These findings indicate that a more thorough and comprehensive understanding of correctional officers may contribute to greater knowledge of the systemic dynamics of inmate confining organizations.
Asks 710 middle and high school teachers to respond to several questions including their overall level of job satisfaction, teacher motivation in general, and performance incentives. Finds differences in job satisfaction based on gender, age, and career stage. Also discusses gender and location (suburban, urban, rural) differences in knowing unmotivated teachers. (PKP)
Conventional wisdom and recent research have supported the importance of employee positivity. However, empirical analysis has not yet demonstrated potential added value of recently recognized psychological capital over the more established positive traits in predicting work attitudes and behaviors. This study found that psychological capital was positively related to extrarole organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) and negatively to organizational cynicism, intentions to quit, and counterproductive workplace behaviors. With one exception, psychological capital also predicted unique variance in these outcomes beyond demographics, self-evaluation, personality, and person—organization and person—job fit. The article concludes with implications for future research and practical application.
This study investigated the relationships of demographic factors (age, marital status, gender, job tenure, and educational level), emotional intelligence, work-role salience, achievement motivation and job satisfaction to organizational commitment of industrial workers. Participants were 320 employees (male = 170, female = 150) randomly selected from 5 service and 5 manufacturing organizations in Oyo State, Nigeria. Measures of biographical data, emotional intelligence, work-role salience, achievement motivation, job satisfaction and organizational commitment were administered on the sample. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to analyse the data collected. Results showed that emotional intelligence, work-role salience, achievement motivation, job satisfaction and all demographic factors except gender significantly predicted organizational commitment of the workers. Findings suggest the need for organizational managements and psychologists to consider the factors investigated when designing programmes for increasing the organizational commitment of the workers.
Recently, theory and research have supported psychological capital (PsyCap) as an emerging core construct linked to positive outcomes at the individual and organizational level. However, to date, little attention has been given to PsyCap development through training interventions; nor have there been attempts to determine empirically if such PsyCap development has a causal impact on participants' performance. To fill these gaps we first conducted a pilot test of the PsyCap intervention (PCI) model with a randomized control group design. Next, we conducted a follow-up study with a cross section of practicing managers to determine if following the training guidelines of the PCI caused the participants' performance to improve. Results provide beginning empirical evidence that short training interventions such as PCI not only may be used to develop participants' psychological capital, but can also lead to an improvement in their on-the-job performance. The implications these findings have for human resource development and performance management conclude the article.
After first providing the meaning of psychological capital (PsyCap), we present a micro-intervention to develop it. Drawn from hope, optimism, efficacy, and resiliency development, this PsyCap Intervention (PCI) is shown to have preliminary support for not only increasing participants' PsyCap, but also financial impact and high return on investment. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Although the value of a supportive organizational climate has been recognized over the years, there is a need for better understanding of its relationship with employee outcomes. This study investigates whether the recently emerging core construct of positive psychological capital (consisting of hope, resilience, optimism, and efficacy) plays a role in mediating the effects of a supportive organizational climate with employee outcomes. Utilizing three diverse samples, results show that employees' psychological capital is positively related to their performance, satisfaction, and commitment and a supportive climate is related to employees' satisfaction and commitment. The study's major hypothesis that employees' psychological capital mediates the relationship between supportive climate and their performance was also supported. The implications of these findings conclude the article. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Research shows that unemployment negatively affects a person's wellbeing, which in turn can impair their ability to regain employment. Studies also suggest a person's ‘psychological capital’ (PK) (personality traits that influence the productivity of labour) influences the impact of unemployment on wellbeing and facilitates re-employment. This paper combines various economic and psychological theories of unemployment, and using 2004 cross-sectional data from Australia, tests the hypothesis of a simultaneous relationship between employment status and wellbeing and the mediating role of PK. Results support a simultaneous relationship and the partial mediating effect of PK. Individuals with poor PK are at greater risk of being unemployed.
The goal of this study was to determine if job satisfaction differs between speech-language pathologists (SLPs) working in school settings and SLPs working in medical settings.
The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) by Spector (1997) was sent via electronic mail to 250 SLPs in each of the 2 settings. Job satisfaction scores were computed from subscale category ratings and were compared between the 2 settings. Subscale category ratings for pay, promotion, supervision, benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication were analyzed for differences between and within settings. Age, caseload size, and years-at-position were analyzed by linear regression to determine whether these factors might predict SLPs' job satisfaction.
The survey had a response rate of 19.6% (N = 98 participants). Although SLPs in both settings were generally satisfied with their jobs, SLPs in medical settings had significantly higher total job satisfaction scores. Respondents from both settings had similar satisfaction ratings for subscale categories, with nature of work receiving the highest rating and operating conditions and promotion the lowest. Results of the linear regression analysis for age, caseload size, and years-at-position were not significant.
Further research should evaluate important aspects of job satisfaction in both settings, especially nature of work operating conditions, and promotion.
Collected data from 3,148 respondents in 19 samples regarding evaluative feelings about their jobs and developed the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), a 9-subscale measure applicable specifically to human service, public, and nonprofit sector organizations. Included are a multitrait-multimethod analysis of the JSS and the Job Descriptive Index, factor analysis of the JSS, and scale intercorrelations. Correlations of JSS scores with criteria of employee perceptions and behaviors for multiple samples were consistent with other satisfaction scales and with findings from the private sector. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper summarizes a stream of research aimed at developing and validating a measure of employee commitment to work organizations. The instrument, developed by Porter and his colleagues, is called the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ). Based on a series of studies among 2563 employees in nine divergent organizations, satisfactory test-retest reliabilities and internal consistency reliabilities were found. In addition, cross-validated evidence of acceptable levels of predictive, convergent, and discriminant validity emerged for the instrument. Norms for males and females are presented based on the available sample. Possible instrument limitations and future research needs on the measurement and study of organizational commitment are reviewed