ArticlePDF AvailableLiterature Review

Humans as Superorganisms: How Microbes, Viruses, Imprinted Genes, and Other Selfish Entities Shape Our Behavior

DOI:10.1177/1745691615583131
Authors:
Peter Kramer at University of Padova
Peter Kramer
Paola Bressan at University of Padova
Paola Bressan
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Abstract

Psychologists and psychiatrists tend to be little aware that (a) microbes in our brains and guts are capable of altering our behavior; (b) viral DNA that was incorporated into our DNA millions of years ago is implicated in mental disorders; (c) many of us carry the cells of another human in our brains; and (d) under the regulation of viruslike elements, the paternally inherited and maternally inherited copies of some genes compete for domination in the offspring, on whom they have opposite physical and behavioral effects. This article provides a broad overview, aimed at a wide readership, of the consequences of our coexistence with these selfish entities. The overarching message is that we are not unitary individuals but superorganisms, built out of both human and nonhuman elements; it is their interaction that determines who we are. © The Author(s) 2015.
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M"'K"",*&+'K(,$*($*1$*P#"ZI",'*1$*K"*.1)"*#"%+#'"N7*'.($*/1''"#*1$$IJ%'(+,*J(0.'*M"*(,)1/(N9*
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"('."#9*2%"&(1/*&1I'(+,*($*'.I$*K1##1,'"N*:R+X/10"7*5FDD1<*K.",*'K(,*N1'1*1#"*I$"N*'+*N#1K*
&+,&/I$(+,$*1M+I'*'.+$"*1$%"&'$*+P*J",'1/*N")"/+%J",'*'.1'*1#"*1$$+&(1'"N*K('.*/1'"#1/('-7*$I&.*
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1$$+&(1'"N*K('.*(JM1/1,&"$*(,*'."*0I'*J(&#+M(+'1*J1-*#"ZI(#"*1*N("'1#-*'#"1'J",'*#1'."#*'.1,7*+#*
(,*1NN('(+,*'+7*%$-&.+'."#1%-9*B,*1*$IM$"'*+P*&.(/N#",*K('.*1I'($J7*P+#*"[1J%/"7*M".1)(+#1/*
$-J%'+J$*0"'*M"''"#*M+'.*NI#(,0*$%"&(P(&*N("'$*:P+#*1*#"&",'*#")("K7*$""*h.('"/"-*"'*1/97*345G<7*
K.(&.*J(0.'*+#*J(0.'*,+'*%+(,'*'+*1*#+/"*+P*'."*J(&#+M(+'17*1,N*NI#(,0*1,'(M(+'(&*'#"1'J",'*
:]1J(#"f7*R1#,.(//7*OI'("##"f7*2&.I''"7*g*H"K('$+,7*345GU*21,N/"#*"'*1/97*3444<7*K.(&.*&"#'1(,/-*
N+"$9*e"&1/*'#1,$%/1,'$*1#"*$+J"'(J"$*%"#P+#J"N*+,*.IJ1,$*'+*'#"1'*(,'"$'(,1/*N($"1$"U*0()",*
'.1'*'."-*.1)"*M"",*$.+K,*'+*1/'"#*M".1)(+#*(,*J(&"7*('*K+I/N*M"*+P*M+'.*'."+#"'(&1/*1,N*&/(,(&1/*
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&+##+M+#1'"N9*d+,$(N"#(,0*'."*I,ZI"$'(+,1M/"*$I&&"$$*+P*%#+M(+'(&$*(,*'#(1/$*K('.*#+N",'$7*PI#'."#*
&/(,(&1/*$'IN-*+P*'."*%$-&.+/+0(&1/*M","P('$*+P*M(P(N+M1&'"#(1*1,N*/1&'+M1&(//(*(,*.IJ1,$*+I0.'*'+*
M"*",&+I#10"N*1$*K"//^%#"P"#1M/-*K('.*PI,N(,0*'.1'*N+"$*,+'*&+J"7*1$*($*&I##",'/-*'."*&1$"7*
P#+J*&+J%1,("$*'.1'*%#+NI&"*+#*J1#X"'*-+0I#'9*W*PI//*I,N"#$'1,N(,0*+P*.IJ1,*M".1)(+#*J1-*
#"ZI(#"*&+,$(N"#(,0*0I'*J(&#+M"$c*")+/I'(+,1#-*(,'"#"$'$*(,*/"$$*&+,)",'(+,1/*K1-$7*'++9*Y+*&('"*
aI$'*+,"*+P*'."J7*&(#&IJ$'1,'(1/*")(N",&"*($*1&&IJI/1'(,0*'.1'*%"+%/"c$*&#1)(,0*P+#*&"#'1(,*P++N$*
J(0.'*M"*N#()",*M-*'."*M1&'"#(1*'.1'*'.#()"*+,*$I&.*P++N$7*1,N*1*,IJM"#*+P*'"$'1M/"*%#"N(&'(+,$*
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"[%"&'1'(+,*'.1'*1,*(,&#"1$"*(,*J(&#+M(+'1*N()"#$('-*K(//*'",N*'+*#"N(#"&'*'."*M1&'"#(1c$*#"$+I#&"$*
P#+J*.+$'*J1,(%I/1'(+,*'+*&+J%"'('(+,*K('.*#()1/$U*(P*$+7*P++N*&#1)(,0$*$.+I/N*N(J(,($.*K('.*'."*
(,'1X"*+P*%#+M(+'(&$*'.1'*(,&#"1$"*'.($*N()"#$('-*MI'*,+'*+P*%#+M(+'(&$*'.1'*/"1)"*('*I,1PP"&'"N9*
Y."$"*X(,N$*+P*$'IN("$*K+I/N*&"#'1(,/-*M","P('*P#+J*'."*&+//1M+#1'(+,*+P*"[%"#'$*(,*%$-&.+/+0(&1/*
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*
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"[1J%/"7*'."*N(1J"'#(&*J+N"/*%+(,'$*'+*K"1X,"$$"$*(,*%+%I/1#*ZI"$'(+,,1(#"$*J"1$I#(,0*1I'($'(&*
+#*%$-&.+'(&*'",N",&("$C*M+'.*'-%"$*+P*ZI"$'(+,,1(#"$*1$$"$$*$+&(1/*K('.N#1K1/7*MI'*'."(#*#"/")1,'*
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'",N",&("$<9*Y.($*+)"#$(0.'*J1-*'.I$*$%I#(+I$/-*$I00"$'*1,*+)"#/1%*M"'K"",*1I'($'(&*1,N*
%$-&.+'(&*'",N",&("$*'.1'*J1-*M"*,+*J+#"*'.1,*1,*+)"#/1%*M"'K"",*'."*ZI"$'(+,,1(#"$*'.1'*
J"1$I#"*'."J*:@"/*O(IN(&"*"'*1/97*3454U*@(,$N1/"7*HI#N7*h1X1M1-1$.(7*Q//(+'7*g*d#"$%(7*345G<9**
*
*
Conclusion(
*
W/'.+I0.*+I#*(JJI,"*$-$'"J*.1$*M"",*$.1%"N*+)"#*J(//(+,$*+P*-"1#$*'+*#"&+0,(f"*1,N*N"$'#+-*
,+,$"/P*&"//$7*1//*'."*",'('("$*N"$&#(M"N*."#"*$.1#"*1*N"J+,$'#1M/"*&1%1M(/('-*'+*&(#&IJ)",'7*
N"P"1'7*+#*.(a1&X*+I#*N"P",$"$9*e+#*M"''"#*1,N*P+#*K+#$"7*'."$"*",'('("$*K(//*M"*1$$(J(/1'"NU*
:(JJI,"<*#"$($'1,&"*($*PI'(/"9*Y."*N"0#""*'+*K.(&.*'."-*M"&+J"*1$$(J(/1'"N7*.",&"*'."*$'1M(/('-*+P*
'."(#*&+,'#(MI'(+,*'+*'."*.IJ1,*$I%"#+#01,($J7*)1#("$*0#"1'/-*:Y1M/"*5<*1,N*($*'(0.'/-*/(,X"N*'+*
'."(#*+K,*$I#)()1/*$'#1'"0("$9*2+J"*M#1(,*J(&#+M"$7*P+#*"[1J%/"7*")1N"*+I#*(JJI,"*#"$%+,$"*M-*
.(N(,0*K('.(,*%#+'"&'()"*&-$'$U*$")"#1/*$'#1(,$*+P*0I'*J(&#+M"$*.1)"*J1N"*'."J$"/)"$*$+*
(,N($%",$1M/"*'.1'*K"*.1)"*1&'I1//-*")+/)"N*K1-$*'+*P+$'"#*'."(#*(,)1$(+,U*$+J"*)(#I$"$*'#(&X*+I#*
#"%#+NI&'()"*$-$'"J*(,'+*#"%/(&1'(,0*'."(#*+K,*0","'(&*J1'"#(1/*(,$(N"*+I#$*1,N*+I#*+PP$%#(,0c$U*
+I#*N(f-0+'(&*'K(,c$*&"//$*",'"#*I$*M"P+#"*+I#*(JJI,"*$-$'"J*.1$*/"1#,"N*'+*N($'(,0I($.*$"/P*P#+J*
,+,$"/PU*(J%#(,'"N*0","$*%#+J+'"*'."(#*(,'"#"$'$*K.(/"*K+#X(,0*P#+J*K('.(,9*
*
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1,*I/'(J1'"*%I#%+$"*:N($%"#$(,0*%#+0",-*'+*,"K*M+N("$<7*1*J+NI$*+%"#1,N(*:(,'"#1&'(,0*K('.*+I#*
M+N(/-*$-$'"J$7*(,&/IN(,0*+I#*,"#)+I$*+,"<7*1,N*%$-&.+/+0-b#"/")1,'*J"J",'+$^'."(#*"PP"&'$*+,*
+I#*M#1(,*1,N*M".1)(+#9*h."#"1$*+I#*&+.1M('1'(+,*K('.*+,"*+#*1,+'."#*+P*'."J*J1-*,+'*%+$"*1*
$'#+,0*&.1//",0"*'+*'."*&+JJ+,/-*$.1#"N*1$$IJ%'(+,*'.1'*.IJ1,$*1#"*I,('1#-*(,N()(NI1/$7*'."*
%#"$",&"*+P*1*/1#0"*,IJM"#*1,N*K(N"*)1#("'-*+P*$I&.*",'('("$^1,N*'."*%+K"#*'."-*.1)"*+,*I$^
#",N"#$*'.($*1$$IJ%'(+,*I,'",1M/"9*h"*1#"*,+'*+#01,($J$*MI'*$I%"#+#01,($J$7*1,N*
I,N"#$'1,N(,0*+I#*M".1)(+#*I/'(J1'"/-*#"ZI(#"$*1,*I,N"#$'1,N(,0*+P*'."*,"'K+#X*+P*$"/P($.*
",'('("$*'.1'*(,.1M('*+I#*M+N-*1,N*1&'()"/-*(,'"#1&'*K('.*('9*B'*($*'(J"*'+*&.1,0"*'."*)"#-*&+,&"%'*
K"*.1)"*+P*+I#$"/)"$*1,N*'+*#"1/(f"*'.1'*+,"*.IJ1,*(,N()(NI1/*($*,"('."#*aI$'*.IJ1,*,+#*aI$'*+,"*
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*
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")"#7*MI'*'.($*&+J"$*1'*'."*#($X*+P*/+$(,0*$(0.'*+P*#"/")1,'*#"$"1#&.*(,*+'."#*N($&(%/(,"$9*
!$-&.+/+0($'$*.1)"*'1X",*&+I,'"#J"1$I#"$*M-*",010(,0*(,*$'IN("$*'.1'*M#(N0"*#"/1'"N*N($&(%/(,"$7*
$I&.*1$*,"I#+$&(",&"7*/(,0I($'(&$7*1#'(P(&(1/*(,'"//(0",&"7*%.(/+$+%.-7*1,N*1,'.#+%+/+0-9*AI#*%+(,'*
."#"7*.+K")"#7*($*'.1'*N($&(%/(,"$*'.1'*+$'",$(M/-*.1)"*/(''/"*+#*,+'.(,0*'+*N+*K('.*"('."#*
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P+#*J+#"*&+//1M+#1'(+,*1J+,0*$&(",'($'$*K.+*&I##",'/-*1%%"1#*'+*/()"*+,*N(PP"#",'*%/1,"'$9*h"*
1/$+*&1//*P+#*0#"1'"#*"[&.1,0"*+P*(,P+#J1'(+,7*+#*$'#1(0.'*&+//1M+#1'(+,7*1J+,0*."1/'.&1#"*
%#+P"$$(+,1/$9*B'*J(0.'*")",*M"*N"$(#1M/"*(P*$+J"*+P*I$*M"&+J"*$%"&(1/($'$*,+'*(,*1,-*%1#'(&I/1#*
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$.+K,*'.1'*"1&.*+P*I$*($*1*$I%"#+#01,($JU*MI'*'+*PI,&'(+,*1'*('$*M"$'7*+I#*$&(",'(P(&*1,N*
%#+P"$$(+,1/*&+JJI,('-*$.+I/N*%"#.1%$*M"&+J"*1*M('*J+#"*/(X"*+,"7*'++9*
*
*
Acknowledgments(
(
h"*'.1,X*d1'"#(,1*Y#1(,('+*P+#*."/%PI/*&+JJ",'$*+,*1,*"1#/("#*)"#$(+,*1,N*V(,+*Y#1(,('+*P+#*'"&.,(&1/*
1$$($'1,&"*(,*%#"%1#(,0*e(0I#"*59*
!"'"#*S#1J"#*1,N*!1+/1*R#"$$1,*&+,'#(MI'"N*"ZI1//-*'+*'.($*K+#X9*
*
*
Declaration(of(Conflicting(Interests(
(
Y."*1I'.+#$*N"&/1#"N*'.1'*'."-*.1N*,+*&+,P/(&'$*+P*(,'"#"$'*K('.*#"$%"&'*'+*'."(#*1I'.+#$.(%*+#*'."*
%IM/(&1'(+,*+P*'.($*1#'(&/"9*
(
!"'"#*S#1J"#7*@(%1#'(J",'+*N(*!$(&+/+0(1*O","#1/"7*T,()"#$('r*N(*!1N+)17*8(1*8","f(1*?7*G65G5*!1N+)17*B'1/-*
QbJ1(/C*%"'"#9X#1J"#sI,(%N9('*
!1+/1*R#"$$1,7*@(%1#'(J",'+*N(*!$(&+/+0(1*O","#1/"7*T,()"#$('r*N(*!1N+)17*8(1*8","f(1*?7*G65G5*!1N+)17*B'1/-*
QbJ1(/C*%1+/19M#"$$1,sI,(%N9('*
*
*
References(
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0#+K'.*P1&'+#*39*Trends%in%Neurosciences7*357*3D;>3?G9*N+(C549545=Ea*9'(,$93455953944D*
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J(&#+M(+'1t*Q)+/I'(+,1#-*%#"$$I#"$*1,N*%+'",'(1/*J"&.1,($J$9*BioEssays7*367*F;4>F;F9*
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R1N&+&X7*d97*g*d#"$%(7*R9*:344?7*WI0I$'*3?<9*R1''/"*+P*'."*$"["$*J1-*$"'*'."*M#1(,9*Nature7*4547*546;>54669*
N+(C54954G?E;6;546;1*
R1IJ1,7*L9*@97*B+$(P7*W9*L97*W$.K++N7*!97*R#1I,$&.K"(07*@97*j""7*W97*2&.IJ1,,7*d9*L97*9*9*9*WJ1#1/7*@9*O9*:345G<9*
L1'"#,1/*1,'(M+N("$*P#+J*J+'."#$*+P*&.(/N#",*K('.*1I'($J*1/'"#*M#1(,*0#+K'.*1,N*$+&(1/*M".1)(+#*
N")"/+%J",'*(,*'."*#."$I$*J+,X"-9*Translational%Psychiatry7*37*"3D?9*N+(C54954G?E'%9345G9;D*
R"#&(X7*!97*@",+I7*Q97*d+//(,$7*i97*i1&X$+,7*h97*jI7*i97*iI#-7*i97*9*9*9*d+//(,$7*29*L9*:3455<9*Y."*(,'"$'(,1/*J(&#+M(+'1*
1PP"&'*&",'#1/*/")"/$*+P*M#1(,bN"#()"N*,"I#+'#+%(&*P1&'+#*1,N*M".1)(+#*(,*J(&"9*Gastroenterology7*1417*
6FF>=4F7*=4F9"5bG9*N+(C549546GEa901$'#+9345594;9463*
R"#&(X7*!97*8"#NI7*Q9*e97*e+$'"#7*i9*W97*L1&#(7*i97*!+''"#7*L97*HI1,07*u97*9*9*9*d+//(,$7*29*L9*:3454<9*d.#+,(&*
01$'#+(,'"$'(,1/*(,P/1JJ1'(+,*(,NI&"$*1,[("'-b/(X"*M".1)(+#*1,N*1/'"#$*&",'#1/*,"#)+I$*$-$'"J*
M(+&."J($'#-*(,*J(&"9*Gastroenterology7*1397*3543>35539"59*N+(C549546GEa901$'#+9345494=94=G*
R"$'"N7*W9*d97*j+01,7*W9*d97*g*2"/.IM7*Q9*L9*:345G<9*B,'"$'(,1/*J(&#+M(+'17*%#+M(+'(&$*1,N*J",'1/*."1/'.C*e#+J*
L"'&.,(X+PP*'+*J+N"#,*1N)1,&"$C*!1#'*BB^d+,'"J%+#1#-*&+,'"['I1/*#"$"1#&.9*Gut%Pathogens7*5:5<7*
W#'(&/"*G9*N+(C54955?=E5D6Db*;D;Fb6bG*
R"K"#,(&X7*R9*H97*HI#/"J1,,7*]97*L1'I$&.7*W97*S1-$"#7*297*O#IM"#'7*d97*H1N#-$("K(&f7*R97*9*9*9*2&./1"%P"#7*Y9*Q9*
:3454<9*VI&/"I$*1&&IJM",$*N""%*M#1(,*$'(JI/1'(+,*N"&#"1$"$*#1'(,0$*+P*N"%#"$$(+,*1,N*1,[("'-*(,*
'#"1'J",'b#"$($'1,'*N"%#"$$(+,9*Biological%Psychiatry7*677*554>55=9*N+(C549545=E*a9M(+%$-&.9344F94F945G*
R(1,&.(7*@9*h9*:344D<9*e"'+J1'"#,1/*&"//*'#1PP(&X(,0C*W*$'+#-*'.1'*M"0(,$*K('.*%#",1'1/*N(10,+$($*1,N*J1-*",N*
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... Carlos Santana (2021) describes the Borg society as a eusocial hive, i.e., comparable to an ant colony on Earth, although the latter lack intentional will at the level of intelligent beings. Kramer and Bressan (2015) liken the Borg collective to a superorganism. They argue that the human individual can be seen as a form of superorganism, a coexistence of various selfish entities, which entails that not even the individual is a fully unitary individual. ...
... At present, the closest to a trans-historical definition of a human being would be all those that have been born to humans or are fully developed foetuses. Non-fully developed foetuses may be considered to belong to women's bodies before they are born, although biologically, this is not entirely correct, and the mother's immune system could act as if the foetus is an intruder and mount an immune response (Kramer & Bressan, 2015). On balance, an abortion could be regarded as a productive activity as long as it is not performed against the mother's will. ...
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... Examples of superorganisms include ants and termite societies. " The microbiome consisting of microorganisms symbiotically inhabiting the human gut has also been defined as a superorganism, or even the entire human being with the commensal microbes inhabiting the skin, gut, etc. (e.g., Kramer and Bressan, 2015). The immune system that shapes homeostasis with a multitude of microbes and symbionts has also been considered as a superorganism (Eberl, 2010). ...
Interpersonal synchrony when singing in a choir
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Singing in a choir has long been known to enhance well-being and protect mental health. Clearly, the experience of a uniquely harmonious social activity is very satisfying for the singers. How might this come about? One of the important factors positively associated with well-being is interpersonal action coordination allowing the choir to function as a whole. This review focuses on temporal coordination dynamics of physiological systems and/or subsystems forming part or the core of the functional substrate of choir singing. These coordination dynamics will be evaluated with respect to the concept of a superordinate system, or superorganism, based on the principles of self-organization and circular causality. We conclude that choral singing is a dynamic process requiring tight interpersonal action coordination that is characterized by coupled physiological systems and specific network topology dynamics, representing a potent biomarker for social interaction.
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... Remarkably, in the case of so-called imprinted genes, the maternally and paternally inherited copies show a diametrically opposite pattern of activation and silencing (Moore and Haig, 1991;Haig, 2010;Kotler and Haig, 2018). Genomic imprinting likely evolved for the benefit of the individual parent rather than their offspring (and possibly also to turn off viral DNA that is permanently embedded within the offspring's own DNA; Kramer and Bressan, 2015). As it normally leaves the genes of only one parent expressed, imprinting locally annuls the offspring's benefit of inheriting genes from two parents rather than just one. ...
Iconic Mathematics: Math Designed to Suit the Mind
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2022
Mathematics is a struggle for many. To make it more accessible, behavioral and educational scientists are redesigning how it is taught. To a similar end, a few rogue mathematicians and computer scientists are doing something more radical: they are redesigning mathematics itself, improving its ergonomic features. Charles Peirce, an important contributor to ordinary symbolic logic, also introduced a rigorous but non-symbolic, graphical alternative to it that is easier to picture. In the spirit of this iconic logic, George Spencer-Brown founded iconic mathematics. Performing iconic arithmetic, algebra, and even trigonometry, resembles doing calculations on an abacus, which is still popular in education today, has aided humanity for millennia, helps even when it is merely imagined, and ameliorates severe disability in basic computation. Interestingly, whereas some intellectually disabled individuals excel in very complex numerical tasks, others of normal intelligence fail even in very simple ones. A comparison of their wider psychological profiles suggests that iconic mathematics ought to suit the very people traditional mathematics leaves behind.
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... This new conception recasts the human being as more than a union of human cells (more than an organism). The individual body is seen instead as a superorganismic composite entity of cells of many differently species and genomes (Kramer and Bressan, 2015). ...
Is our planet doubly alive? Gaia, globalization, and the Anthropocene’s planetary superorganisms
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2022
The theory of the superorganism—that there exist composite forms of life organized at scales above the multicellular organism—has been part of scientific discourse and speculation since the late 1800s. Over the last century theories of the superorganism have grown in scope from designating the local insect colony as emergently alive to positing a global entity enveloping the entire planetary surface. The planetary version of superorganism theory has developed in two different forms, the ecological form of Gaia theory and the sociological form of globalized humankind, with the possible implication that the surface of our single planet is now occupied by two distinct planetary superorganisms. In this article, I summarize the parallel histories of this speculative biological-planetary concept, propose a theory about the relationship of the two coexisting planetary superorganisms, and reflect on how this theory recasts the global environmental challenges of the Anthropocene. I conclude with a note about simplistic or totalizing superorganism assertions.
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... Yet in natural settings, outside the lab, many patients suffer from a mix of the two diseases, with similar mitochondrial dysfunction affecting multiple cell types; with amyloid aggregates associated with either disease often found in the other as well; with similar accompanying infections, inflammation, and dysbiosis; and with similar effects of diet, lifestyle, trauma, and exposure to toxicants. Naturally developing Alzheimer's and Parkinson's may more accurately be described as different manifestations of one and the same systemic problem that involves not just certain areas of the brain, not just the brain as whole, not just the body as a whole, but the entire human superorganism, including even the non-human entities that reside inside us (see also Kramer and Bressan, 2015). Early players in neurodegeneration are deteriorating aerobic exbacteria (mitochondria), located throughout our body and brain, and thriving aerobic bacteria (unhealthy microbiota), located mostly as far away from the brain as the gut. ...
Mitochondria-Microbiota Interaction in Neurodegeneration
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2021
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s are the two best-known neurodegenerative diseases. Each is associated with the excessive aggregation in the brain and elsewhere of its own characteristic amyloid proteins. Yet the two afflictions have much in common and often the same amyloids play a role in both. These amyloids need not be toxic and can help regulate bile secretion, synaptic plasticity, and immune defense. Moreover, when they do form toxic aggregates, amyloids typically harm not just patients but their pathogens too. A major port of entry for pathogens is the gut. Keeping the gut’s microbe community (microbiota) healthy and under control requires that our cells’ main energy producers (mitochondria) support the gut-blood barrier and immune system. As we age, these mitochondria eventually succumb to the corrosive byproducts they themselves release, our defenses break down, pathogens or their toxins break through, and the side effects of inflammation and amyloid aggregation become problematic. Although it gets most of the attention, local amyloid aggregation in the brain merely points to a bigger problem: the systemic breakdown of the entire human superorganism, exemplified by an interaction turning bad between mitochondria and microbiota.
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... The concept of the holobiont (i.e. the host-microbiota association as a functional entity), initially coined by [1] for model corals and their symbionts (e.g. Symbiodiniaceae and associated bacteria), was later applied to other organisms (e.g., plants [2] or human [3] including seaweeds [4]). Knowing that the association between a host and its microbiome contributes to the functioning of the holobiont system, this holistic view has been proposed for seaweeds in the light of recent studies which have demonstrated that epibacterial communities could impact the algal physiology through beneficial (e.g. ...
French Mediterranean and Atlantic populations of the brown algal genus Taonia (Dictyotales) display differences in phylogeny, surface metabolomes and epibacterial communities
Article
  • Nov 2021
Considered as holobiont systems, marine macroalgae and their microbiota constitute functional units displaying a large diversity of interactions. Main factors driving the assembly of epiphytic microbiota, and subsequent interactions with the host, are often associated to environmental differences but also to host taxonomy displaying specific chemical properties. Here, through a large sampling effort focused on the brown algal genus Taonia (Dictyotales) on both the French Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts, we aimed to highlight the relative importance of the effects of environment, host taxonomy and surface metabolome on the epibacterial community of these seaweeds. Phylogenetic analyses revealed two distinct clusters, one grouping only the specimens from the French Mediterranean coasts and the second one composed of samples from Brittany. Both metabarcoding and surface metabolomics revealed clear differences between Mediterranean thalli and those collected in Brittany. Strong environmental differences associated with algae from these two different geographical areas could both be involved in this clustering. For example, oxidative stress due to higher irradiance intensities might induce a higher expression of fucoxanthin in Mediterranean samples, while higher eutrophication levels could explain the higher abundance of Alteromonas spp. on algal samples from Brittany coast. In a lesser extent, genetic differences observed between thalli from these two locations could also influence surface metabolomes and thus host-microbiota interactions.
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... The concept of holobiont (i.e. the host-microbiota association), initially coined by Margulis and Fester, 1991 taking for model corals and their symbionts (e.g. Symbiodinium and associated bacteria), was later applied to other organisms [e.g., plants (Vandenkoornhuyse et al., 2015) or human (Kramer and Bressan, 2015)] including seaweeds (Egan et al., 2013). Knowing that the association between an host and its microbiota contributes to the overall stability of the holobiont system, this holistic view makes sense in seaweeds in the light of recent studies which demonstrated that epibacterial communities could impact the algal physiology through beneficial (e.g. ...
Etude des dynamiques spatio-temporelles des interactions entre le microbiote et le métabolome de surface de la macroalgue Taonia atomaria par une approche multi-omiques
Thesis
Full-text available
  • Sep 2020
As ecosystems engineers and primary producers, marine seaweeds play important roles for other organisms. Chemical interactions with epiphytic microorganisms seem particularly important for their physiology. However, macroalgae-microbiota relationships and the role of environmental parameters remains poorly investigated. The main objective of this PhD thesis was to understand how vary the epiphytic prokaryotic community of the brown alga Taonia atomaria, in relationship with variations of the surface metabolome of the host and what is the influence of the environment on these variations which shape this holobiont model. A multi-omics approach coupling prokaryotic communities studies by metabarcoding and surface metabolites studies by an optimized metabolomics analysis, has been jointly conducted, together with further analyses such as flow cytometry. Studies have thus revealed that the epiphytic microbial community of T. atomaria was specific in comparison with the biofilm communities of rocky substrates, and planktonic ones, suggesting a possible role of the surface metabolome in the structuring of the microbiota. Otherwise, important co-variations between the metabolome and the microbiota at the algal surface were observed at different levels, whether at the thallus or biogeographical scale, or during temporal dynamics. Some environmental parameters seem to be particularly involved in these interactions, such as temperature, copper contamination, but also irradiance. In a context of Global Change, this work provides new perspectives allowing to better understand dynamics of macroalgal-holobionts. ---- En tant qu’espèces ingénieures de leurs écosystèmes et que producteurs primaires, les macroalgues marines jouent un rôle crucial au sein de leur écosystème. Les interactions chimiques avec leurs microorganismes épiphytes semblent particulièrement essentielles pour leur physiologie. Cependant les relations macroalgues-microbiote et le rôle des paramètres environnementaux dans ces interactions restent encore peu explorées. L’objectif général de la thèse est de comprendre comment varie la structure de la communauté procaryotique épiphyte de l’algue brune Taonia atomaria en lien avec les variations de la production métabolique de surface de l’hôte et quelle est l’influence de l’environnement sur ces variations qui affectent et façonnent ce modèle d’holobionte. Une approche multi-omiques, couplant l’étude des communautés procaryotes épiphytes par metabarcoding et l’étude des métabolites de surface par des analyses optimisées en métabolomique, a ainsi été employée conjointement avec d’autres analyses telle que la cytométrie en flux. Les résultats obtenus ont révélé que la communauté microbienne épiphyte de T. atomaria, lui était spécifique en comparaison avec les communautés de biofilms de substrats rocheux et celles planctoniques, suggérant un rôle possible du métabolome de surface. Entre outre, d’importantes co-variations entre le métabolome et le microbiote à la surface de l’algue ont été observées à différents niveaux, que ce soit à l’échelle du thalle, de la dynamique temporelle ou encore d’un point de vue biogéographique. Certains paramètres environnementaux semblent être particulièrement impliqués dans les interactions au sein de l’holobionte, tels que la température, la contamination en cuivre, mais aussi l’intensité lumineuse. Dans un contexte de Changement Global, ces travaux apportent de nouvelles perspectives permettant de mieux appréhender la dynamique des macroalgues-holobiontes.
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Different tissues in the maternal-fetal interface harbor distinct microbiomes showing associations related to their anatomical position or function
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Nov 2022
The human placenta was thought to be sterile in healthy pregnancies which has been challenged by the development of DNA sequence-based techniques, although it is still open to controversy. Nonetheless, little is known whether different parts of fetal appurtenances contain district microbiome profiles. Here, DNA 16S rRNA sequencing was performed of the amniotic fluid cells (AC), amnion membrane (AM), the placenta of fetal surface (remove the amniotic membrane, PL), maternal blood (MB), and umbilical cord blood (UCB) at V3-V4 hypervariable region from participants with cesarean delivery. Then sequence raw data were followed by taxonomic classification at 97% similarity and diversity analysis at the genus level. The differences and associations among the five tissues were analyzed. At the phylum composition level, the most abundant microorganisms were Proteobacteria in all five tissues, and followed by Firmicutes in AC, AM, and MB groups, Actinobacteria in UCB and Bacteroidetes in PL, respectively. As the maternal-fetal barrier, PL and AM had the lower OUT number and weaker co-occurrence network compared with the other three tissues. At the beta diversity clustering level, the microbiota constituents in the MB and UCB were highly similar; the microbiota profiles of PL and AM were also remarkably alike; AC was immensely different from those two clusters. Therefore, the five tissues were distinctly separated into three clusters. Our study reveals that different pregnancy-related anatomical sites harbor unique microbial compositions and show different degrees of correlation with other tissues.
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Midgut bacterial diversity of a leaf-mining beetle, Dactylispa xanthospila (Gestro) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae)
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2021
Microorganisms play an essential role in the growth and development of numerous insect species. In this study, the total DNA from the midgut of adults of Dactylispa xanthospila were isolated and bacterial 16S rRNA sequenced using the high-throughput Illumina MiSeq platform. Then, the composition and diversity of the midgut bacterial community were analysed with QIIME2. The results showed the midgut bacteria of D. xanthospila belong to 30 phyla, 64 classes, 135 orders, 207 families and 369 genera. At the phylum level, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were the dominant bacteria, accounting for 91.95%, 3.44% and 2.53%, respectively. The top five families are Enterobacteriaceae (69.51%), Caulobacteraceae (5.24%), Rhizobiaceae (4.61%), Sphingomonadaceae (4.23%) and Comamonadaceae (2.67%). The bacterial community's primary functions are carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism and cofactor and vitamin metabolism, which are important for the nutritional requirements of plant-feeding insects. ‡ ‡ ‡ § ‡,|
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Elimination and irrigation therapy to optimize the state of the nasal microbiome in children
Article
  • Mar 2021
The article summarizes the results of the work of domestic and foreign researchers on the study of homeostasis of the nasal cavity, including the state of the microbiota of the nasal mucosa in healthy children and in inflammatory diseases of the upper respiratory tract. The normal microbiota of the nasal cavity is represented by corynebacteria (diphtheroids), neisseria, coagulasenegative staphylococci, alpha-hemolytic streptococci. From among the transient species, such species as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherihia coli, beta-hemolytic streptococci would be found in the specified biotope. The main attention is paid to the features of the nasal microbiota in newborns and young children (dependence of the nasal microbiota on the type of feeding, age and season). The role of hypercolonization by opportunistic microflora and its persistent potential (ability to biofilm formation, degradation of lysozyme, interferon) in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases of the upper respiratory tract is noted. The pathogenetic mechanisms providing multilevel protection of the organism from pathogens are considered. The expediency of using elimination-irrigation therapy as a hygienic means of sanitizing the nasal cavity in young children has been determined. The questions about the advantages of the use of isotonic solutions, their effectiveness for ensuring normal colonization resistance of the nasal mucosa are discussed. In conclusion, we must say that for hygienic care and sanitation purposes it is recommended only to rinse the nasal mucosa in newborns and infants using drops of isotonic saline solution and an aspirator to avoid aspiration and inflow of liquid into the cavity of Eustachian tube and middle ear, and also for the preventive purposes, as it allows to maintain homeostasis of the nasal mucosa and prevent the development of acute respiratory diseases.
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The Imprinted Brain: How Genes Set the Balance Between Autism and Psychosis
Book
Full-text available
  • Jun 2009
The Imprinted Brain sets out a radical new theory of the mind and mental illness based on the recent discovery of genomic imprinting. Imprinted genes are those from one parent that, in that parent's interest, are expressed in an offspring rather than the diametrically opposed genes from the other parent. For example, a higher birth weight may represent the dominance of the father's genes in leading to a healthy child, whereas a lower birth weight is beneficial to the mother's immediate wellbeing, and the imprint of the mother's genes will result in a smaller baby. According to this view, a win for the father's genes may result in autism, whereas one for the mother's may result in psychosis. A state of equilibrium - normality - is the most likely outcome, with a no-win situation of balanced expression. Imprinted genes typically produce symptoms that are opposites of each other, and the author uses psychiatric case material to show how many of the symptoms of psychosis can be shown to be the mental mirror-images of those of autism. Combining psychiatry with insights from modern genetics and cognitive science, Christopher Badcock explains the fascinating imprinted brain theory to the reader in a thorough but accessible way. This new theory casts some intriguing new light on other topics as diverse as the nature of genius, the appeal of detective fiction, and the successes - and failures - of psychoanalysis.
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Toxoplasmosis in the Netherlands
Article
  • Jan 1999
Toxoplasmosis is a common disease in the Netherlands. The risk factors and most important transmission routes are not yet determined. There is no screening program for pregnant women in the Netherlands. A study in the late eighties showed a relatively low seroconversion rate, possibly due to information of pregnant women. Seroprevalence is as high as 90% for people above 65 years of age. In the age group in which women get pregnant there is a strong increase of prevalence. Diagnostic tests can cause trouble when used as a screening test.
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Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs
Article
  • Jan 2013
Most psychiatric disorders are moderately to highly heritable. The degree to which genetic variation is unique to individual disorders or shared across disorders is unclear. To examine shared genetic etiology, we use genome-wide genotype data from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC) for cases and controls in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We apply univariate and bivariate methods for the estimation of genetic variation within and covariation between disorders. SNPs explained 17-29% of the variance in liability. The genetic correlation calculated using common SNPs was high between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (0.68 +/- 0.04 s.e.), moderate between schizophrenia and major depressive disorder (0.43 +/- 0.06 s.e.), bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder (0.47 +/- 0.06 s.e.), and ADHD and major depressive disorder (0.32 +/- 0.07 s.e.), low between schizophrenia and ASD (0.16 +/- 0.06 s.e.) and non-significant for other pairs of disorders as well as between psychiatric disorders and the negative control of Crohn's disease. This empirical evidence of shared genetic etiology for psychiatric disorders can inform nosology and encourages the investigation of common pathophysiologies for related disorders.
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The Enteric Nervous System
Article
  • Nov 2007
This book brings together extensive knowledge of the structure and cell physiology of the enteric nervous system and provides an up-to-date synthesis of the roles of the enteric nervous system in the control of motility, secretion and blood supply in the gastrointestinal tract. It includes sections on the enteric nervous system in disease, genetic abnormalities that affect enteric nervous system function, and targets for therapy in the enteric nervous system. It also includes many newly created explanatory diagrams and illustrations of the organization of enteric nerve circuits. This new book is ideal for gastroenterologists (including trainees/fellows), clinical physiologists and educators. It is invaluable for the many scientists in academia, research institutes and industry who have been drawn to work on the gastrointestinal innervation because of its intrinsic interest, its economic importance and its involvement in unsolved health problems. It also provides a valuable resource for undergraduate and graduate teaching.
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The impact of gut microbiota on brain and behaviour
Article
Purpose of review: The gut microbiota has become a focus of research for those interested in the brain and behaviour. Here, we profile the gut microbiota in a variety of neuropsychiatric syndromes. Recent findings: Multiple routes of communication between the gut and brain have been established and these include the vagus nerve, immune system, short chain fatty acids and tryptophan. Developmentally, those born by caesarean section have a distinctly different microbiota in early life to those born per vaginum. At the other extreme, individuals who age with considerable ill-heath tend to show narrowing in microbial diversity. Recently, the gut microbiota has been profiled in a variety of conditions including autism, major depression and Parkinson's disease. There is still debate as to whether or not these changes are core to the pathophysiology or merely epiphenomenal. Summary: The current narrative suggests that certain neuropsychiatric disorders might be treated by targeting the microbiota either by microbiota transplantation, antibiotics or psychobiotics.
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Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs
Article
  • Jan 2013
Most psychiatric disorders are moderately to highly heritable. The degree to which genetic variation is unique to individual disorders or shared across disorders is unclear. To examine shared genetic etiology, we use genome-wide genotype data from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC) for cases and controls in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We apply univariate and bivariate methods for the estimation of genetic variation within and covariation between disorders. SNPs explained 17-29% of the variance in liability. The genetic correlation calculated using common SNPs was high between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (0.68 ± 0.04 s.e.), moderate between schizophrenia and major depressive disorder (0.43 ± 0.06 s.e.), bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder (0.47 ± 0.06 s.e.), and ADHD and major depressive disorder (0.32 ± 0.07 s.e.), low between schizophrenia and ASD (0.16 ± 0.06 s.e.) and non-significant for other pairs of disorders as well as between psychiatric disorders and the negative control of Crohn's disease. This empirical evidence of shared genetic etiology for psychiatric disorders can inform nosology and encourages the investigation of common pathophysiologies for related disorders.
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