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Drainage of Irrigated Lands
Abstract and Figures
DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LANDS is the ninth in a series of training manuals on irrigation. It discusses the need for drainage in irrigated areas, focussing on drainage at the farm level. It reviews the systems that are available to drain irrigated lands and explains which factors of soils and hydrology influence drainage. It touches briefly upon the design, construction, operation, and management of field drainage systems.
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... Information was introduced in a geographic information system (ArcView 3.0a GIS)[31]to create the maps of isolines of groundwater depth[7,32,33]and NO 3 concentration at each of the nine sampling dates of the 2-year observation period. Nitrate concentrations measured in the ...
... The variation in NO 3 in samples taken from the wells at various times showed a strong seasonal effect that can be attributed mainly to a combination of irrigation water and rainfall. Since the irrigation plays an important role in N leaching[26,32], i.e., high NO 3 concentrations measured in summer months in our study area and similarly in the neighboring districts (unpublished data), irrigation practices and scheduling could be re-evaluated. The maps prepared to depict spatial distribution of both groundwater level and NO 3 in the groundwater offered a novel approach to the management of irrigation districts. ...
Agricultural output globally is largely dependent on fertilizer use, particularly nitrogen (N), especially in irrigated cropping. While a substantial amount of the applied N is taken up by the crop to stimulate growth and yield, much of it does not positively affect crop growth due to losses by leaching, volatilization, denitrification, and immobilization. Thus, N fertilizer-use efficiency is less than optimum in most production systems. Loss of N by leaching to the groundwater has economic, health and environmental implications. In a study area with poor drainage outlet conditions due to the low-lying drainage basin, Yemisli Irrigation District in the Cukurova region of southern Turkey, we determined the variability over space and time of ground-water nitrate (NO3) concentrations during years 2007 and 2008. Relatively shallow groundwater observation wells (56), up to 3 meters deep, were dug at various locations to represent the most common crops and soils in the irrigation district. Groundwater depth was measured, and water samples were collected (five times in 2007 and four times in 2008) and analyzed for NO3 concentration. Regional maps of groundwater depth and NO3 concentration were developed from the point data by using the inverse distance- squared interpolation technique. Groundwater NO3 concentrations ranged between 0.78 and 56.38 mg L-1 in 2007 and between 1.48 and 52.79 mg L-1 in 2008, only exceeding the critical 50 mg L -1 concentration in 0.4 to 5.4 % of the wells, depending on the sampling dates The NO3 concentrations were highest in February and in June-July. The peaks suggest that there is a likelihood that in the early part of the wheat cropping season (February), NO3 could be leached by the high rainfall in winter; similarly, N losses can occur by irrigation in June-July during the growth of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and corn (Zea mays). In most of the area (>60% of total), groundwater NO3 concentrations ranged from 20 to 50 mg L-1, and were thus marginal relative to the threshold pollution level (30 mgL-1). As both N fertilizer use and the extent of irrigation are likely to increase in this region of Turkey, so too will the poor drainage conditions inevitably continue. Consequently, regular groundwater NO3 monitoring, as adopted in this study, is advisable, and is also applicable to irrigated areas in other regions of the world.
... Subsurface tile drains were implemented in SWAT for the 15 agricultural land uses across the Coachella and Imperial Valleys. Tile drains were set at 1 m depth and 15 m spacing with a drainage coefficient of 10 mm d −1 (Koluvek, 1964;Montazar, 2021;Pillsbury, 1957). The effective radius of drains and the lateral to vertical saturated conductivity ratio were initially set to 20 mm and 1, respectively, and then adjusted at the subbasin scale during calibration. ...
The fragile balance of endorheic lakes in highly managed semi-arid basins with transboundary water issues has been altered by the intertwined effects of global warming and long-term water mismanagement to support agricultural and industrial demand. The alarming rate of global endorheic lakes’ depletion in recent decades necessitates formulating mitigation strategies for ecosystem restoration. However, detecting and quantifying the relative contribution of causal factors (climate variability and anthropogenic stressors) is challenging. This study developed a diagnostic multivariate framework to identify major hydrologic drivers of lake depletion in a highly managed endorheic basin with a complex water distribution system. The framework integrates the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) simulations with time-series decomposition and clustering methods to identify the major drivers of change. This diagnostic framework was applied to the Salton Sea Transboundary Basin (SSTB), the host of the world's most impaired inland lake. The results showed signs of depletion across the SSTB since late 1998 with no significant changes in climate conditions. The time-series data mining of the SSTB water balance components indicated that decreases in lake tributary inflows (-16.4 Mm3 yr-2) in response to decline in Colorado River inflows, associated with state water transfer agreements, are causing the Salton Sea to shrink, not changes in the irrigation operation as commonly believed. The developed multivariate detection and attribution framework is useful for identifying major drivers of change in coupled natural-human systems.
... Irrigation and subsurface tile drains were implemented in SWAT for these 15 land covers across the Coachella and Imperial Valleys. Tile drains were set at 1-m depth and 15-m spacing with a drainage coefficient of 10 mm d -1 (Koluvek, 1964;Montazar, 2021;Pillsbury, 1957). The effective radius of drains and the lateral to vertical saturated conductivity ratio were initially set to 20 mm and 1, respectively, and then adjusted at the subbasin scale during calibration. ...
This preprint has been submitted to and is under consideration at Water Resources Research.
... While effective at removing contaminants, infiltration basins with fine soils require large ponding areas and are prone to clogging (Committee of Ground Water Recharge, 1994;Ascuntar-Rios, Madera-Parra, Pena-Varon, & Sharma, 2014). Sandy loam and similar soil types with hydraulic conductivities between one and three meters per day have been found to provide the optimal balance of infiltration and contaminant removal (Abel C. D., Sharma, Bucpapaj, & Kennedy, 2013;Sharma, Harun, & Amy, 2008;Ritzema, Kselik, & Chanduvi, 1996). ...
Soil aquifer treatment (SAT) of treated wastewater performance was evaluated across published full-scale and lab-scale studies developing insights on the aquifer and operational factors that affect SAT efficacy. The goal of this study was to develop a basis for predicting the contaminant removal capabilities of any given aquifer during managed recharge with treated wastewater. Over 40 published SAT studies were reviewed and systematically compared to determine the influence of five major factors on contaminant removal performance: geologic composition, geochemical conditions, hydrogeological conditions, operational methods, and source water quality. Removal mechanisms for standard contaminants (dissolved and total organic carbon, nitrogen, and pathogens) were considered for each factor. By supplementing the theoretical understanding of contaminant removal in SAT systems with full scale and lab scale results, recommendations were developed for practical and effective SAT feasibility standards. SAT of standard contaminants was found to be most effective in aquifers with a water table below 20-meters. SAT was also most favorable for source water with 10 to 20-mg/L of bulk organics and less than 10-mg/L of total nitrogen. Moreover, extended residence times in the saturated zone provide little additional bulk organic and nitrogen removal for aquifers with vadose zones that achieve more than 85% of total bulk organic removal. The results of this study should enhance feasibility studies for future soil aquifer treatment projects, thereby facilitating the use of sustainable indirect potable reuse.
... Brown [54] reported the use of gravel along the sides of wooden box drains in an experiment in 1906 and concluded that unless the drain openings were protected by gravel and sand, covered drains could not be used in certain soils. Hart [55] recommended graded gravel, ranging in size from sand to pebbles one inch in diameter as an excellent filter. He also recommended a porous fabric covering for the tile joints such as burlap or cheesecloth for quicksand conditions. ...
Agricultural drainage plays an important role worldwide in food production and conservation of soil resources, while safeguarding investments in agricultural production and irrigation projects. It can improve crop yields and land productivity, especially on poorly drained soils and in cases of prolonged waterlogging. Both the subsurface drainage materials and the installation techniques used have a long history dating to prehistoric times. Over time, new subsurface drainage materials, installation techniques and modernized equipment were being developed continuously to take advantage of technological advances provided through research and development, while the planning and organization of the implementation process were improved. Today’s new materials and improved installation methods can offer solutions to problems still unsolved, while sometimes creating new ones. This paper considers the evolution of basic subsurface drainage materials and their installation techniques as they developed and adapted over time as well as possible future trends in drainage system design and application.
Over the past few decades, researchers have been studying different approaches to promote self-sustaining communities, especially in developing countries, to combat the formidable challenges of rapid urbanization, climate change, as well as food and energy depletion. While the analysis of previous literature has shown a significant shift towards the design and application of smart data and automated tools in farming and landscaping, there is still a need for comprehensive databases that help users identify efficient and economic approaches pertaining to utilizing a land plot for either open field farming or the use of greenhouses. This study offers an overview of how a comprehensive relational database can be developed and implemented into an automated interface that optimizes the decisions for such operations, through the acquisition and organization of big data in farming and greenhouse construction. The relational database established in this study links different crops with soil types, water and climatic requirements. Furthermore, information regarding the type of greenhouses and their construction requirements is also integrated into the database. This relational database will facilitate the optimal utilization of land through identifying solutions that maximize potential returns while minimizing the life cycle cost and water consumption. Not only will this assist planners and farmers to approach their agricultural operations in the most sustainable manner, but also help them overcome the typical intuitive process of selecting how a land is utilized, which does not necessarily provide optimal return.KeywordsSustainable farmingOpen field farmingGreenhousesRelational databaseLife cycle costingWater efficiency
The expansion of irrigated agriculture is of paramount importance to feed the burgeoning global population. However, without proper management, this expansion can result in environmental problems of irrigation-induced soil salinization. A recent FAO estimate reported that a large portion of total global soil resources are degraded and this problem is persistently expanding. Many irrigated areas of the world are facing the twin problems of soil salinization and waterlogging and presently over 20% of the total global irrigated area is negatively affected by these problems. And, if left unattended, this problem could expand to over 50% of the total global irrigated areas by 2050. The proper management of the aforementioned soil salinization is imperative for achieving most of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations. For example, soil salinization management is vital for achieving the 'Zero Hunger' (SDG2) and 'Life on Land' (SDG15) among other SDGs. This paper provides a comprehensive review of different measures used for managing the environmental problems of soil salinization. All the possible sources of related and up to date literature have been accessed and over 250 publications were collected and thoroughly analyzed for this review. The centrality of the environmental problems is provided. The background of the problems, managing rising water table to control soil salinization, the role of drainage frameworks, the conjunctive use of diverse water sources, utilization of numerical models, and the use of remote sensing and GIS systems are described. And the application of the aforementioned techniques and methods in various case study regions across the globe are discussed which is followed by discussion and research gaps. Derived from the literature analysis and based on the identified research gaps, some key recommendations for future research have been made which could be useful for the stakeholders. The literature analysis revealed that an all-inclusive approach for dealing with the aforesaid environmental problems has been barely considered in the previous studies. Similarly, the continuing impacts of growing salt-tolerant plants on soil characteristics and the environment in total have not been widely considered in the previous investigations. Likewise, better irrigation practices and improved cropping systems along with the long-term environmental impacts of a particular approach has not been extensively covered in these studies. Also, previous studies have scarcely incorporated economic, social, and environmental aspects of the salinization problem altogether in their analysis. The analysis suggested that an inclusive feedback-supported simulation model for managing soil salinization should be considered in future research as the existing models scarcely considered some vital aspects of the problem. It is also suggested to enhance the sensing methods besides retrieval systems to facilitate direct detection of salinization and waterlogging parameters at large-scales. The existing time-lag between occurrence and recording of various data is also suggested to improve in the future scenario by the usage of information from multiple satellites that lessens the problems of spatial resolution by increasing the system efficiency.
The development of irrigated agriculture is essential to feed the growing world population. Nevertheless, without proper drainage provisions, this development can result in salinization and rising groundwater table problems in irrigated areas. An effective drainage system not only improves existing agricultural lands but also brings new areas under cultivation. Poor drainage and the associated salinization cause a reduction in crop growth and yield and this reduction will be much higher if both salinization and submergence occur simultaneously. Drainage is necessary for humid as well as dry regions and it is one of the main inputs to obtain better yields per unit of agricultural area. The provision of drainage has many direct and indirect effects. This paper provides an overview of the drainage and salinization problems of irrigated lands and their impact on overall agricultural productivity. The significance of the study along with its goals and the historical development of agricultural drainage is provided. The processes involved in drainage‐associated salinization of irrigated lands and the effects of salinization and shallow groundwater tables on plant growth and yield and the environmental perspective of the problems are also detailed in the paper. Conclusions are provided that can be of use to the reader. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Soil productivity is affected by soil physical properties that play a crucial role in planning drainage systems. Improper planning of drainage systems can create high water table problems and, in turn, an unsuitable environment for plant growth. Therefore, drainage systems should be well planned and monitored regularly. It is very labor-intensive and time-consuming to determine the spatial and temporal changes in drainage parameters such as groundwater (GW) depth, elevation, hydraulic gradient and salinity by conventional methods over large areas. Geographic information systems (GIS) can be used to assess the spatial and temporal changes efficiently and rapidly. This study was conducted to determine drainage problem areas and to suggest the most suitable drainage systems for those areas by evaluating spatial and temporal changes in GW depth, elevation and salinity, with regard to drainage criteria used by the State Hydraulic Works (DSI) responsible for the development of land and water resources in Turkey. A pilot area of 8494 ha in the Lower Seyhan Plain, Adana, Turkey, was selected. The elevations and coordinates of 85 drainage observation wells were obtained from the existing maps with a scale of 1/5000 and 1/25 000, respectively. The GW depth and GW salinity data, the latter only available for July, were obtained from an archived long-term monthly data set of the 6th Regional Directorate of the DSI. Running ArcView 3.0a, the salinity, as well as the seasonal maps of the GW depth and elevation, were developed to assess the spatial and temporal changes. Results indicated that about 99.8% of the study area was suffering from various levels of drainage problems. Main, secondary and tertiary drainage canals in the region seemed to be malfunctioning due mostly to siltation and weed problems. GW fluctuation did not seem to be of great importance, indicating a need for a subsurface drainage system. It was concluded that some areas are likely to be prone to potential GW salinization risk during the peak irrigation season if in the future, irrigation water is sparingly used and irrigation efficiency is improved. The GW hydraulic gradient did not significantly change temporally, but it did change spatially. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
La productivité du sol est affectée par les propriétés physiques du sol qui jouent un rôle crucial dans la planification des systèmes de drainage. Une mauvaise planification des systèmes de drainage peut créer des problèmes d'engorgement des sols et, par là, un environnement inapproprié à la croissance des plantes. Par conséquent, les systèmes de drainage devraient être bien conçus et contrôlés régulièrement. Cela nécessite beaucoup de main-d'oeuvre et de temps pour déterminer, avec les méthodes conventionnelles, les variations spatiales et temporelles des paramètres de drainage tels que la profondeur, la hauteur, le gradient hydraulique et la salinité des nappes phréatiques (GW) sur des zones étendues. Les systèmes d'information géographique (GIS) peuvent être employés efficacement et rapidement pour évaluer les variations spatiales et temporelles. Cette étude a été entreprise pour déterminer les zones de drainage posant problème et pour suggérer les systèmes de drainage les plus appropriés pour ces secteurs en évaluant les variations spatiales et temporelles de la profondeur, de la hauteur et de la salinité des nappes suivant les critères employés par le DSI, organisme responsable du développement des ressources de la terre et de l'eau en Turquie. Une aire pilote de 8494 ha dans la plaine inférieure de Seyhan, Adana, Turquie, a été choisie. Les hauteurs et les coordonnées de piézomètres ont été obtenues à partir de cartes existantes aux échelles respectives de 1/5000 et 1/25 000. Les données de profondeur et de salinité de la nappe ont été obtenues à partir d'archives de la 6ème Direction régionale de DSI d'un ensemble de données mensuelles sur une longue période. En utilisant ArcView 3.0a, la salinité, ainsi que les cartes saisonnières de la profondeur et de la hauteur de GW, ont été déterminées pour évaluer les variations spatiales et temporelles. Les résultats ont indiqué qu'environ 99.8% de la zone étudiée souffraient à divers niveaux de problèmes de drainage. Les canaux de drainage principaux, secondaires, et tertiaires de la région semblaient mal fonctionner en raison notamment de problèmes d'envasement et de prolifération de mauvaises herbes. La fluctuation de GW n'a pas semblé être importante dans le secteur, indiquant un besoin de drainage souterrain. Cependant, certaines zones sembleraient être potentiellement enclines au risque de salinisation de nappe pendant la saison maximale d'irrigation. Le gradient hydraulique de nappe n'a pas varié de manière significative dans le temps, mais dans l'espace. Copyright
Thesis (M.S. in C.E.)--Texas Tech University, 1988. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 142-146).
Guidelines on the Construction of Horizontal Subsurface Drainage Systems. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi. 236 pp. This book starts with an inventory of subsurface drainage systems and then briefly reviews their design
- B Schultz
Schultz, B. 1990. Guidelines on the Construction of Horizontal Subsurface Drainage
Systems. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi. 236 pp.
This book starts with an inventory of subsurface drainage systems and then briefly
reviews their design. It discusses drainage materials and equipment to install the drains.
Drainage testing. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 28. FAO, Rome. 172 pp. This publication gives guidelines on how to test the functioning and adequacy of single drains and drainage systems
- Fao
FAO. 1976. Drainage testing. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 28. FAO, Rome. 172 pp.
This publication gives guidelines on how to test the functioning and adequacy of single
drains and drainage systems.
Drainage materials. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 9
- Fao
FAO. 1970. Drainage materials. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 9. FAO, Rome. 122 pp.
This paper discusses the materials used in the construction of pipe drainage systems.
Drainage design factors. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 38. 1980. FAO, Rome. 52 pp. This paper, which is based on an expert consultation, gives 28 questions and answers on drainage design factors
- Fao
FAO. 1980. Drainage design factors. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 38. 1980. FAO, Rome.
52 pp.
This paper, which is based on an expert consultation, gives 28 questions and answers on
drainage design factors.
Guidelines for the Preparation of Irrigation and Drainage Projects. Revised Edition. FAO, Rome. 31 pp. Gives guidelines for a feasibility study
- Fao
FAO. 1983. Guidelines for the Preparation of Irrigation and Drainage Projects. Revised
Edition. FAO, Rome. 31 pp.
Gives guidelines for a feasibility study, which provides the answers to questions that
might be raised in the course of project appraisal.
This completely revised second edition of Drainage Principles and Applications is based on lectures delivered at the International Course on Land Drainage, which is held annually by the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement
- H P Ritzema
Ritzema, H.P. (ed.). 1994. Drainage Principles and Applications. Second (completely
revised) edition. ILRI, Wageningen. 1994. 1125 pp. ILRI Publication 16.
This completely revised second edition of Drainage Principles and Applications is based
on lectures delivered at the International Course on Land Drainage, which is held
annually by the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement,
Wageningen, The Netherlands. The book covers all the various topics useful to those
engaged in drainage engineering. Includes a glossary.
Also available is a Spanish version published in 1977, entitled: Principios y Aplicaciones
del Drenaje (in four volumes).