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The Construction and Preliminary Validation of a Measure of Reported Mystical Experience
Abstract
A measure of reported mystical experience is presented. This "Mysticism Scale, Research Form D (M scale)," has 32 items, four for each of 8 categories of mysticism initially conceptualized by Stace (1960). Items on this scale are both positively and negatively expressed to avoid problems of response set. A factor analysis of the M Scale indicated two major factors, a general mystical experience factor (20 items) and a religious interpretation factor (12 items). Preliminary evidence indicates that those high on the M Scale have more intrinsic religious motivation as defined by Hoge's (1972) scale, are more open to experience as defined by Taft's (1970) ego permissiveness scale, have more intense religious experience as defined by Hood's (1970) scale, and have moderately higher scores on the L, Hs, and Hy scales of the MMPI.
... This builds on previous studies that have shown that neural profiles of practitioners change differently as they age (Luders, 2014) and the amount of training experienced throughout the years (e.g., Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2020). Finally, we also examined the correlations between the occurrence of brain states and the Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975). This scale assesses various experiential dimensions, including sense of unity, transcendence of time and space, ineffability, and feelings of sacredness, often associated with meditation practices (Taves, 2020). ...
... Before entering the scanner, participants completed Hood's Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975). MRI images were acquired on a 3 T Trio Magnetom Siemens scanner, at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel. ...
... Importantly, the same cohorts reported in this study were previously shown to exhibit significant differences in various nodes of the DMN, both on the functional level (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2016a), as well as the structural level (Berkovich-Ohana et al., 2020). In order to assess any potential link between functional connectivity dynamics and changes in self-awareness, all participants answered Hood's Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975), which is considered to be a measure of ego-dissolution, which is an alteration to the sense of self experienced during deep meditative states (Millière et al., 2018). This questionnaire is composed of eight subscales that relate to different qualities of mystical experiences: Ego quality refers to experiencing the loss of the sense of self while maintaining consciousness (e.g., "I have had an experience in which something greater than myself seemed to absorb me"); Unifying quality refers to the perception of unity among separated objects (e.g., "I have had an experience in which I realized the oneness of myself with all things"); Inner Subjective quality refers to perceiving an inner subjectivity even to material objects (e.g., "I have had an experience in which all things seemed to be conscious"); Temporal/Spatial quality refers to the modification of the temporal and spatial parameters of the experience (e.g., "I have had an experience which was both timeless and spaceless"); Noetic quality refers to treating the experience itself as a valid source of information (e.g., "I have had an experience in which a new view of reality was revealed to me"); Ineffability refers to the inability to verbally express the nature of the experience (e.g., "I have had an experience that cannot be expressed in words"); Positive Affect refers to the experience of joy or blissful happiness (e.g., "I have experienced profound joy"); and Religious quality, which refers to the sacredness of the experience (e.g., "I have had an experience which I knew to be sacred"). ...
Interest has been growing in the use of mindfulness meditation (MM) as a therapeutic practice, as accumulating evidence highlights its potential to effectively address a range of mental conditions. While many fMRI studies focused on neural activation and functional connectivity during meditation, the impact of long-term MM practice on spontaneous brain activity, and on the expression of resting state networks over time, remains unclear. Here, intrinsic functional network dynamics were compared between experienced meditators and meditation-naïve participants during rest. Our analysis revealed that meditators tend to spend more time in two brain states that involve synchrony among cortical regions associated with sensory perception. Conversely, a brain state involving frontal areas associated with higher cognitive functions was detected less frequently in experienced meditators. These findings suggest that, by shifting attention toward enhanced sensory and embodied processing, MM effectively modulates the expression of functional network states at rest. These results support the suggested lasting effect of long-term MM on the modulation of resting-state networks, reinforcing its therapeutic potential for disorders characterized by imbalanced network dynamics. Moreover, this study reinforces the utility of analytic approaches from dynamical systems theory to extend current knowledge regarding brain activity and evaluate its response to interventions.
... A questionnaire consisted of an introduction and consent box, questions about participant demographics and the participant's ME such as potential triggers, duration and time-lapse, the MEQ43, the MEQ30, the Hood Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975) and a debrief. ...
... The M-Scale (Hood, 1975), used for construct validity, shares the same theoretical underpinnings as the MEQ43. It contains 32 questions rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from -2 (this description is definitely not true of my own experience) to +2 (this description is definitely true of my own experience). ...
... There are four questions for each of the eight characteristics outlined by Stace (1960): Ego Quality, Unifying Quality, Inner Subjective Quality, Temporal / Spatial Quality, Noetic Quality, Ineffability, Positive Affect and Religious Quality. Factor analysis of the M-Scale has returned mixed results with two and three-factor solutions (Anthony et al., 2010;Caird, 1988;Hood, 1975 ...
This study aimed to determine whether the 30-item Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30) is suitable for measuring non-psychedelic mystical experiences or whether a subset of questions from the 43-item Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ43) is more appropriate. Participants (N = 136) completed an online survey about their non-psychedelic mystical experience, which included the MEQ43 and its subset of items that make up the MEQ30. Confirmatory Factor Analysis revealed that the MEQ30 was not a good fit for the present study’s non-psychedelic sample. Exploratory Factor Analysis of the MEQ43 suggested that an alternative set of items and corresponding factors may be more appropriate. In the new four-factor instrument (MEQ25), 25 items account for all MEQ43 factors. The new factors are Sacred Unity, Noetic Quality, Time-Space Transcendence, and Ineffable and Paradoxical. The new scale demonstrated excellent internal reliability (α = .93) and strong convergent validity with the M-Scale. The new scale is unique because it has a separate factor for noetic quality, which is considered a salient and therapeutic aspect of mystical experience. Furthermore, the refined time-space subscale better reflects the theory and subjective experience of non-psychedelic mystical experiences.
... Subsequently, in the MEQ30, the two items that asked about paradoxicality were removed, and consequently, the subscale "ineffability and paradoxicality" of the MEQ43 was renamed to "ineffability" only in the MEQ30. This non-consideration of paradoxicality when measuring mystical experience in the MEQ30 is also consistent with the other major validated measure of mystical experience-the Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975)-where paradoxicality was excluded early in scale development because, as Hood writes: "in none of our preliminary work did [paradoxicality] effectively discriminate nor do we consider it an essential characteristic of the mystical experience" (1975, p. 31). 7 By contrast, Hood-here again conceptually in line with the MEQ30-does consider ineffability an essential characteristic of the mystical experience as it is a subscale in the Mysticism Scale too. ...
... We may note that the philosopher on whose work the conceptualization of the MEQ and the Mysticism Scale largely rests, Walter Terence Stace, would probably have approved of treating paradoxicality and ineffability as two separate concepts as done in the MEQ45 (Pahnke, 1969)-but would probably have been highly critical to see such merging of paradoxicality and ineffability as done in the MEQ43 (Griffiths et al., 2006;Richards, 1975) or to see the removing of paradoxicality altogether from the conceptualization of mystical experience as done in the MEQ30 (Barrett et al., 2015;MacLean et al., 2012) and the Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975). For Stace, paradoxicality and alleged ineffability were two common characteristics of the mystical experience. ...
... 9 Furthermore, in case the factor analysis should yield such a paradoxicality factor, we planned to investigate (with additional correlational analysis with MEQ30 measures) whether or not paradoxicality is best viewed as a common characteristic of the mystical experience (as proposed by Otto, 1926Otto, /1957Richards, 2015;Stace, 1960cf. also James, 1902 or not-as proposed in work related to the MEQ30 (Barrett et al., 2015;MacLean et al., 2012) and the Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975). ...
Background
Research with the Psychedelic Experience Questionnaire/Scale (PES) focuses on questions relating to mystical experience (Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ)). The psychometric potential of the non-MEQ items of the PES remains largely unexplored.
Aims
We investigated whether the PES also yields subscales besides the MEQ30 subscales.
Methods
Data from 239 PES measurements (140 healthy participants) from six studies with moderate to high doses of lysergic acid diethylamide and/or psilocybin were included. New subscales (with items other than MEQ30) were created and validated as follows: (1) theoretical derivation of candidate items; (2) removal of items with rare experiences; (3) exploratory factor analysis; and (4) confirmatory factor analysis. Correlations of subscales within the PES and between the PES and the 5-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness Scale (5D-ASC) were performed. In addition, a cluster analysis using all items (except rare experiences) was performed.
Results
The reliability of the four original factors of the MEQ30 was confirmed and four additional factors for the non-MEQ items were revealed: paradoxicality, connectedness, visual experience, and distressing experience. The first two additional factors were strongly correlated with the MEQ30 mystical subscale. Adding the new subscales to the MEQ30 subscales increased the explained variance with the 5D-ASC. The cluster analysis confirmed our main results and provided additional insights for future psychedelic psychometrics.
Conclusion
The study yields a new validated 6-factor structure for extended mystical experience (MEQ40: MEQ30 + Paradoxicality + Connectedness) and covers psychedelic experience as a whole more comprehensively than has hitherto been possible within a single questionnaire (PES48). The entire PES (PES100) can also be used for further future psychedelic-psychometric research.
... Common core thesis posits that a set of common characteristics, cutting across cultures and traditions, defines mysticism (Hood, 1975;Stace, 1960). This common core, as originally proposed, comprises ...
... Interpretive mysticism includes four affective and cognitive evaluations of the experience, positive affect, sacredness, noetic quality, and ineffability. Selfreport measures, such as the Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975), have been useful for examining the nature and structure of mystical experiences across different populations. Cross-cultural applications and measurement invariance testing have largely supported the structure posited by common core thesis across various religious populations (for a review, see Hood & Chen, 2013). ...
... Interview questions, phrased in Mandarin Chinese, tapped into the eight common core mysticism facets operationalized and measured in psychological literature (Hood, 1975;Hood & Chen, 2013). The eight questions asked participants about whether any of the following occurred during their Daoist practices (xiuxing): (1) experienced a non-self state in which everything disappeared from their mind until they were only conscious of a void or emptiness (Ego Loss); (2) felt as though time and space no longer seemed to exist (Timelessness/Spacelessness); (3) experienced a sense of oneness with all things, or as though all things became part of the same whole (Unity); (4) felt as if all things seemed to be alive, conscious, or not dead (Inner Subjectivity); (5) experienced profound bliss or other positive affect (Positive Affect); (6) experienced a sacred power (Sacredness); (7) realized something deep about this world or received a revelation (Noetic Quality); (8) experienced something they were incapable of expressing into words (Ineffability). ...
... People who report being healed often report exceptionally strong positive emotions (a common indicator of altered states). Overwhelming positive affect is a standard characteristic of mystical experiences (Hood, 1975), so if we can produce mystical experiences experimentally, perhaps we'll have a clue to moving this type of healing from spontaneous to a standard clinical treatment. ...
... It is the psychological effect of the mystical experience; the psychedelic mindapp is used merely to produce a mystical mindbody state. The word "mystical" as it is used in psychology and religious studies denotes a specific cluster of subjective experiences (Hood, 1975), not its Halloweeny or spooky sense in ordinary language. ...
When I think about psychedelics, I find it handy to think about their idea-context. Of course, ideas about psychedelics exist in any number of contexts, but one I find particularly helpful is the idea I call "neurosingularlity," particularly the "Neurosingularity Project." The Neurosingularity Project is the discovery, construction, and development of useful abilities in all mindbody states, both natural and synthetic. As the name suggests, it derives from Ray Kurzweil's adaptation of the scientific word "singularity." In his use, the singularity names a hypothetical future emergence of greater-than-human super intelligence through technological means, and he adopted singularity for the title of his 2005 book, The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. He posits a time not long from now when computers will surpass human thinking thanks to nanotechnology, genetics, artificial intelligence (AI), and similar technological breakthroughs. But as his subtitle suggests, Kurzweil assumes that our brains and their biological information-processing skills are static and will remain static while computers and electronic information processing surpass our poor outdated brains. The technologies Kurzweil identifies as promoting the singularity also have their implications for the human brain and mind. Neurosingularity posits a time when future human brains (and minds) will surpass ours of today.
... • Is self-rated spirituality predicted by mystical experiences? In an analysis that focused on the newly developed short form of Hood's (1975) Mysticism Scale (Streib, Klein et al., 2021), have shown that the M-Scale moderates and mediates the effects of self-rated religiosity on self-rated spirituality. • What are the outstanding predictors for deconversion? ...
... Quantitative results are presented by . personality NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae, 1985;Borkenau & Ostendorf, 1993) x x x well-being Psychological Well-being and Growth Scale (Ryff, 1989;Ryff & Singer, 1996, 1998a, 1998b x x x generativity Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS, McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992;McAdams et al., 1993;McAdams et al., 1997;McAdams et al., 1998) x x x religious schemata Religious Schema Scale (RSS, Streib et al., 2010) x x x mystical experiences Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975; x x x ...
In this chapter, we will present the research design of the Bielefeld-Chattanooga longitu-
dinal study of faith development focusing on the methodological discussion about mixed-methods
research and the knowledge produced by the qualitative and quantitative strands we employ. First,
we will present our research in the light of the pragmatic paradigm that enables us to take multiple
perspectives through the triangulation of data as well as research methods and discuss the quality
criteria of such an approach. We then will briefly present our qualitative and quantitative methods
of data collection with a focus on what kind of information we obtain as well as our methods of data
analysis concentrating on the kind of knowledge, we are able to produce. This discussion will demon-
strate how we investigate faith development using the nomothetic and the idiographic approach that
we regard as complementary. The chapter closes by exemplifying our approach by a longitudinal case
study.
... Neuroplasticity is a concept generally referring to the brain's "change capacity," meaning the capacity to functionally and structurally reorganize neuronal and neural network connections. Through both basic scientific and neuroimaging techniques, psychedelics have been shown to instigate several neuroplastic changes, including dendritic growth, synaptic plasticity, synaptogenesis, neurogenesis, and acute and long-term changes in neural connectivity both within networks and between brain regions (Aleksandrova and Phillips 2021;Calder and Hasler 2022;Vos, Mason, and Kuypers 2021;Grieco et al. 2022;Inserra, De Gregorio, and Gobbi 2021;Jefferson et al. 2023;Kwan et al. 2022;Lukasiewicz et al. 2021;Ly et al. 2018;Olson 2022;Shao et al. 2021). In turn, neuroplasticity has become central to several models for explaining psychedelics' effects. ...
... In published clinical trials, psychological benefits have often correlated with mystical experience as defined by a number of psychometric scales, such that "the degree of mystical experience predicts the degree of [therapeutic] benefit" (Letheby 2021, 2). A mystical experience is characterized by several qualities that include a sense of sacredness, a noetic quality, feelings of internal and external unity, changing sense of time and space, ineffability, and a positive mood, which are accordingly measured using these scales Hood 1975;Ko et al. 2022). Additional phenomenological constructs measured in these scales include things such as oceanic boundlessness (OBN), universal interconnectedness, and ego dissolution (Ko et al. 2022). ...
Psychedelics have again become a subject of widespread interest, owing to the reinvigoration of research into their traditional uses, possible medical applications, and social implications. As evidence for psychedelics' clinical potential mounts, the field has increasingly focused on searching for mechanisms to explain the effects of psychedelics and therapeutic efficacy of psychedelic-assisted therapy (PAT). This paper reviews three general frameworks that encompass several prominent models for understanding psychedelics' effects—specifically, neurobiological, psychological, and spiritual frameworks. Following our review, the implications of each framework for ethics and professional competencies in the implementation of psychedelics as medicines are explored. We suggest that interdisciplinary education may be necessary to improve communication between researchers, develop models that effectively incorporate multiple levels of analysis, and facilitate collaboration between professionals with diverse backgrounds in the implementation of psychedelic medicines. We also address pitfalls associated with overemphasis on neuro-mechanisms, risks associated with instigating vulnerable states of consciousness, and hurdles associated with the integration of spiritual frameworks in medicine. Ultimately, as psychedelics push the boundaries of explanatory frameworks focused on one level of analysis, developing new and more useful models to reflect knowledge being produced in this field should be a central aim of psychedelic science going forward.
... was developed by psychologist Hood in 1975(Hood, 1975 and is based on the work by Stace (Ai et al., 2021). It consists of 32 items and also exists in a shorter eight-item version (Ai et al., 2021). ...
... was developed by psychologist Hood in 1975(Hood, 1975 and is based on the work by Stace (Ai et al., 2021). It consists of 32 items and also exists in a shorter eight-item version (Ai et al., 2021). ...
Background
The classical psychedelics psilocybin, peyote, ayahuasca/ N, N-dimethyltryptamine, and lysergic acid diethylamide can temporarily produce altered states of consciousness, characterized by changes in sensory perception, thought, mood, and the sense of self-reality and meaning. It is important to have reliable instruments for quantifying these altered states in trials, due to a plausible link between the acute subjective experience and treatment outcome.
Methods
We conducted a review of outcome measures applied in research on classical psychedelics to assess one or more dimensions of the acute subjective psychedelic experience. Three relevant databases were searched electronically. Two reviewers independently conducted article selection and data extraction regarding the instruments, dimensions, geography, population, and psychedelic substance investigated in the included studies. We identified the five most utilized instruments for the most recent 6 years, as well as the five most utilized instruments for each psychedelic.
Results
We included 93 papers, which reported on 93 unique trials and utilized 17 different rating scales. Of these, the most utilized were the Five-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness Questionnaire, visual analog or Likert scales specially developed for the trials, the Hallucinogen Rating Scale, the States of Consciousness Questionnaire, and the Abnormer Psychischer Zustand.
Discussion
Considerable variability was found in the instruments utilized in clinical trials on classical psychedelics. We advise and encourage the development of a core outcome set for psychedelic research to enable altered state comparisons across compounds, participants, and settings. We further advise that instruments be designed to assess the “setting” of a psychedelic experience.
... No entanto, o estudo científico rigoroso da experiência mística esbarra na atualidade na escassez de instrumentos psicometricamente válidos e fidedignos, há dois instrumentos que são os pilares dessa tradição de pesquisa(ver Hood Jr. & Francis, 2013), representados respectivamente pela Escala Hood de Misticismo(Hood Mysticism Scale;Hood, 1975), e a Escala de Orientação Mística (Francis-Louden Mystical Orientation Scale;Francis & Louden, 2000a), foco da presente reflexão. Note-se que a situação da pesquisa psicológica empírica do misticismo é preocupante no Brasil, embora tenha-se muitos instrumentos de religiosidade, há uma lacuna a ser preenchida para a mensuração de misticismo, há uma subescala de item único retirada da Escala de Religiosidade Global de Nascimento(2008), que mensura o construto, tornando premente a construção de instrumentos autóctones ou a criação de versões de instrumentos como os dois supracitados visando-se disponibilizar instrumento psicológico específico para o construto na pesquisa empírica de falantes de língua portuguesa do Brasil. ...
Nascimento, A. M. & Roazzi, A. (2025). The Francis-Louden Mystical Orientation Scale (MOS): Pressupostos Teóricos, Características Psicométricas e Pesquisa Empírica de Instrumento de Mensuração de Misticismo. Revista AMAzônica (ISSN 1983-3415 - eISSN 2558-1441), 18(1), 1401-1429. Retrieved from: https://tinyurl.com/3ks4hwpt // // // Resumo: O presente estudo investiga a Escala de Orientação Mística (Mystical Orientation Scale - MOS), um instrumento psicométrico desenvolvido por Leslie J. Francis e Stephen Louden para mensurar experiências místicas. Fundamentada em teorias clássicas do misticismo de autores como William James e Frederick Crossfield Happold, a MOS operacionaliza experiências místicas em construtos mensuráveis, oferecendo uma estrutura confiável para estudos empíricos na psicologia da religião. O artigo explora os fundamentos teóricos, a estrutura fatorial e as propriedades psicométricas da MOS, destacando sua validade e consistência em diferentes contextos culturais. Apesar de sua ampla aplicação em países europeus e de língua inglesa, o estudo aponta a ausência de adaptações para populações latino-americanas, ressaltando a necessidade de pesquisas futuras que ampliem sua aplicabilidade transcultural. A MOS é apresentada como um instrumento versátil para explorar a relação entre o misticismo e variáveis como saúde mental, bem-estar e religiosidade. Ao discutir as potencialidades de adaptação da escala, o presente trabalho contribui para o avanço da compreensão científica das experiências místicas na psicologia contemporânea, e lança em bases críticas chamado para criação de versão deste importante instrumento em língua portuguesa do Brasil.
Palavras-chave: Mystical Orientation Scale (MOS), Misticismo, Psicologia da Religião, Instrumento psicométrico, Psicometria.
// // //
Abstract: The present study investigates the Mystical Orientation Scale (MOS), a psychometric instrument developed by Leslie J. Francis and Stephen Louden to measure mystical experiences. Grounded in classical theories of mysticism by authors such as William James and Frederick Crossfield Happold, MOS operationalizes mystical experiences into measurable constructs, providing a reliable framework for empirical studies in the psychology of religion. The article explores MOS's theoretical foundations, factorial structure, and psychometric properties, highlighting its validity and consistency in different cultural contexts. Despite its wide application in European and English-speaking countries, the study points to the absence of adaptations for Latin American populations, underscoring the need for future research that expands its cross-cultural applicability. MOS is a versatile instrument for exploring the relationship between mysticism and variables such as mental health, well-being, and religiosity. The present work advances the scientific understanding of mystical experiences in contemporary psychology by discussing the potential for scale adaptation. It launches a critical call for creating a version of this vital instrument in Brazilian Portuguese.
Keywords: Mystical Orientation Scale (MOS), Mysticism, Psychology of Religion, Psychometric instrument, Psychometrics.
... Studying mysticism is important for psychology because of its role, as it is for broader religious and spiritual experiences, in promoting profound transformative changes in individuals and communities; its beneficial effects are well documented in fostering positive attitudes such as compassion, empathy, and altruism, and the modification of beliefs (Barros & Schultz, 2023). However, the rigorous scientific study of mystical experience is currently hampered by the scarcity of psychometrically valid and reliable instruments; two instruments are the pillars of this research tradition (see Hood Jr. & Francis, 2013), represented respectively by the Hood Mysticism Scale; Hood, 1975), and the Francis-Louden Mystical Orientation Scale; Francis & Louden, 2000a), the focus of this reflection. It should be noted that the situation of empirical psychological research on mysticism is worrisome in Brazil; although there are many instruments of religiosity, there is a gap to be filled for the measurement of mysticism; ...
Nascimento, A. M. & Roazzi, A. (2025). The Francis-Louden Mystical Orientation Scale (MOS): Theoretical Assumptions, Psychometric Characteristics and Empirical Research of an Instrument for Measuring Mysticism. Revista AMAzônica (ISSN 1983-3415 - eISSN 2558-1441), 18(1), 1430-1457. Retrieved from: https://tinyurl.com/5xjf6k9v // // //
Abstract: The present study investigates the Mystical Orientation Scale (MOS), a psychometric instrument developed by Leslie J. Francis and Stephen Louden to measure mystical experiences. Grounded in classical theories of mysticism by authors such as William James and Frederick Crossfield Happold, MOS operationalizes mystical experiences into measurable constructs, providing a reliable framework for empirical studies in the psychology of religion. The article explores MOS's theoretical foundations, factorial structure, and psychometric properties, highlighting its validity and consistency in different cultural contexts. Despite its wide application in European and English-speaking countries, the study points to the absence of adaptations for Latin American populations, underscoring the need for future research that expands its cross-cultural applicability. MOS is a versatile instrument for exploring the relationship between mysticism and variables such as mental health, well-being, and religiosity. The present work advances the scientific understanding of mystical experiences in contemporary psychology by discussing the potential for scale adaptation. It launches a critical call for creating a version of this vital instrument in Brazilian Portuguese.
Keywords: Mystical Orientation Scale (MOS), Mysticism, Psychology of Religion, Psychometric instrument, Psychometrics.
// //
Resumo: O presente estudo investiga a Escala de Orientação Mística (Mystical Orientation Scale - MOS), um instrumento psicométrico desenvolvido por Leslie J. Francis e Stephen Louden para mensurar experiências místicas. Fundamentada em teorias clássicas do misticismo de autores como William James e Frederick Crossfield Happold, a MOS operacionaliza experiências místicas em construtos mensuráveis, oferecendo uma estrutura confiável para estudos empíricos na psicologia da religião. O artigo explora os fundamentos teóricos, a estrutura fatorial e as propriedades psicométricas da MOS, destacando sua validade e consistência em diferentes contextos culturais. Apesar de sua ampla aplicação em países europeus e de língua inglesa, o estudo aponta a ausência de adaptações para populações latino-americanas, ressaltando a necessidade de pesquisas futuras que ampliem sua aplicabilidade transcultural. A MOS é apresentada como um instrumento versátil para explorar a relação entre o misticismo e variáveis como saúde mental, bem-estar e religiosidade. Ao discutir as potencialidades de adaptação da escala, o presente trabalho contribui para o avanço da compreensão científica das experiências místicas na psicologia contemporânea, e lança em bases críticas chamado para criação de versão deste importante instrumento em língua portuguesa do Brasil.
Palavras-chave: Mystical Orientation Scale (MOS), Misticismo, Psicologia da Religião, Instrumento psicométrico, Psicometria.
... experiences." The term "mystical experience," commonly found in this field, is used to capture core features of these states such as unity and self-transcendence (see Hood 1975). Although there are subtle differences between these experiences, they all share the common feature of transcendence. ...
The range of phenomena that can be induced by psychedelic substances is broad and variable, including effects on perception, cognition, and emotion. The umbrella term “psychedelic phenomenology” is used to refer to a combination of altered experiential features, such as hallucinations or ego dissolution, which together constitute a psychedelic experience. However, there is no consensus on the set of alterations of consciousness that qualifies an altered state to be a “psychedelic state.” In this chapter we summarize the most commonly discussed changes in subjective experiences which could be seen as “core features” of psychedelic experiences. While acknowledging the rich history of pioneering phenomenological work of the last century, this chapter focuses on more recent developments in the quantitative work on the assessment of these phenomena. We also address the under-researched phenomenology of distressing effects, often referred to as “challenging experiences” or “bad trips,” and point to their importance in understanding the therapeutic potential and risks associated with psychedelic phenomenology. Historically, one can find many links between psychedelic phenomenology and the phenomenology of psychopathology. We stress the importance to refine the assessment and description also of distressing effects, to identify factors that promote acute experiences which are beneficial and limit those which can have potentially harmful long-term effects.
... In the 1970s, psychologists Ralph Hood and W.A. Richards independently operationalized Stace's definition of mysticism in two extensively used self-report scales: the Mysticism Scale (M-Scale) (Hood 1975;Hood et al. 2001) and the Mystical Experiences Questionnaire (MEQ) Richards 2015). The three-factor Mystical Scale includes 32 statements, organized into eight four-item groupings, referring to positive effects, religious holiness, noetic quality, extrovertive and introvertive mystical states, timelessness/spinelessness and the ineffability of mystical experiences (Hood et al. 2001, p. 693). ...
The study of mysticism has been at an impasse for many years, wavering between naïve realism around a common core hypothesis and critical questioning of the category of mysticism and its imposition. In this article, we review key 20th century developments in the study of mysticism to understand why the term was largely abandoned and unpack the contours of this impasse. Specifically, we probe the literature to ask (i) how has mysticism been defined and (ii) who counts as a mystic? Our primary data are key pieces of scholarly literature on mysticism, including interdisciplinary studies and disciplinary literature from religious studies, history, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and psychology. This review draws on a metatheoretic perspective of critical realism and is not meant to be comprehensive but rather analytical, seeking to identify patterns in scholarship. We find that each question is answered by studies along an axis, wavering between two ideal–typical poles. On the first question, we find scholarship ranging along an axis of essence between extreme poles of a reified vs. relativized substance of mysticism. On the second question, we find studies on an axis of access, varying between a rarified concept of mystical elites and a laified concept of mystical knowledge open to all. Putting studies along these axes yields a definitional space of mysticism that is compatible with critical realism and allows for the general study of mysticism to continue in a more nuanced, post-critique way. We also find that the category of experience lies at the origin or intersection point of both axes, and is a source of many problems in the general study of mysticism.
... Recently, Stumbrys (2018) has also tain belief systems impact the way we report about certain experiences; there's a way in which those beliefs shape the way we describe different aspects of our experience (2019, p. 5). highlighted the correlation between lucid dreaming expertise and higher scores in some dimensions of the Mysticism Scale (Hood, 1975), a psychometric scale used to assess the experience of mystical states (Stace, 1886(Stace, /1960. Previous work from Stumbrys & Erlacher (2016) has found that some people follow lucid dreaming practices to have spiritual-like experiences. ...
I introduce a novel multidimensional framework tailored to investigate a set of phenomena that might appear intractable and render them amenable to scientific inquiry. In particular, I focus on examining altered states of consciousness that appear to the experiencing subject as “contentless” or “objectless” states in some form, either by having disrupted or reduced content of awareness, or content that appears as missing altogether. By drawing on empirical research, I propose a cluster of phenomenological dimensions aimed at enhancing our understanding of this group of experiences of minimal awareness, including Richness of the Content, Bodily-Awareness, Passage of Time, Attentional Focus, and Self-Revelation. The result is a robust framework that provides precise scientific terminology, facilitating its operationalisation and adaptability for future empirical work. I show the explanatory power of this framework through a case study of the state of clear light sleep—a state widely reported by Indo-Tibetan Buddhist traditions as an instance of pure awareness during sleep, a state of consciousness-as-such. This rare phenomenon has gained increasing attention in contemporary analytic philosophy of mind for the study of the nature of consciousness. However, we still lack consensus on its characterisation and potential identity with other associated states. I end the paper by illustrating how the state of clear light sleep can be situated in relation to other associated states and more ordinary ones as regions of a multidimensional state space.
... For example, the Mystical Experience Questionnaire contains a factor dedicated to the "transcendence of time/space" (Barrett et al., 2015). Similarly, the Hood Mysticism Scale contains a "temporal/spatial quality" subscale (Hood, 1975). Other prominent psychometric instruments such as the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (Dittrich, 1998;Studerus et al., 2010), the Hallucinogenic Rating Scale (Strassman, 1994), the Psychological Insight Questionnaire , and the Emotional Breakthrough Inventory (Roseman et al., 2019) include an array of items that capture temporal dimensions of experience (See Table 1). ...
Current evidence suggests that the efficacy of psychedelic therapy depends, in part, on the character of psychedelic experiences themselves. One pronounced aspect of psychedelic experiences is alterations to the experience of time, including reports of timelessness or transcending time. However, how we should interpret such reports remains unclear, and this lack of clarity has philosophical and clinical implications. For instance, “true” timelessness may be considered antithetical to having any experience at all, and descriptions of experiences involving “timelessness” are known to be diverse and of varying clinical significance. In this article, we utilize a phenomenological approach to the study of temporality to highlight ambiguities in current constructs used to assess psychedelic experiences. In doing so, we advance some preliminary phenomenological accounts of psychedelic therapy’s mechanisms of action, such as psychedelic temporality acting as a kind of counterpoint for depressive temporality. We conclude by outlining how a dedicated phenomenological research program can provide a nuanced map of psychedelic temporality, guiding future research in a manner that addresses both philosophical and clinical ambiguities.
... This characterization influenced the design of some of the most widely used scales to assess mystical experiences. In particular, this work informed the initial iteration of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire used in the 'Good Friday experiment' 61 and the Mysticism scale 111 , which was created to capture a wide variety of mystical-type experiences including drug-induced, practice-induced (for example, meditation) and spontaneous experiences. Picking up on this initial work, survey studies conducted in the 1970s in the United Kingdom on religious experiences included questions covering mystical experiences 168 . ...
The administration of classic psychedelics has been associated with well-being and mental health benefits as well as risks and adverse events. The acute subjective effects of psychedelics might have a causal role in these risks and therapeutic benefits, but inconsistencies and limitations in the conceptualization and measurement of these acute subjective effects hinder research and clinical advances. In this Review, we outline current characterizations and psychometric examinations of the acute subjective effects of psychedelics, evaluate the construct validity of commonly used measures and describe findings showing that specific acute subjective effects predict certain outcomes. We discuss how to balance the limitations of existing measures with methodological advances in practice and elaborate on well-known methods and other psychological processes that can help inform the creation of new measures. We suggest actionable recommendations for how the field can transcend current conceptualizations and provide guidance on best practices until the next generation of measures is validated. Sections
... As our research aims to triangulate the various data aggregated in each project, we first take a look at selected results from the extensive surveys (Table 12.1) that were always part of the research design, focusing on the different religious schemata (Religious Schema Scale (RSS), see Streib, Hood, & Klein, 2010), well-being (assessed by the Scale for Psychological Well-Being, Ryff & Keyes, 1995;Ryff, 1989), personality traits as assessed by the NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae, 1985/1992, and mysticism (M-Scale; Hood et al., 2001;Hood, 1975). In the analysis to follow, not all results will be discussed in detail, instead, we focus on those that stand out or seem remarkable in a certain way. ...
Both cases presented here are Protestant and moving upward in religious type, yet from very different starting points: George (from the US) is a member of the Lutheran church, but it is not clear whether he is a believer, and his focus tends to be more on a philosophy-based (rather than religious) worldview combined with a deep appreciation of his Lutheran community. While George leans toward a the emerging dialogical-xenosophic type in his later interviews, Gisela (Germany) is a representative of the predominantly conventional type moving toward the predominantly indi-viduative-reflective type; so this chapter will cover varieties of Protestant beliefs. Moreover, different possible upward movements regarding the religious types will be traced, showing how religious development may look like while formally staying within one's faith community; in other words: how much development is possible or even promoted within a community? Therefore, the case studies will focus on the development of the participants' subjective religiosities and, additionally, their approach to moral questions.
... Interesting, and to be further investigated in the content analysis, is the fact that Nadine scores high on all subscales of the Mysticism Scale (M-Scale; Hood, 1975;Hood et al., 2001;Streib, Klein et al., 2021). On the subscale introvertive mysticism, which focuses on experiences related to the internal world of the individual, Nadine shows, at times 1 and 3, very high scores, indicating that she, despite not calling herself religious, experiences mystical experiences in forms of, for example, dreams, visions, etc. Extrovertive mysticism is also high, pointing to a feeling of the "outward merging with the wholeness of all existence" (Keller et al., 2016, p. 43). ...
This chapter compares the trajectories of two young women: one from the US and one from Germany. While Isabella from the US defines herself as atheist and neither religious nor spiritual, Nadine (Germany) rejects the attribution as atheist; however, she self-identifies as more spiritual, yet at the same time does not report being affiliated with any religion 2. Both share the self-assessment of being rather non-sociable and not within the mainstream of their generation. They also report having been in contact with religion in their childhood. Childhood religious exposure did not seem to have any significant effect on Nadine, but Isabella describes her experiences in Christian summer camps and Sunday schools as unpleasant. This may contribute to her complete rejection of religiosity later, which is much stronger and more pronounced than is the case with Nadine, who has dealt, on an intellectual level, with a variety of religions in her adolescence when she was exploring her identity. This chapter will therefore give an interesting insight into the varieties of non-belief in young adulthood as well as into cultural differences regarding the necessity to have a label for one's (non-)belief. It is argued that in the US being religious in any form still is the norm, and being an "outed" atheist means deviating from that norm, while any form of non-belief is no big deal in Ger-many. The chapter will also shed some light on the question how an atheist worldview may develop over time, exemplified with the question of what happens after death.
... Because of this, contemporary theories (such as Davie's spiritualization of religion) about an increased prioritizing of spiritual feelings and experiences of the divine over religiosity's institutional, doctrinal and ritual aspects are difficult to test properly.While our analysis demonstrates that spiritual religion and traditional Christian religiosity became less associated with each other in those European countries in which the latter lost most of its adherents, what exactly this spiritual religion looks like thus remains ultimately a matter of theoretical speculation. This is why we would like to make an urgent call for better survey data, especially by including more useful scales in the large internationally comparative survey programs such asHood's (1975) Mysticism Scale or Houtman and Tromp's (2020) Post-Christian Spirituality Scale. Adding such scales to the large international survey programs would make the lives of students of religious change in the West a whole lot easier.IntroductionSince the counterculture of the 1960s, massive cultural changes took place in the religious landscape of the West. ...
There is no denying that compared to the heydays of the 1950's, traditional Christian religion has meanwhile declined significantly and lost much of its former dominance, appeal and legitimacy, particularly in Western-Europe. Secularization theorists show convincing explanations for this downward trend, but however useful and valuable these explanations have been for the sociology of religion, this dissertation argues that the discipline's traditional obsession with secularization theory also has a massive downside. By placing this theory on a pedestal, it has been overshadowing (or obfuscating) other important developments that have meanwhile been taking place in the religious landscape of the West. Noteworthy are the increase in spiritual self-identifications as well as the expansion of a post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality. This dissertation argues that secularization theory's ascendancy in the sociology of religion has thwarted - intentionally or not - the social-scientific study of these two developments, thereby limiting the discipline's progress. Specifically, this unwanted situation has resulted in four neglected key issues which are explicated in the dissertation's introduction. The first problem is directly tackled in that first chapter. The other three issues are addressed as best as possible in the subsequent four empirical chapters.
The first key issue concerns the commonly held misconception that post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality is culturally incoherent (i.e., those concerned do not share a particular worldview) and socially and publicly insignificant (i.e., it has no influence whatsoever beyond the private domain). The dissertation's introduction explicates and critically evaluates both of these claims in the light of both recent and older scholarly works (both theoretical and empirical) originating from a more specialized literature on post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality. A thorough examination of the latter in fact reveals 1) a solid set of logically interrelated ideas that are central to the worldview of post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality (thereby defusing the first claim), and 2) that this type of spirituality is both socially transmissible and present in the public sphere (thereby defusing the second claim).
The second key problem pertains to the discipline's traditional focus on studying religious decline rather than religious change. Chapters 2 and 3 address this shortcoming by examining both processes in tandem. This is important because studying them separately merely provides one-sided views of how the religious landscape of the West has evolved over time. Chapter 2 therefore tests the thesis of religious decline, central to secularization theory, alongside theories of religious change that assert something completely different, namely that religion in Western-Europe has not so much declined but rather changed profoundly (i.e., from a traditional Christian religiosity toward a post-Christian 'New Age' spirituality). Chapter 2 finds support for both of these processes. Religion has declined, whether one understands it narrowly as traditional Christian religiosity, or more broadly so that it also includes new forms of religiosity and spirituality (like New Age). Noteworthy, the former has declined at a much higher pace than the latter. Although the rise of these new forms of religiosity and spirituality cannot compensate for the loss in traditional Christian religiosity, they do make up an increasing portion of the overall declining religious pie. Those who continue to be religious or spiritual deviate increasingly from the traditional Christian model, so when one does encounter religiosity, it is much more likely to be non-traditional religiosity (like New Age) than was true in the past, indicating a process of religious change. Chapter 3 then studies to what extent the decline of traditional Christian religion is responsible for religious transformations, both within and beyond Christian religion. More specifically, it systematically explicates and critically tests two theories on religious change that are both derived from Grace Davie's well-known and much-debated 'believing without belonging' thesis. Strikingly, the findings do not reinforce the typically foregrounded version of 'believing without belonging' (i.e., a de-institutionalization of Christianity), however, they do support the typically unnoticed version of a spiritualization of religion.
The third key issue has to do with the emergence and expansion of a research tradition on spiritual (and religious) self-identifications. It consists of scholars studying from scratch what people actually mean when they say they are spiritual (but not religious), thereby overlooking a whole body of specialized literature that explains what this spirituality may be all about (i.e., the clearly distinct and pre-existing research tradition on New Age spirituality). Chapter 4 closes this gap by connecting these two traditions, thereby stimulating a much-needed critical intellectual dialogue between the two areas of expertise. It does so by studying whether the 'spiritual but not religious' embrace New Age spirituality, and whether they much like New Agers dismiss traditional Christian religion, whereas the 'both religious and spiritual' adhere to traditional Christian religion and understand spirituality in a non-New Age fashion (i.e., spirituality in a Christian sense). Chapter 4 yet finds that the 'both religious and spiritual' generally have no less affinity with New Age spirituality than their non-religious counterparts. This is because the more liberal and progressive Christians in the former category embrace New Age spirituality, too, while their more conservative and traditional Christian counterparts in this former category rather dismiss it. Thus, spiritual self-identifications have become quite reliable shortcuts, both within and beyond Christian religion, to identify sympathy with New Age spirituality with.
The fourth and final key problem concerns the neglect of key issues within the social-scientific study of spirituality itself such as the infamous and obstinate 'New Age gender puzzle', i.e., the recurrent - but not yet satisfactorily explained - observation that far more women than men take an interest in New Age spirituality. Chapter 5 addresses this puzzle by systematically testing - for the first time - a theory that has been proposed nearly two decades ago by Heelas and Woodhead (2005). With their subjectivization thesis, they introduced contrasting and allegedly gendered notions of autonomous selfhood, viz., individuated- and relational subjectivism. They argue that men more typically endorse the former that fails to spur spiritual longings whereas women more naturally embrace the latter that does do so. Chapter 5 shows that women have indeed more affinity with New Age spirituality than men because they generally embrace relational subjectivism to a greater extent, thereby supporting the theory and contributing to the puzzle's solution.
... Stace (1960) added to these characteristics a sense of "objectivity or reality," positive feelings ("blessedness, joy, peace, happiness, satisfaction, etc."), a sense of sacredness ("feeling that what is apprehended is holy, sacred, or divine"), paradoxicality, and persisting positive changes (notwithstanding transiency of the experiences themselves). Pahnke's (1963) nine categories (unity, transcendence of time and space, deeply felt positive mood, sense of sacredness, objectivity and reality, paradoxicality, alleged ineffability, transiency, and persisting positive changes in attitude and behavior), which were based on the results of his Good Friday Study, included the same characteristics described by James and Stace, as did Greeley's (1974) descriptors of mystical experience and Hood's (1975) Mysticism Scale items. Yaden et al. (2017) described two subcomponents of transient self-transcendent experiences: reduced self-salience ("fading bodily and social boundaries" [p. ...
The aim of this study is to shed light on the experience of Living Transcendence, a relatively stabilized spiritual state considered in many religious traditions the pinnacle and holy grail of the search for the sacred. It explores how Living Transcendence is experienced by individuals, identified by others as spiritual exemplars having and evincing that experience. Multiple in-depth phenomenological interviews were conducted with 32 such individuals of different traditions and spiritual paths. Based on their analysis, four qualities of this experience are described: noetic (preconceptual, nondiscursive, and nonsymbolic knowing/awareness/consciousness of ultimate reality or truth), affective (supremely positive affective qualities of joy, happiness or bliss, and love), embodied (somatic and/or energetic presence or sense of a spiritual essence), and relational (a sense of connectivity or “inter-being” with everything, God, or the Whole). A characteristic of the experience of Living Transcendence is its constancy over time, amid and through the fluctuations of normal life and various crises. An additional characteristic is its association with an unusual type of volitionality, that is, the will to obey, surrender to, or be in service of a “calling.” While the presence and prominence of each of these qualities and characteristics vary between individuals, they appear to be facets of one essence. The experience of Living Transcendence appears to be constantly and consistently unitive, connective, and supremely positive, and to inextricably permeate all other experiences and contextualize them.
... By mystical experiences I mean transient altered states (which may become, very rarely, long-term altered traits) characterized by an overwhelming sense of unity, along with all or some other changes such as an altered sense of space and time, intense emotions, a sense of the sacred and of insight into the ultimate nature of reality, paradoxical mental content, and ine ability (Stace, 1960), as well as enhanced perception and a sense of a living universe (Hood, 1975), and sometimes vivid imaginal (i.e., not perceptual) visions, sounds, and similar phenomena (e.g., Geels, 2011;Greyson, 2014). Mystical experiences should be considered as a family of alterations rather than a single type (Yaden et al., 2017; see also Cardeña et al., in press). ...
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... These transformations are often associated with a type of altered state of consciousness we characterize as emergent phenomena (EP): sudden unusual mental or somatic experiences often interpreted as spiritual, mystical, energetic, or magical in nature. The cognitive and behavioral shifts associated with EP may include a decreased fear of death, diminished interest in dogma and traditional religion, and a rejection of materialistic lifestyles Johnson et al., 2019;McClintock et al., 2016;McGee, 2020), as well as a profound sense of connection; elevated mood; awe, reverence, and wonder; deep states of peace and equanimity; enhanced philosophical insight; creativity and problemsolving; and appreciation of ineffability and paradoxicality (Corneille & Luke, 2021;Hood, 1975;James, 1983James, [1902; Stace, 1960). These shifts are occasionally characterized by a sense of dissolution of past conditioning including existing beliefs and attitudes; a feeling of resetting the mind (sometimes interpreted as a "rebirth"); increased curiosity and gratitude towards life; and a newfound sense of purpose or calling to altruistically serve humanity. ...
Objectives
Adoption of potentially consciousness-altering practices may be leading to a rise in emergent phenomena (EP): sudden unusual mental or somatic experiences often interpreted as spiritual, mystical, energetic, or magical in nature. It is unclear how frequently these altered states of consciousness occur and what the clinical implications may be. Anecdotal accounts and prior literature suggest that EP may be common, under-reported, and followed by either positive or negative changes to well-being. We sought to supplement prior evidence on the prevalence and effects of EP among general populations with large-scale quantitative measurements.
Method
We measured the prevalence of EP, while not on mind-altering substances, through completion of online surveys by representative samples from three international communities (n = 3135). The communities sampled were UK Qualtrics online panelists, US-based MTurk workers, and the readers of a popular rationalist blog. Samples were broadly representative of underlying populations.
Results
Forty-five percent of participants reported experiencing non-pharmacologically induced EP at least once in their lives, including derealization (17%), unitive experiences (15%), ecstatic thrills (15%), vivid perceptions (11%), changes in perceived size (10%), bodily heat or electricity (9%), out-of-body experiences (8%), and perception of non-physical lights (5%). Respondents reported a mix of positive and negative well-being outcomes following EP, with 13% claiming moderate or greater suffering and 1.1% claiming life-threatening suffering. Of those who experienced suffering, 63% did not seek help.
Conclusions
EP are widespread among the studied populations with potential for both positive and negative outcomes, the latter of which do not appear to be adequately addressed through recourse to clinical practice.
... The strengths of this revision (i.e., from the 5 Dimension (5D)-ASC to the 11D-ASC) include less ambiguous correlations with other measures, ease of interpretability, and a more granular account of ASE. Much like related predecessor scales derived from shared components in 'mystical-type' experiences independent of religious or cultural context, the ASC questionnaire encapsulates common core features in psychedelic-induced states of consciousness including altered perception (synesthesia and visual hallucinations at low and high doses, respectively), negative, anxiety-ridden experiences, and mystical experiences (Dittrich 1998;Hood 1975;Maclean et al. 2012;Pahnke et al. 1970;Pahnke & Richards 1966;Studerus et al. 2010). Similarly, the MEQ is a broadly adopted instrument that characterizes mystical experiences (over mere intensity of drug effects) and its psychometric fitness has been demonstrated in prospectively obtained experimental data (Barrett et al. 2015). ...
Recent research with classic psychedelics suggests significant therapeutic potential, particularly for neuropsychiatric disorders. A mediating influence behind symptom resolution is thought to be the personal insight – at times, bordering on the mystical – one acquires during the acute phase of a psychedelic session. Indeed, current clinical trials have found strong correlations between the acute subjective effects (ASE) under the influence of psychedelics and their enduring therapeutic properties. However, with potential barriers to widespread clinical implementation, including the healthcare resource-intensive nature of psychedelic sessions and the exclusion of certain at-risk patient groups, there is an active search to determine whether ASE elimination can be accompanied by the retention of persisting therapeutic benefits of these class of compounds. Recognizing the aberrant underlying neural circuitry that characterizes a range of neuropsychiatric disorders, and that classic psychedelics promote neuroplastic changes that may correct abnormal circuitry, investigators are rushing to design and discover compounds with psychoplastogenic, but not hallucinogenic (i.e., ASE), therapeutic potential. These efforts have paved the discovery of ‘non-psychedelic/subjective psychedelics’, or compounds that lack hallucinogenic activity but with therapeutic efficacy in preclinical models. This review aims to distill the current evidence – both clinical and preclinical – surrounding the question: can the ASE of classic psychedelics be dissociated from their sustained therapeutic properties? Several plausible clinical scenarios are then proposed to offer clarity on and potentially answer this question.
... 14. Spiritual Experience is the final dimension included from the 11D-ASC (Studerus et al., 2010). This dimension is qualitatively similar to peak (Stace, 1960), or mystical (Hood, 1975;Griffiths et al., 2006;Barrett & Griffiths, 2018) experiences, characterised by feelings of intense awe (Hendricks, 2018), and feeling connected to a higher power (Studerus et al., 2010). The mystical experience forms part of psychedelic phenomenology at higher doses, and may be a predictor of clinical benefits of psychedelics (for a review, see Johnson et al., 2019). ...
Breathwork is a term for an understudied school of practices that involve the intentional modulation of respiration to induce an altered state of consciousness (ASC). We map here the neural dynamics of mental content during breathwork, using a neurophenomenological approach by combining Temporal Experience Tracing, a quantitative phenomenological methodology that preserves the temporal dynamics of subjective experience, with low-density portable EEG devices for every session. Fourteen novice participants completed a series of up to 28 breathwork sessions - of 20, 40 or 60 minutes - in 28 days, yielding a neurophenomenological dataset of 301 breathwork sessions. Using hypothesis-driven and data-driven approaches, we found that positive ‘psychedelic-like’ subjective experiences that occurred within the breathwork sessions were associated with increased neural Lempel-Ziv complexity. Further, exploratory analyses showed that the aperiodic exponent of the power spectral density (PSD) - but not oscillatory alpha power - was also associated with these psychedelic-like phenomenological substates. We demonstrate the strength of this neurophenomenological framework, maximising the concurrent data acquisition of brain activity and phenomenological dynamics in multiple experiential dimensions. Non-linear aspects of brain dynamics, like complexity and the aperiodic exponent of the PSD, neurally map both a data-driven complex composite of positive experiences, and hypothesis-driven aspects of psychedelic-like experience states such as high bliss.
... A greater sense of connectedness and unity with others is a key quality of the mystical experience and is thought to be involved in the antidepressant effect of psilocybin 20 . Greater sense of connected has also been linked with empathy and prosocial behavior [21][22][23][24] . Psilocybin has been shown to induce significant alterations in social processing; moreover, the effect of psilocybin on social functioning at an individual and community level may be vital for a comprehensive understanding of its mechanism of action and therapeutic potential [25][26][27] . ...
Psilocybin is a serotonergic psychedelic shown to have enduring antidepressant effects. Currently, the mechanism for its enduring effects is not well understood. Empathy and prosocial behavior may be important for understanding the therapeutic benefit of psilocybin. In this article we review the effect of psilocybin on empathy and prosocial behavior. Moreover, we propose that psilocybin may induce a positive feedback loop involving empathy and prosocial behavior which helps explain the observed, enduring antidepressant effects.
... The definition of mystical experience in contemporary psychological research stems from an effort by Stace (1960) to identify a "common core" experience at the root of all religious traditions that is unmediated by interpretation (Stace, 1960;Taves, 2020). Stace (1960), and the resulting scales based on his definition (Hood Jr., 1975;MacLean et al., 2012), consider a defining feature of mystical experience to involve the self becoming one with something larger, described as all that exists, unity, oneness, or pure consciousness (Barrett & Griffiths, 2018). According to Stace (1960), this experience can be extrovertive, in which one experiences unity with the apparent diversity of all things, or introvertive, in which one experiences "a dissolution of individuality" such that self-boundaries "fade away" (p. ...
Mystical experience, non-dual awareness, selflessness, self-transcendent experience, and ego-dissolution have become increasingly prominent constructs in meditation and psychedelic research. However, these constructs and their measures tend to be highly overlapping, imprecise, and poorly integrated with similar pathological experiences. The present study seeks to clarify the common factors involved in the characteristics of these experiences using precise distinctions across an array of experience contexts (including meditation, psychedelics, and psychopathology). Participants (N = 386) completed an online survey about an experience that involved either a dissolution of self-boundaries or a loss of selfhood. Confirmatory factor analyses resulted in 16 experience characteristics, including multiple types of changes in sense of self, co-occurring phenomenology, and cognitive and affective responses. Qualitative thematic analysis provided rich descriptions of experience characteristics. Taken together, results lead to a more specific measurement model and descriptive account of experiences involving a loss of self or self-boundary.
... Past research involving 87 psychology students found that indirect nature connectedness in movies depicting panoramic views of the natural landscape enhanced spirituality levels [29] . Using the Connectedness to Natural Scale [29] and the Spirituality Mysticism Scale [30] , Kamitsis and Francis [31] discovered a fundamental link between nature connectedness and spirituality. ...
Spiritual meditations practiced within green environments develop a perceived interconnection between the self and
nature that influences physiological well-being. This study investigates spirituality and natural connectivity as mediators
between exposure to nature and psychological well-being in Malaysian school students. This study involved 293 students
(178 female and 115 male) from four secondary schools in the Johor Bahru district with survey findings on the Exposure
to Nature Scale, Connectedness to Nature Scale, Spiritual Values Scale, and Psychological Well-being Scale. The students
in the study fell within the age range of 13 to 16 years, and the average age of the sample was 11.86 ±2.32 years. Structural
equation modeling indicated that high spirituality and nature connectedness mediated the relationship between exposure
to nature and psychological well-being. Spirituality significantly influenced the relationship between exposure to nature
and psychological well-being more than nature connectedness. These findings indicate that practitioners appreciate the
value of certain aspects, like exposure to nature, nature connectedness, and spirituality, as a possible path for enhancing
school students’ psychological well-being.
... Another limitation is that we did not incorporate variables to distinguish ego dissolution from allied constructs such as mystical experiences (Stace, 1960;Hood, 1975) and awe, which is a proposed mechanism of action in psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy linked with ego dissolution (Hendricks, 2018; see also Van Elk and Yaden, 2022). Taves (2020) went so far as to suggest that mystical experiences may be a variant of ego dissolution, as in the former experiences, the sense of self can fall away entirely, engendering a sense of unity with one's surroundings. ...
Introduction
Ego dissolution, variously called Ego-Loss, self-loss, and ego disintegration, is a hallmark of psychedelic drug use. We cross-validated the 10-item Ego Dissolution Scale, which we developed to assess ego dissolution in everyday life, and we included comparator variables that expanded our original assessment of construct validity.
Methods
Undergraduate college student volunteers (N = 527) completed the measures online.
Results
We replicated the original two factor structure (i.e., subfactors: Ego-Loss and Unity/connectedness with others, the world, universe), and we determined that the total score (Cronbach’s α = 0.79) and subfactors (Ego-Loss = 78; Unity = 0.83) possessed adequate-to-good reliability and strong convergent validity (e.g., mindfulness, hallucination-predisposition, sleep variables, personality variables, positive/negative affect transliminality, dissociation/depersonalization), while neuroticism, social desirability did not correlate highly with ego dissolution. We identified distinct patterns of relations of measures associated with the Ego-Loss vs. Unity subfactors.
Discussion
We discuss the implications of the use of the EDS for studying everyday aspects of ego dissolution, the long-term effects of psychedelic use, and the value of using the scale in conjunction with measures of the acute effects of psychedelics.
... Only a small handful of surveys exist that seek to tap directly into the metaphysical beliefs held by an individual 24,22,11,29,30,31 . For the most part they are rather limited in scope (perhaps necessarily so) to a speci c sub-topic (free-will, spirituality, mind-body relations, mystical experiences, etc.), and most recently have largely been concerned with investigating changes pre and post psychedelic experience 24,22 . ...
Anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that people may undergo substantial shifts in their Metaphysical beliefs (MPBs) following non-ordinary states of consciousness induced by experiences such as meditation, breathwork, near-death, and psychedelics. Despite this, existing measures for assessing MPBs are limited in scope and interpretability, prompting the current study’s objective: to develop a comprehensive and user-friendly questionnaire capable of capturing a diverse range of belief constellations, whilst remaining theoretically informed. Towards this aim, the curation of belief statements for the Metaphysics Matrix Questionnaire (MMQ) used both theory-driven and data-driven methods. 68 Existing items were selected from the literature and combined with 43 newly created items aimed at covering under-addressed metaphysical positions. A factor analysis revealed an eight-factor solution, grouping beliefs into the following broad stroke categories: 1) Religiosity/Spirituality; 2) Physicalism; 3) Transcendency; 4) Panpsychism/Cosmopsychism; 5) Determinism/Fatalism/Low-autonomy; 6) Pseudo-Emergentism; 7) High-autonomy/Moral; 8) Randomness. Following item reduction, 73 items across these factors serve as the basis for the proposed Questionnaire. The MMQ’s potential applications offer valuable insights into beliefs and their impact on mental health outcomes. We provide a discussion on the merits of theory-driven vs data-driven approaches, limitations of the current study, and provide suggestions for future research toward validating the MMQ going forward.
... One may argue it creates our inner "self", which is at the center of what shapes our uniqueness [36]. Although this assumption might suggest that our self of identity is permanent and solid, such a claim is questioned by altered states of consciousness in which the disruption of "self" are observed [36, [37], such as in conditions like temporal lobe epilepsy auras [38] or spiritual or mystical experiences [39]. The latter can be induced by various means, including but not limited to [40] psychedelics or meditation [36,37]. ...
There has been increasing scientific and clinical interest in studying psychedelic and meditation-based interventions in recent years, both in the context of improving mental health and as tools for understanding the mind. Several authors suggest neurophysiological and phenomenological parallels and overlaps between psychedelic and meditative states and suggest synergistic effects of both methods. Both psychedelic-assisted therapy and meditation training in the form of mindfulness-based interventions have been experimentally validated with moderate to large effects as alternative treatments for a variety of mental health problems, including depression, addictions, and anxiety disorders. Both demonstrated significant post-acute and long-term decreases in clinical symptoms and enhancements in well-being in healthy participants, in addition. Postulated shared salutogenic mechanisms, include, among others the ability to alter self-consciousness, present-moment awareness and antidepressant action via corresponding neuromodulatory effects. These shared mechanisms between mindfulness training and psychedelic intervention have led to scientists theorizing, and recently demonstrating, positive synergistic effects when both are used in combination. Research findings suggest that these two approaches can complement each other, enhancing the positive effects of both interventions. However, more theoretical accounts and methodologically sound research are needed before they can be extended into clinical practice. The current review aims to discuss the theoretical rationale of combining psychedelics with mindfulness training, including the predictive coding framework as well as research findings regarding synergies and commonalities between mindfulness training and psychedelic intervention. In addition, suggestions how to combine the two modalities are provided.
... He also described the following dimensions of the mystical experience: internal unity, external unity, noetic quality, sacredness, deeply felt positive mood, ineffability, paradoxicality, and transcendence of space and time (Stace 1960b). Psychometric instruments such as the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ) (Barrett, Johnson, and Griffiths 2015) and the Hood Mysticism Scale (Hood 1975) have been used to survey participants' mystical experiences after the clinical administration of psilocybin (Griffiths et al. 2006(Griffiths et al. , 2008(Griffiths et al. , 2011. ...
Analyzing online retrospective experience reports of psychedelic use can provide valuable insight into their acute subjective effects. Such reports are unexplored in relation to mystical states, which are thought to be a therapeutic mechanism within psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. We created a set of words that, when encountered in an experience report, indicate the occurrence of mystical elements within the experience. We used the Shroomery.org website to retrieve 7317 publicly available retrospective psychedelic experience reports of psychedelic use, primarily of psilocybin, and have a designated experience intensity level self-assessed by the text authors during submission of the report. We counted the mystical language words using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) software and additionally performed sentiment analysis of all reports. We found that the occurrence of mystical language grew with increased self-reported experience intensity. We also found that negative sentiment increased, and positive sentiment decreased as self-reported psychedelic experience intensity increased. These two findings raise the question of whether mystical experiences can co-exist with challenging elements within the psychedelic experience, a consideration for future qualitative studies. We present a new mystical language dictionary measure for further use and expansion, with some suggestions on how it can be used in future studies.
... on the Hood Mysticism Scale. 23 A contrasting result was found by MacLean et al 24 who analysed data from two previous double-blind trials 5,25 and found that screening levels of Openness did not correlate significantly with mystical experience as measured by Mystical Experience Questionnaire [MEQ] (r = 0.12, p = 0.41). This was further supported by a prospective online survey study 26 which also found that openness to new experience had no effect on acute psychedelic experience. ...
Introduction
In psychedelic therapy, mystical as well as challenging experience may influence therapeutic outcome. However, predictors of such experience have not been sufficiently established. Determining predictors of their intensity is, therefore, potentially beneficial in targeting psilocybin therapy for depression.
Methods
In a post hoc data analysis of a Phase 1, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, between-groups clinical trial, dosage, personality traits, affect, and individual data were analysed as possible clinical predictors. Eighty-nine healthy volunteers were randomised to receive a single dose of placebo, 10 mg of psilocybin, or 25 mg of psilocybin. ANOVA was used to analyse the relationship between dosage and mystical and/or challenging experience, and correlation analysis for all other variables.
Results
The intensity of both mystical and challenging experience was strongly associated with higher dosage. Age was negatively correlated with intensity of challenging experience. Correlation between identified personality traits and either mystical or challenging experience was minimal, with the exception of positive correlation between neuroticism and challenging experience at higher dose. Neither positive nor negative affect indicated correlation with the intensity of either type of experience.
Discussion
A limitation of this study is its post hoc, exploratory design; recommendations for further research are provided.
... Temporary expansive experiences have been qualitatively analyzed in popular literature (e.g., Johnson, 1959;Laski, 1961) and in psychological studies (e.g., Corneille & Luke, 2021;Hoffman, 1992;Maslow, 1970;Taylor & Egeto-Szabo, 2017;Wade, 2004). Several quantitative studies have been conducted using Hood's (1975) Mysticism Scale, designed to measure temporary mystical experiences (e.g., Chen, Qi, et al., 2011;Streib & Hood, 2013). These studies found that it is not uncommon for individuals to temporarily experience expansive and ecstatic states with characteristics of heightened perceptual awareness, a sense of connection or oneness, intense feelings of love, and compassion and a sense of presence or timelessness. ...
Objectives: This study aimed to develop and validate a questionnaire assessing an ongoing state of wakefulness, a psychological state occurring in secular and spiritual contexts. Wakefulness is an expansive, self-transcendent, relatively stable state of being in which a person's perception of and relationship to the world are transformed. No such questionnaire with this specific aim and scope exists. Methods: Characteristics of wakefulness from prior research were transformed into statements and of Humanistic PsychologyKilrea et al. research-article2023 2 Journal of Humanistic Psychology 00(0) refined based on expert feedback and two pilot studies. In a first study, exploratory factor analyses (EFAs) were conducted with n = 278 English-speaking participants. Matched participants of this sample were compared with a group of awakened participants (n = 24). In a second study, EFAs on the German-translated questionnaire were computed and correlated with other established measures (n = 366 participants). Results: A unidimensional structure was found for the 19-item English Wakefulness Inventory, WAKE-19 and for the 16-item German WAKE-16. The scale is reliable with a significant difference between the general population and the group of awakened participants. Correlations with other measures indicate construct validity. Conclusions: This study provides further evidence for the existence of wakefulness as a state of being, distinct from the usual or ordinary state of adult waking consciousness and a valid and reliable instrument for future research.
Background
In recent years, there has been a significant focus on exploring the potential therapeutic impact of altered states of consciousness on treatment outcomes for mental illness, with the goal of enhancing therapeutic strategies and patient results.
Methods
This meta-analysis was designed to investigate the potential link between the psychomimetic effects of ketamine and clinical outcomes in mental health, which adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.
Results
Eleven studies were selected for meta-analysis, and the main result did not find a significant correlation between the psychoactive effects of ketamine and clinical outcomes either in mental illness (n = 11; n's = 27; r = 0.06 [−0.05, 0.17]; P = 0.268) or depression exclusively (n = 10; n's = 25; r = 0.03 [−0.07, 0.13]; P = 0.561). High heterogeneity was found for general analysis ( I ² = 80.78). Egger's regression did not indicate publication bias (intercept = 1.57; SE = 1.49, P = 0.30). No significant Kendall's rank correlation coefficient was observed ( τ = 0.02, P = 0.88) indicating funnel plot symmetry. The sub-analyses, aimed at minimizing study variability by specifically examining factors such as patient disorders (limited to depression), methods of administration (exclusively intravenous), types of assessment instruments, and the timing of evaluations, also yielded no significant findings.
Conclusion
This meta-analysis suggests that the altered states of consciousness experienced during ketamine sessions are not directly linked to clinical outcomes. However, it is important to acknowledge that the limited number of studies and their heterogeneity render this conclusion preliminary, warranting further investigation over time.
The studies of mysticism have traditionally emphasized a common core centered around experiences of ego dissolution and unity. However, this focus on a central set of experiences tends to downplay the non-central aspects, resulting in a limited understanding that may not encompass many other types of extraordinary experiences. This article proposes a layered hierarchy model of mysticism, which reverts to the fundamental definition of mysticism and resonates with the Jamesian characteristics of mysticism as noetic and ineffable. Consequently, an extended definition is put forth to characterize mysticism as the transcendence of perceived reality and the transformation of the perceiver. Within this proposed model, four layers of mysticism are delineated. Monistic Mysticism is characterized by the perception of oneness in all existence and the dissolution of selfhood, exemplified by perennialist mystical unity. Nondualistic Mysticism involves the recognition of a higher reality beyond the mundane world and the subjugation of the ego to an idealized divine, exemplified by religious experiences. Dualistic Mysticism encompasses a world of spirits in contrast to human reality, where the self detaches from and interacts with spiritual beings, exemplified by psychedelic experiences and spiritism. Pluralistic Mysticism entails numerous coexisting realities, and the self is understood to have many facets and boundless potentials, exemplified by psychic phenomena and non-physicalism. This expanded framework broadens the scope of mysticism and makes it a versatile tool for studying a wide range of human experiences under a unified framework.
This concluding chapter presents a synopsis of the case studies that were described in the previous chapters of this volume in greatest possible detail. Thus, with this synopsis we move forward from the idiographic to explore idiothetic perspectives and consider typological patterns of the cases. Then, drawing on our mixed-methods design, the chapter presents summary perspectives and conclusions about the results from analyses that used the quantitative three-wave data and relates them to the case studies. The chapter concludes with notes on future perspectives for research on faith development and with suggestions for interdisciplinary networking-whereby narrative identity research and wisdom research stand out.
Breathwork is an understudied school of practices involving intentional respiratory modulation to induce an altered state of consciousness (ASC). We simultaneously investigate the phenomenological and neural dynamics of breathwork by combining Temporal Experience Tracing, a quantitative methodology that preserves the temporal dynamics of subjective experience, with low-density portable EEG devices. Fourteen novice participants completed a course of up to 28 breathwork sessions—of 20, 40, or 60 min—in 28 days, yielding a neurophenomenological dataset of 301 breathwork sessions. Using hypothesis-driven and data-driven approaches, we found that “psychedelic-like” subjective experiences were associated with increased neural Lempel-Ziv complexity during breathwork. Exploratory analyses showed that the aperiodic exponent of the power spectral density—but not oscillatory alpha power—yielded similar neurophenomenological associations. Non-linear neural features, like complexity and the aperiodic exponent, neurally map both a multidimensional data-driven composite of positive experiences, and hypothesis-driven aspects of psychedelic-like experience states such as high bliss.
This article proposes a model of comparative mysticism that bases its rationale for comparison in the dynamic interaction between three components: neurocognitive mechanisms and substrates, phenomenal experiences, and noetic accounts. In examining the phenomenon of ego- dissolution ( EDn), using this model, a scholar can identify universal and contextual components of a mystic’s experiences. The neurocognitive component is derived from neuroscientific studies including brain injury, psychedelics, and meditative practices. The phenomenal and noetic components are derived from personal accounts as narrated by the mystics themselves. These three components will be applied to the ego- dissolution experiences of the modern Indian mystic Sadhguru (1957–Present), the medieval Spanish mystic Teresa of Ávila (1515–1583), and individuals, including scientists, using the psychedelics psilocybin and LSD. This model should introduce an alternative approach to comparative mysticism as a response to the long-standing debate between Walter T. Stace’s essentialist model and Steven T. Katz’s contextualist model, respectively. In particular, the neurocognitive component should function as a bridge providing a deeper level of analysis encompassing and undermining differences between universalist and contextualist reductions. The advent of comparative mysticism may be seen as a collaborative effort that is multidisciplinary in nature, contributing to theology, religious studies, philosophy, history, cognitive neuroscience, and many other disciplines.
Objectives
Meditation is increasingly popular, and yet studies of meditation-related adverse effects, or experiences of unusual psychological states, have mostly focused on those of extremely unpleasant or pleasant nature, respectively, despite the wide range of possible experiences. We aimed to create an instrument to capture meditation-related experiences of varied intensity and subjective valence.
Method
We collected detailed data from 886 US meditators after screening over 3000 individuals to generate a sample representative of major types of meditation practices and experience levels. Participants answered questions about meditation history, mental health, and 103 meditation-related experiences identified for the development of the Inventory of Meditation Experiences (IME).
Results
Parallel analysis guided the eventual determination of factors; exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis yielded good model-to-data fit on a 30-item, 3-factor version of the scale. The total scale and subscales showed expected correlations with measures of adverse effects, meditation characteristics, and mental health symptoms. Analysis indicated utility in examining experience intensity and valence as potentially distinct or combined features of experiences.
Conclusions
The IME is a psychometrically valid tool that may prove useful to assess a variety of meditation-related experiences that account for both the intensity and subjective valence of those experiences.
Preregistration
While several hypotheses were preregistered (https://osf.io/r8beh/), the present study pertains only to the development and validation of the instrument.
Music and psychedelics have been intertwined throughout the existence of Homo sapiens, from the early shamanic rituals of the Americas and Africa to the modern use of psychedelic‐assisted therapy for a variety of mental health conditions. Across such settings, music has been highly prized for its ability to guide the psychedelic experience. Here, we examine the interplay between music and psychedelics, starting by describing their association with the brain's functional hierarchy that is relied upon for music perception and its psychedelic‐induced manipulation, as well as an exploration of the limited research on their mechanistic neural overlap. We explore music's role in Western psychedelic therapy and the use of music in indigenous psychedelic rituals, with a specific focus on ayahuasca and the Santo Daime Church. Furthermore, we explore work relating to the evolution and onset of music and psychedelic use. Finally, we consider music's potential to lead to altered states of consciousness in the absence of psychedelics as well as the development of psychedelic music. Here, we provide an overview of several perspectives on the interaction between psychedelic use and music—a topic with growing interest given increasing excitement relating to the therapeutic efficacy of psychedelic interventions.
Scholars across the academic spectrum have written about the renewed interest in psychedelics that is commonly called the Psychedelic Renaissance (PR). Psychedelic religion is a major component of the PR, as psychedelic churches are growing exponentially and as people who consume and who research psychedelics routinely contend that these substances induce or occasion religious, spiritual, or mystical experiences. Scholars have noticed the growing association of psychoactive substances and religiosity, and they have addressed this association from a variety of academic fields, methods, and methodologies. Part one of this article (“Entheogens: Psychedelic religion in the United States, Part One”) explored the historiography of associations of psychoactive substances and religiosity in the United States from the 1800s to the 1980s. Part two of this article continues the historiographical analysis of this literature beginning in the 1980s and ends with recent scholarship. Collectively, this analysis highlights the evolving political, legal, and sociocultural capital associated with psychoactive substances and religion.
This paper argues for a ‘perennial phenomenology’ (or ‘soft’ perennialism) varying from the traditionalist notion of a ‘perennial philosophy.’ Perennial phenomenology offers a more nuanced form of perennialism that focuses on spiritual/mystical experiences rather than the teachings and beliefs of different religions. While teachings and beliefs vary greatly, the mystical experiences associated with different mystical traditions have striking commonalities. I suggest four experiential aspects that support a perennial phenomenology. These aspects also necessitate a reconsideration of the debate between perennialism and constructivism. Significantly, these experiential elements are present when mystical experiences occur outside the context of spiritual traditions, to people who know little or nothing about spirituality and consider themselves non-religious. Treating mystical experiences exclusively in the context or religion and spiritual traditions has been a major failing in debates between constructivists (or contextualists) and perennialists. There is a common landscape of mystical experience that precedes interpretation and conceptualization by spiritual traditions. This paper contributes to a reopening of discussion about perennialism that has been underway in recent years.
Scholars across the academic spectrum have written about the renewed interest in psychedelics that is commonly called the Psychedelic Renaissance (PR). Psychedelic religion is a major component of the PR, as psychedelic churches are growing exponentially and as people who consume and who research psychedelics routinely contend that these substances induce or occasion religious, spiritual, or mystical experiences. Scholars have noticed the growing association of psychoactive substances and religiosity, and they have addressed this association from a variety of academic fields, methods, and methodologies. This article explores the historiography of associations of psychoactive substances and religiosity in the United States from the 1800s to the 1980s.
Leaders in organizations and society must balance conflicting priorities, such as whether to protect the population from Covid or keep the economy humming. Ambidexterity in actions may be facilitated by a paradoxical mindset that can effectively consider opposite viewpoints without losing balance. This research further tested if meditation was effective in facilitating the experience of oneness which in turn developed a paradoxical mindset and individual ambidexterity. Based on a convenience sample survey of 143 individuals, the data supported (p < 0.01) the proposition that meditation helped develop a sense of oneness, which in turn supported a paradoxical mindset and individual ambidexterity. East vs. West culture of the respondent also had a strong direct effect on ambidexterity (p < 0.01). Western culture was associated with higher ambidexterity. This research has strong implications for developing individual ambidexterity in leaders through practices of oneness such as meditation.KeywordsIndividual ambidexterityParadoxical mindsetOnenessMeditationConsciousness development
Gratitude is expressed to Drs Ourth of the Department of Psychology, UTC. Also, gratitude is expressed to Dr. J. Pardue of Covenant College. Ms. L. Shumate was exceptionally helpful in the wording of scale items. Dr. M. Biderman kindly offered assistance with the factor analysis
- H Burhenn
- T Hall
- D Klinefelter
- R Mildram
- D E Green
- K Hunt
- J Mcnew
Numerous persons kindly offered assistance in obtaining Ss for various aspects of this study. Gratitude is expressed to Drs. H. Burhenn, T. Hall, D. Klinefelter, R. Mildram, and D. Weisbaker of the Department of Philosophy and Religion at UTC, and to Ms. J. Printz and Drs. M. Biderman, 0. Cross, E. Green, K. Hunt, J. McNew, and L. Ourth of the Department of Psychology, UTC. Also, gratitude is expressed to Dr. J. Pardue of Covenant College. Ms. L. Shumate was exceptionally helpful in the wording of scale items. Dr. M. Biderman kindly offered assistance with the factor analysis. This content downloaded from 66.194.72.152 on Fri, 16 Aug 2013 10:11:17 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions REFERENCES Bohrnsted, G. W., Borgatta, E. F. & Evans, R. R. 1968 "Religious affiliation, religiosity, and MMPI scores." Journal for the