Content uploaded by Tynke Toering
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Tynke Toering on May 10, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
This article was downloaded by: [Tynke Toering]
On: 10 May 2015, At: 03:42
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Click for updates
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uasp20
Self-Control in Professional Soccer
Players
Tynke Toeringa & Geir Jordeta
a Norwegian School of Sport Sciences
Accepted author version posted online: 03 Feb 2015.Published
online: 03 Feb 2015.
To cite this article: Tynke Toering & Geir Jordet (2015): Self-Control in Professional Soccer Players,
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/10413200.2015.1010047
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2015.1010047
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 00: 1–16, 2015
Copyright C
Association for Applied Sport Psychology
ISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 online
DOI: 10.1080/10413200.2015.1010047
Self-Control in Professional Soccer Players
TYNKE TOERING AND GEIR JORDET
Norwegian School of Sport Sciences
This study aimed to investigate the concept of self-control in association with engagement in
daily activities of professional soccer players and its relationship with soccer performance.
Findings indicated that self-control scores of male professional soccer players (N=639),
representing the first squad of every club playing in the (Norwegian) Premier and Second
League, were associated with their lifestyle and practice time. A small, positive relationship
between self-control and soccer performance was found. In terms of expert performance, a
possible explanation of our findings is that self-control helps individuals stay on track on their
pathways to excellence.
Current expertise development research implies that it is hard, if not impossible, to identify
future top performers at a very early age (e.g., Abbott & Collins, 2004; Phillips, Davids,
Renshaw, & Pontus, 2010; Seifert, Button, & Davis, 2013; Vaeyens, Lenior, Williams, &
Philippaerts, 2008). This indicates the importance of focusing on expertise development rather
than talent identification. In addition, it has recently been argued that pathways to world-class
performance are rocky and that setbacks or difficulties may actually help performers grow
(Collins & MacNamara, 2012). It was implied that the effectiveness of talent development
programs may be increased by incorporating interventions that focus on how to deal with such
challenges, thereby developing performers’ self-control, mental toughness, and/or resilience
(Collins & MacNamara, 2012). This rationale is in line with findings in the academic domain,
which for instance show that self-control was a stronger predictor of students’ grade point
average than were SAT test or IQ scores (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Wolfe & Johnson,
1995). The aim of the current study was to investigate the concept of self-control in professional
soccer players. In addition, the relationship between self-control and professional soccer
players’ performance was examined.
Although there are many definitions of self-control, general agreement exists that it can
be defined as the capacity to alter one’s responses to achieve a desired state or outcome that
otherwise would not arise naturally (e.g., Bauer & Baumeister, 2011; De Ridder, Lensvelt-
Mulders, Finkenauer, Stok, & Baumeister, 2012). Self-control and self-regulation are often
used interchangeably, whereas some researchers define self-control as a deliberate, effortful
form of self-regulation (Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007). Some concepts typically related to
self-control are grit (the tendency to pursue long-term challenging goals with perseverance
and passion; e.g., Duckworth & Quinn, 2009), delay of gratification (controlling immediate
Received 26 September 2014; accepted 16 January 2015.
Address correspondence to Tynke Toering, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Department of
Coaching and Psychology, P.O. Box 4014, Ullev˚
al Stadion 0806, Oslo, Norway. E-mail: tynke.
toering@gmail.com
1
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
2 T. TOERING AND G. JORDET
impulses and responses in favor of long-term outcomes; e.g., W. Mischel, Shoda, & Peake,
1988), willpower (a form of energy to persist or change behavior; e.g., Baumeister, Vohs,
& Tice, 2007). Research distinguishes between dispositional self-control and the amount of
temporarily available self-control strength (state self-control; e.g., Tangney, Baumeister, &
Boone, 2004) and has repeatedly indicated that good self-control is associated with a healthy
and successful life (e.g., Tangney et al., 2004; Vohs & Baumeister, 2011). Self-control is one of
the central concepts of psychological functioning, as it helps people adapt to their environment,
which is essential for the evolutionary goals of survival and reproduction (Schmeichel &
Baumeister, 2004). Several studies have indeed shown that the capacity for self-control is
related to good adjustment and performance, such as high self-esteem, better grades, better
health, less alcohol abuse, and less pathology (e.g., Hagger, Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis,
2010; Tangney et al., 2004; Vohs & Baumeister, 2011).
One of the most notable studies in self-control research was conducted by W. Mischel et al.
(1988), who found that a greater ability to delay gratification among 4-year-olds was related to
higher academic and social competence, and more effective coping as rated by parents about
10 years later. A follow-up study showed that more specific factors, such as exposure to the
reward, seemed to play a role as well (Shoda, Mischel, & Peake, 1990). These results indicated
that motivational and temporal considerations (planful behavior, metacognition), expectations,
and personality variables in addition to cognitive and attentional strategies (rules to facilitate
delay) were likely to affect the delay of gratification process. It may be more adaptive to delay
or to not delay, depending on individuals’ judgment of the contingencies of their decision (H.
N. Mischel & Mischel, 1983; Shoda et al., 1990), which shows the importance of the context
in addition to the capacity to resist temptation. In summary, these studies seem to indicate that
self-control is related to “life performance” through both strategic behaviors and motivational
processes.
Self-control involves both the control and generation of impulses (i.e., inhibition vs. plan-
ning and perseverance; De Ridder, De Boer, Lugtig, Bakker, & Van Hooft, 2011) and has been
implied to primarily include processes related to delay of gratification, (conversely) impulsiv-
ity, and executive functioning. Executive functioning refers to cognitive processes that enable
human beings “to solve novel problems, modify behavior in light of new information, generate
strategies for complex actions, follow through with plans, and override pre-potent behavioral
and emotional responses to engage in goal-directed behavior” (Williams, Suchy, & Rau, 2009,
p. 126). Tasks associated with self-control that involve executive functioning are for instance
the Tower of Londen test and Stroop task, which include different sets of processes related to
working memory, attention, response inhibition, and task switching (see Duckworth & Kern,
2012, for an overview). As a consequence of the many processes involved, the concept of
self-control has not only been defined but also measured in several ways. Duckworth and Kern
(2012) conducted a meta-analysis including 236 studies that measured self-control using delay
of gratification tasks, executive functioning tasks, and self-/informant-report questionnaires to
assess the convergent validity among these measures. They defined self-control as voluntary,
“top-down” self-governance, which inhibits or obviates impulses, to reach personally valued
goals and standards. Results revealed moderate convergence across self-control measures.
Informant- and self-report questionnaires demonstrated the strongest evidence of convergent
validity. It was concluded that self-control is a coherent but multidimensional construct best
examined using multiple measures.
A meta-analysis investigating the relationship between self-reported self-control and be-
havior showed that self-control is primarily associated with the ability to form and break
habits (De Ridder et al., 2012). It seems that individuals who score high on self-control
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
SELF-CONTROL IN PROFESSIONAL SOCCER PLAYERS 3
structure their lives in such a way that they minimize the extent to which they get into tempting
situations (Hofmann, Baumeister, F¨
orster, & Vohs, 2012), which may promote decisions that
are beneficial for a healthy and successful life. This could be related to outrageous behaviors
that soccer players may get involved in (Maughan, 2006). The capability to resist situational
temptations and short-term gains makes it more likely that one will attain preferable long-term
goals (Hagger et al., 2010). The capacity for self-control may facilitate elite athletes’ perfor-
mance because, to be successful in a high-performance setting over time, it is essential for
elite athletes to focus on long-term goals and to stay away from possible distractions given the
high demands they face in terms of factors such as practice–rest balance and media exposure
(e.g., Gould, Moffett, & Diefenbach, 2002; MacNamara, Button, & Collins, 2010). Another
way in which self-control could affect elite sport performance is through athletes’ preparation
for practice and competition. Several studies using the strength model of self-regulation have
indicated that athletes performing at a relatively high level can be susceptible to ego deple-
tion, which may have a negative impact on subsequent performance (e.g., Dorris, Power, &
Kenefick, 2012; Englert & Bertrams, 2012).
In addition, dispositional self-control may facilitate elite athletes’ performance through
its effect on practice quality. Research implies that deliberate practice is essential to the
development of sport excellence (e.g., Baker & Young, 2014), and one of the characteristics
of deliberate practice is that it is not always enjoyable (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-R ¨
omer,
1993). This means that sustaining large amounts of deliberate practice over time requires
self-control. Research on the relationship between self-control and performance revealed that
self-control was a stronger predictor of academic performance than intellectual ability (e.g.,
Duckworth & Seligman, 2005). It has been implied that the relationship between self-control
and academic results is affected by whether students do their homework (e.g., Hofer, Kuhnle,
Kilian, & Fries, 2012). Students’ level of self-control seems to influence doing homework,
while doing homework may also improve their self-control (Ramdass & Zimmerman, 2011).
Furthermore, lack of self-control as measured by behaviors that could be considered as more or
less irresponsible (smoking, drinking, falling asleep in class, fail to do homework on time) was
found to be negatively related with first-semester grade point average among college students
who used to be high achievers in high school (Honken & Ralston, 2013). The previous findings
are supported by a longitudinal study, which revealed that self-control better predicted changes
in report card grades through teachers’ ratings of homework and classroom conduct than did
IQ, whereas intelligence was a stronger predictor of changes in standardized achievement test
scores than self-control (Duckworth, Quinn, & Tsukayama, 2012). The latter may indicate
that the relationship between self-control and performance is primarily mediated by practice
effort.
Based on the results of self-control studies on sport and academic performance, we can
hypothesize that self-control is linked to a professional athletic lifestyle, engagement in the
necessary amount, and quality of practice, and athletic performance. Expertise development
research has proposed these factors to be essential to reach and maintain excellent perfor-
mance levels (e.g., Ericsson et al., 1993). This means that self-control may be related to the
development and performance of elite athletes, although it also has to be acknowledged that
there are many factors that influence expertise development and performance (e.g., Phillips
et al., 2010; Seifert et al., 2013; Vaeyens et al., 2008). The first aim of the present study was to
investigate the concept of self-control in professional soccer players, with specific reference to
their engagement in daily activities, including soccer practice. The second aim was to examine
the association between self-control and soccer performance, both at the individual and team
level.
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
4 T. TOERING AND G. JORDET
Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations of Participant Characteristics, and the Percentage of
Foreign Players at Each League Level
Premier LeagueaSecond Leagueb
Age (years) 23.7 (5.3) 23.5 (4.3)
Height (cm) 182.7 (5.8) 182.3 (6.4)
Weight (kg) 77.8 (7.1) 77.9 (7.1)
Soccer practice/day (hours)∗2.6 (0.8) 2.5 (0.8)
No. of national team games∗2.9 (8.8) 0.2 (1.7)
Nationality (% foreign)∗27.4% 14.0%
an=322. bn=317.
∗p<.05.
METHODS
Participants
A total number of 639 professional soccer players (all male), who represented the first team
of every single club playing at the Premier (n=322) and Second League level (n=317) in
Norway participated in this study (Mage =23.6, SD =4.8; range =15–38 year). Both the
Norwegian Premier and Second League are professional leagues and both contain 16 clubs
with a first squad consisting of about 20 players. Participant characteristics are presented in
Tabl e 1 .
Procedure
All clubs represented in the Norwegian Premier and Second League were invited to par-
ticipate in a research survey investigating the psychological and practice characteristics of
professional soccer players. The clubs and their head coaches received an information letter.
All clubs agreed to participate, and representatives of the research group made an appointment
with the head coach as to when his team was available to complete the questionnaire. All
players received an information letter, and the ones who agreed to participate signed a consent
form. The parents of players younger than 18 years of age gave their written consent as well.
The questionnaire was administered with representatives of the research group present as test
leaders either at the venue of the preseason training camp in which the clubs were engaged
or at the clubs’ own training ground. The project has been approved by the Norwegian Data
Protection Authority. The procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical guidelines
of the Data Protection Authority as well as those prescribed by the American Psychological
Association.
Measures
Self-control
Self-control was assessed with the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS; Tangney et al., 2004).
This 13-item scale measures dispositional self-control and contains items such as “I have
a hard time breaking bad habits” and “I am able to work effectively on long-term goals.”
Participants indicate how much each item reflects how they typically are on a 5-point rating
scale (not at all to very much). Both the BSCS and its longer version, Total Self-Control Scale,
are supposed to cover the same range of content: control over thoughts, emotional control,
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
SELF-CONTROL IN PROFESSIONAL SOCCER PLAYERS 5
impulse control, performance regulation, and habit breaking. Items from each of these factors
of the Total Self-Control Scale were included in the BSCS (Tangney et al., 2004, p. 283).
Information about the factor structure and internal consistency of the scale is given in the data
analysis chapter.
Engagement in daily activities
The time players spent on daily activities was measured by simply asking the participants
how much time per day, on average, they spent on soccer practice (team and individual),
practice of other sports, traveling to/from soccer practice, school attendance, doing homework,
watching TV, surfing the Internet, gaming, hanging out with friends, reading (nonschool), and
sleeping (at night). Participants filled out the number of hours and minutes of engagement in
each activity per day.
Performance level
Performance level was measured in three different manners because many perspectives can
be taken on how to measure performance level. First, players were grouped into a Premier
League (n=322) and Second League level (n=317), where those in the Premier League
group are at a higher level of performance. Second, the players were divided into a group
that had senior national team game experience (n=82) and a group who had not (n=
539). Eighteen players did not report their national team experience. In general, the best
players of a country are selected for the national team to represent their nation, indicating
that one can assume that these players, on average, have a higher performance level than
others. Third, we created a variable in accordance with the final, end-of-season ranking of
the Norwegian Premier and Second League teams. Both the Premier and Second League
contain 16 teams, making a total of 32 teams. Based on the ranking at the end of the season,
we numbered the teams from 1 to 32, with the team that won the Premier League ranked
highest (number 32), the one winning the Second League as number 17, and the team ending
up last in the Second League as number one. Thus, a higher score means a better end-of-
season ranking. National team experience may be a better performance measure for individual
players than league level or final ranking. However, the latter variables are important too,
because soccer is a team sport and players are also evaluated on the performance of their
teams.
Data Analysis
Of the 639 professional soccer players who participated in the present study, 20 players did
not correctly complete the questionnaire. These were excluded from further analysis, leaving
a total sample of 619 participants, of whom 314 were Premier League and 305 were Second
League players, and 79 had senior national team experience, whereas 525 had not (15 of
the remaining players did not report national team experience). Less than 5% of cases were
missing, and Little’s chi-square statistic indicated that the data were missing completely at
random (p> .05). Missing data were imputed using EM estimation.
Given as previous research proposed that self-control involves both the control and gener-
ation of impulses (De Ridder et al., 2011), that it is a multidimensional construct (Duckworth
& Kern, 2012), and that the BSCS may be a two-factor scale instead of a unidimensional one
(Maloney, Grawitch, & Barber, 2012), we decided to test the factor structure of the BSCS. The
data were randomly split into two separate files (approximately 50/50%). The first file (N=
317) was used to conduct an exploratory factor analysis (principal axis factoring with direct
oblimin rotation), which revealed that a two-factor solution fitted the observed data best. The
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
6 T. TOERING AND G. JORDET
Tabl e 2
Factor Loadings and Explained Variance of BSCS Items After Confirmatory Factor
Analysis: Two-Factor Model of Self-Control
Restraint Impulse Control
Factor Explained Factor Explained
loading variance loading variance
1. I am good at resisting temptation. 0.61 0.36 — —
2. I have a hard time breaking bad habits. –0.53 0.28 — —
3. I am lazy. –0.53 0.28 — —
4. I say inappropriate things. — — 0.55 0.30
5. I do certain things that are bad for me, if they are
fun.
——0.60 0.35
6.Irefusethingsthatarebadforme. ————
7. I wish I had more self-discipline. –0.66 0.45 — —
8. People would say that I have iron self-discipline. 0.58 0.33 — —
9. Pleasure and fun sometimes keep me from getting
work done.
————
10. I have trouble concentrating. — — 0.45 0.20
11. I am able to work effectively on long- term goals. 0.45 0.20 — —
12. Sometimes I can’t stop myself from doing
something, even if I know it’s wrong.
——0.70 0.49
13. I often act without thinking through all the
alternatives.
——0.83 0.70
Note. Comparative fit index (CFI) =.96, Non-normed fit index (NNFI) =.94, Root mean square error of estimation
(RMSEA) =.072, Standardized root mean residual (SRMR) =.062; Cronbach’s α=0.70 and 0.75.The correlation
between Restraint and Impulse Control was −0.64.
first factor, which explained 31.6% of the variance, included items related to restraint, whereas
factor number two contained items related to impulse control (10.5% explained variance). Two
of the 13 items did not load high enough on any factor and were therefore removed from further
analysis (r<.40; Items 6 and 9 of the original scale). The two-factor solution with 11 items
was then validated using data file number two (N=302) by performing a confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) in LISREL 8.8 (J¨
oreskog & S¨
orbom, 2007). The CFA provided satisfactory
results for the two-factor solution (i.e., comparative fit index [CFI] =.96, non-normed fit index
[NNFI] =.94, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] =.072, standardized root
mean square residual [SRMR] =.062; Cronbach’s α=0.70 and 0.75). Items, factor loadings,
and explained variances are presented in Table 2.
In addition, we managed to recruit a new representative sample of 134 elite soccer play-
ers to validate our factor analysis results (about 50% professional and 50% young players
who were part of specific talent groups at their clubs). They filled out the BSCS and other
self-report instruments measuring constructs related to self-control in terms of motivation,
goal-directedness, self-regulated learning, and emotional control; that is, the Achievement
Goal Questionnaire–Sport (Conroy, Elliot, & Hofer, 2003), Grit-S (Duckworth & Quinn,
2009), a short version of the soccer-specific self-regulated learning scale (Toering, Jordet,
& Ripegutu, 2013), and the Sport Anxiety Scale–2 (Smith, Smoll, Cumming, & Grossbard,
2006). A CFA to validate the model found in the research sample reproduced the two-factor
model (i.e., CFI =.95, NNFI =.93, RMSEA =.064, SRMR =.067; factor loadings ranged
from 0.42 to 0.87; r=−.54). In addition, significant correlations were found between re-
straint and grit (r=.53), self-regulated learning (r=.36), and mastery approach achievement
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
SELF-CONTROL IN PROFESSIONAL SOCCER PLAYERS 7
orientation (r=.33). We also found significant correlations between impulse control and grit
(r=.57); the sport anxiety subscales of worry, somatic anxiety, and concentration disruption
(r=−.28, −.28, and −.40, respectively); and the achievement orientations of performance
approach, performance avoidance, and mastery avoidance (r=−.28, −.24, −.24, respec-
tively). These results confirm the validity of the self-control model that was used in the
present study, in that restraint seemed to be related to long-term learning and development
and impulse control seemed to be connected to a focus on long-term goals, emotional con-
trol, and being motivated by focusing on what one can control. All scores of negatively
stated items were reversed in the subsequent analyses, so that a higher score meant more
self-control.
Self-Control and Daily Activities
Multiple regression analyses were conducted to find out whether professional soccer
players’ scores on restraint and impulse control predicted how much time they spent on
soccer practice (team and individual), practice of other sports, traveling to/from soccer prac-
tice, school attendance, doing homework, watching TV, surfing the Internet, gaming, hang-
ing out with friends, reading (nonschool), and sleeping (at night). Restraint and impulse
control served as the predictors and each daily activity as the dependent variable. The as-
sumptions for multiple regression analysis were met, and a significance level of .05 was
adopted.
Self-Control and Performance Level
Mean scores for restraint and impulse control were computed for each league level and
national team experience (yes/no). Cohen’s dfor effect size was calculated as well (Cohen,
1992; 0.20 is small, 0.50 is moderate, and 0.80 is large effect size). Two logistic regression
analyses were conducted to examine whether self-control was associated with performance
level. Restraint and impulse control served as predictors in the first analysis and league
level served as the dependent variable (second/premier league). Given that the number of
soccer training hours was associated with league level, this variable was included as possible
confounder. The second logistic regression analysis again had restraint and impulse control as
predictors, but senior national team experience served as the dependent variable (no/yes). A
check of the linearity of the logits indicated that the assumption of linearity was met for all
variables in all analyses. Other assumptions, such as absence of multicollinearity, were also
met.
The logistic regression analyses involved two steps: Possible confounder(s) were included
in the first step and the predictor(s) in the second step. To be considered a confounder, the
relative change of βof the confounders following the first step compared with βafter the
second step had to be at least 25% when βwas larger than 0.40 or −0.40, and the absolute
change had to be at least 0.1 when −0.40 <β<0.40 (Frankena & Graat, 1997). The Hosmer
and Lemeshow Goodness-of-Fit Test was used to assess the accuracy of the model (Hosmer
& Lemeshow, 1989), and a significance level of α=.05 was adopted.
The association between self-control and the final ranking of Premier and Second League
teams was examined by computing the Pearson correlation. Mean restraint and impulse control
scores per team were calculated, which then were correlated with the end-of-season ranking
variable.
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
8 T. TOERING AND G. JORDET
Tabl e 3
Mean and Standard Deviation of Number of Hours Spent on Several Daily Activities for
Professional Soccer Players
Hours per daya
Soccer practice 2.56 (0.81)
Other sport practice 0.38 (0.57)
Traveling to practice 0.65 (0.67)
Being at school 3.73 (2.60)
Doing homework 0.89 (0.82)
Watching TV 2.00 (1.26)
Internet 1.65 (1.11)
Gaming 0.72 (0.98)
Being with friends 1.61 (1.23)
Reading 0.41 (0.68)
Sleep 8.10 (0.91)
Note. The groups were smaller for being at school and doing homework (n=321); not all players still go to
school/follow an education.
aN=619.
RESULTS
Daily Activities of Professional Soccer Players
Professional soccer players scored 3.45 (SD =0.66) on restraint and 3.90 (SD =0.70)
on impulse control, on average. The mean number of hours spent on soccer practice (team
and individual), practice of other sports, traveling to/from soccer practice, school attendance,
doing homework, watching TV, surfing the Internet, gaming, hanging out with friends, reading
(nonschool), and sleeping (at night) in professional soccer players is presented in Table 3. The
multiple regression analyses showed that restraint predicted players’ engagement in soccer
practice (β=.12, SE =.06, p<.01), watching TV (β=–.12, SE =.09, p<.02), and
sleep (β=.12, SE =.07, p<.02). Results also showed that impulse control predicted doing
homework (β=.14, SE =.08, p<.03), using the Internet (β=–.10, SE =.07, p<.03),
gaming (β=−.17, SE =.06, p<.001), and being with friends (β=−.11, SE =.08, p<.02).
It seems that restraint primarily is positively related to desired behaviors or daily activities,
whereas impulse control is negatively associated with play and social activities.
Performance Level
League level
The mean scores on restraint and impulse control of premier league players were higher than
those of second league players: 3.52 (0.62) versus 3.38 (0.69), p<.05, and 3.94 (0.66) versus
3.86 (0.73), ns, respectively. Effect sizes were small (d=0.21 and d=0.11, respectively).
The logistic regression analysis with restraint and impulse control as predictors showed that
neither restraint nor impulse control predicted league level, although the restraint variable had
a close-to-significant effect (p<.08; Table 4). Soccer practice hours per day did not influence
the relationship between (a) restraint and impulse control scores and (b) league level. The
nonsignificant Hosmer and Lemeshow Goodness-of-Fit Test showed that our model fitted the
data, χ2(8, n=600) =6.42, p=.60. The Nagelkerke R2indicated that the explained variance
of the model was 2.3%.
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
SELF-CONTROL IN PROFESSIONAL SOCCER PLAYERS 9
Tabl e 4
Results of the Logistic Regression Analyses
β(SE)OR 95% CI of OR p
Premier vs. Second League
Restraint 0.25 (0.14) 1.29 0.97-1.71 .08
Impulse control 0.05 (0.14) 1.05 0.81-1.36 .71
Practice hours per day 0.19 (0.10) 1.21 0.99-1.48 .06
National team experience (yes/no)
Restraint 0.18 (0.22) 1.19 0.78-1.82 .41
Impulse control 0.60 (0.23) 1.83 1.17-2.86 .01
Note. CI =confidence interval; OR =odds ratio.
National team experience
The mean scores of players with and without senior national team experience on restraint
and impulse control differed significantly: 3.62 (0.66) versus 3.42 (0.66), p<.05, and 4.15
(0.52) versus 3.86 (0.71), p<.05. The effect size for restraint was small-to-moderate (d=
0.30) and the one for impulse control was moderate (d=0.47).
Only impulse control significantly predicted whether players had senior national team
experience (OR =1.83, p<.01; Table 4). For each point scored on impulse control, players
were 83% more likely to have national team experience. This means that there was 83%
more chance for a player to have senior national team experience, if he scored 1 point more on
impulse control than another player. The Hosmer and Lemeshow Goodness-of-Fit Test showed
that the model fitted the data, χ2(8, n=604) =3.45, p=.90, and the explained variance was
4.1% (Nagelkerke R2).
Final league ranking team
We found a strong positive correlation between preseason team restraint scores and teams’
final, end-of-season ranking in the Norwegian Premier and Second League (r=0.61; p<
.001). The higher the team’s restraint score at the start of the season, the better the team’s
final league ranking. Teams’ preseason impulse control was moderately associated with their
end-of-season ranking (r=0.44; p<.001).
DISCUSSION
The current study aimed to investigate the concept of self-control in professional soccer
players and its relationship with their performance of professional soccer players. When
testing the factor structure of the BSCS (Tangney et al., 2004), it turned out that self-control
may be constituted of two factors in our group of professional soccer players: restraint and
impulse control. Both variables were associated with the time soccer players spent on daily
activities; restraint was positively associated with daily soccer practice and sleep at night and
negatively with watching TV. Impulse control was positively related with doing homework
and negatively with using Internet, gaming, and being with friends. Impulse control predicted
soccer performance, in that players with a higher score were more likely to have senior
national team experience (OR =1.83). No relationship with performance was found for
restraint. Last, team restraint scores measured before the start of the season were found to be
strongly associated with the final league ranking of the teams in the following season, whereas
the association between teams’ impulse control and end-of-season ranking was moderate.
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
10 T. TOERING AND G. JORDET
The results show that there seems to be a relationship between self-control variables, daily
activities, and performance in professional soccer players. The findings also seem to indicate
that the concept of self-control may mean something different for elite athletes than for regular
populations.
Professional athletes must have a well-structured life given the challenges they face both
inside and outside of the performance arena (e.g., Gould et al., 2002; MacNamara et al., 2010).
Based on the relationship of self-control with the formation of good habits and breaking of
bad habits, and the positive link between the ability to delay gratification and life success,
we expected self-control to be relatively high among professional soccer players. The soccer
players had significantly higher total self-control scores (restraint and impulse control com-
bined; M=3.66) than the ones that have been found in general populations (M=3.26,
p<.05; De Ridder et al., 2012). Self-control appeared to be related to players’ lifestyle, in
that higher scores on restraint and impulse control were associated with spending more time
on soccer practice, sleeping, and homework and less time on social and play activities. This
may indicate that those with lower dispositional self-control have a less professional lifestyle
particularly because social and play activities, particularly when carried out excessively, may
be labeled as less professional. Research has also implied that individuals high on self-control
create structure in their lives so that they minimize the extent to which they end up in tempting
situations and maximize the extent to which they can focus on their long-term goals (e.g.,
Hagger et al., 2010; Hofmann et al., 2012). However, one may be critical to the argument that
spending more time on social and play activities by definition is a bad thing. Narratives from
practice and research evidence emphasize the importance of letting go of one’s sport during
free time to prevent mental exhaustion (e.g., Gould et al., 2002; Gustafsson, Hassm`
en, Kentt¨
a,
& Johansson, 2008). It is therefore well possible that social and play activities serve the goal of
functional and helpful distraction, which is not necessarily linked to unprofessional attitudes.
Results also revealed a positive relationship between restraint and soccer practice hours per
day, which is in accordance with expertise development research that implies that deliberate
practice is essential for excellent performance (e.g., Ericsson et al., 1993). First, deliberate
practice is not always enjoyable and requires effort and concentration (e.g., Baker, Cobley, &
Fraser-Thomas, 2009). Furthermore, elite soccer players accumulate many deliberate practice
hours to improve and maintain performance, trying to make sure that they hold a competitive
advantage over other players (e.g., Haugaasen, Toering, & Jordet, 2014). To elaborate, approx-
imately 265 million people worldwide regularly play soccer, of which 38 million are registered
(about 34 million men; FIFA, 2007). Of the registered male soccer players around 110,000
have a professional status, meaning that only about 0.3% of players attain a professional status
(Haugaasen & Jordet, 2012). In addition, professional soccer players must perform during
matches one to three times per week, soccer has grown into a multimillion dollar business,
and soccer is known to be one of the most profiled and pressure-filled sports due to its high
rewards for success and severe consequences of failure (Forde, 2010). Given these demands,
it seems likely that one needs an appropriate focus in order to be able to perform. Although
we acknowledge that there are multiple factors that affect expertise development and soccer
performance, the willingness to do just a little more than others each day may to some extent
contribute to differences between elite performance levels. Future research should address the
meaning of engagement in different daily activities, as only the number of hours spent on them
does not provide us with sufficient information.
In line with research from the academic domain (e.g., Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, &
Kelly, 2007; Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Wolfe & Johnson, 1995), impulse control was
found to be positively related to players’ soccer performance level. The higher the impulse
control scores, the more likely it was that they had senior national team experience. Team
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
SELF-CONTROL IN PROFESSIONAL SOCCER PLAYERS 11
performance was found to be related to the team’s self-control scores as well: Preseason
team restraint scores were positively and strongly related to the team’s end-of-season ranking,
whereas the association with team impulse control was positive and moderate. These findings
are supported by several studies on expertise development in soccer, in sport in general, and in
other performance domains, which pointed out the importance of individuals’ determination to
succeed and perseverance in the face of failure to reach optimal performance levels (e.g., Baker
&C
ˆ
ot´
e, 2003; Bloom, 1985; Collins & MacNamara, 2012; Ericsson et al., 1993; Gagn´
e, 2004;
Haugaasen & Jordet, 2012; Holt & Dunn, 2004; Holt & Mitchell, 2006; Toering, Elferink-
Gemser, Jordet, & Visscher, 2009). Regarded from an expert performance perspective, self-
control seems to be one of the characteristics that help individuals tolerate difficult periods
throughout their careers, such as performance slumps, injuries, other setbacks, and pressure
(Jordet, in press). As suggested earlier, sustained motivation to engage in not always enjoyable,
deliberate practice is a key process on the pathway to elite performance in sport (e.g., Baker
&C
ˆ
ot´
e, 2003; Ericsson et al., 1993).
The present study did not measure situational self-control strength. However, assuming
that dispositional self-control is to some extent related to situational self-control strength, in
that people higher on self-control may have larger self-control resources, the results of our
study can be linked with findings from field and lab studies on self-control strength, sport
performance, and anxiety. These studies show, for example, that self-regulation failure harms
performance during important soccer penalty shootouts through avoidance behavior (e.g.,
Jordet, 2009a, 2009b), that increasing self-control strength could reduce the negative effects
of state anxiety and improve athletes’ performance under pressure during basketball free
throw and darts throwing tasks (Englert & Bertrams, 2012) and that athletes’ capacity to focus
attention relies on the situational availability of self-control strength (Furley, Bertrams, Englert,
& Delphia, 2013). Self-control seems to contribute to athletes’ ability to be comfortable being
uncomfortable, which is essential for performance. This is particularly relevant in high-pressure
sports such as soccer.
Nevertheless, the effect of impulse control on soccer performance variables overall was
small. A consequence of examining a group with such a high performance level is that the
group is relatively homogeneous, which increases the chance that we find only small effects.
However, as differences become smaller closer to the top, it does not mean that the effects found
are irrelevant (Abernethy, Thomas, & Thomas, 1993). Although small effects may indicate
meaningful performance differences in such a specific group (only 0.3% of players attain
professional status), we can ask ourselves whether self-control means the same for the regular
population as it does for elite athletes. We speculate that self-control in elite athletes may be
more defined by an awareness of what is necessary to reach and maintain excellence in one’s
field rather than general restraint and impulse control, which both may be requirements to even
become a professional soccer player in the first place. In line with early findings on delay of
gratification (e.g., Shoda et al., 1990), we suggest that the context to a large extent defines and
contributes to the outcome of the self-control process. Another question that can be asked in
this regard is how much of learning, development, and performance really is under the control
of players themselves. Some studies, for example, indicated the importance of obeying the
coach to receive a positive evaluation (Holt & Dunn, 2004; Oliver, Hardy, & Markland, 2010).
In addition, many routines related to soccer practice and lifestyle are in control of the player’s
club. Therefore, more research on how to adequately measure self-control in professional
soccer players is needed.
Strengths of the present study are the number of participants and their level of performance.
So far, research on elite soccer has almost only focused on youth players, and the sample sizes
of these studies come nowhere near the magnitude of the current study, meaning that the sample
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
12 T. TOERING AND G. JORDET
of participants in this study is unique. A limitation is the use of self-report data. There may be
discrepancies between what players say and what they actually do (Andersen, McCullagh, &
Wilson, 2007; Baumeister, Vohs, & Funder, 2007). Therefore, we suggest that future research
focuses on using multiple measures of self-control.
Practical Implications
Self-control appears to be related to professional soccer players’ lifestyle and performance,
and the players scored higher than scores obtained from the general population. In addition,
given as our sample consisted of players who had already reached professional status, it
is possible that a certain level of self-control is a necessary requirement to even become
a professional player. Therefore, it seems recommendable for youth academies to develop
young (not yet professional) players’ self-control. This can be done through establishing
good habits, such as eating and sleeping well, and coming early to practice. Furthermore,
research implies it may be possible to develop interventions in one aspect of self-control
(e.g., affect regulation) and benefit from this in another aspect of self-control (e.g., deliberate
practice behavior; Baumeister, Gailliot, DeWall, & Oaten, 2006). In addition, the use of small,
controlled “trauma” in practice programs could help athletes develop more effectively by
increasing their self-control skills and resilience to prepare them for possible setbacks (Collins
& MacNamara, 2012). The latter may, in addition to performance, also have beneficial effects
on athletes’ general psychological health and well-being.
Conclusion
The present study showed a small, positive relationship between self-control and athletic
performance. In addition, self-control was associated with time spent on several daily activ-
ities, including practice time. In terms of expert performance, a possible explanation of our
findings is that self-control helps individuals stay on track on their pathways to excellence.
Self-control may also increase athletes’ perceived competence by helping them overcome chal-
lenges, which makes them more comfortable being uncomfortable. Although small effects may
indicate relevant performance differences in elite soccer players (only 0.3% of players attain
professional status), it remains unclear whether self-control means the same for the regular
population as it does for elite athletes. Therefore, more research on how to measure self-control
in elite athletes is recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Erik Hofseth and Mathias Haugaasen for their contributions. In addition, we
thank our students, the soccer clubs, coaches, and soccer players for their cooperation.
FUNDING
This study has been supported by a grant of the Norwegian Centre of Football Excellence.
REFERENCES
Abbott, A., & Collins, D. (2004). Eliminating the dichotomy between theory and practice in talent
identification and development: Considering the role of psychology. Journal of Sports Sciences,22,
395–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410410001675324
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
SELF-CONTROL IN PROFESSIONAL SOCCER PLAYERS 13
Abernethy, B., Thomas, K. T., & Thomas, J. T. (1993). Strategies for improving understanding of motor
expertise (or mistakes we have made and things we have learned!!). In J. L. Starkes, & F. Allard
(Eds.), Cognitive issues in motor expertise. (pp. 317–356). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: North-
Holland/Elsevier Science.
Andersen, M. B., McCullagh, P., & Wilson, G. J. (2007). But what do the numbers really tell us?:
Arbitrary metrics and effect size reporting in sport psychology research. Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology,29, 664–672.
Baker, J., Cobley, S., & Fraser-Thomas, J. (2009). What do we know about early sport specialization?
Not much! High Ability Studies,20, 77–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598130902860507
Baker,J.,&Cot
´
e, J. (2003). Resources and commitment as critical factors in the development of “gifted”
athletes. High Ability Studies,14, 139–140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1359813032000163816
Baker, J., & Young, B. W. (2014). 20 years later: Deliberate practice and the development
of expertise in sport. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology,7, 135–157.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2014.896024
Bauer, I. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2011). Self-regulatory strength. In: K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister,
Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory and applications (2nd ed., pp. 64–82). New York,
NY: Guilford Press.
Baumeister, R. F., Gailliot, M., DeWall, C. N. & Oaten, M. (2006). Self-regulation and personality: How
interventions increase regulatory success, and how depletion moderates the effects of traits on be-
havior. Journal of Personality,74, 1773–1802. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00428.x
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K., & Funder, D. C. (2007). Psychology as the science of self-reports and
finger movements: Whatever happened to actual behavior? Perspectives on Psychological Science,
2, 396–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00051.x
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Direc-
tions in Psychological Science,16, 351–355. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00534.x
Bloom, M. S. (1985). Developing talent in young people. New York, NY: Ballantine.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin,112, 155–159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-
2909.112.1.155
Collins, D., & MacNamara, A. (2012). The rocky road to the top: Why talent needs trauma. Sports
Medicine,42, 907–914. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03262302
Conroy, D. E., Elliot, A. J., & Hofer, S. M. (2003). A 2 x 2 achievement goals questionnaire for sport:
Evidence for factorial invariance, temporal stability, and external validity. Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology,25, 456–476.
De Ridder, D. T. D., De Boer, B. J., Lugtig, P., Bakker, A. B., & Van Hooft, E. A. J. (2011).
Not doing bad things is not equivalent to doing the right thing: Distinguishing between in-
hibitory and initiatory self-control. Personality and Individual Differences,50, 1006–1011.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.015
De Ridder, D. T. D., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking
stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors.
Personality and Psychology Review,16, 76–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868311418749
Dorris, D. C., Power, D. A., & Kenefick, E. (2012). Investigating the effects of ego depletion
on physical exercise routines of athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise,13, 118–125.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.10.004
Duckworth, A. L., & Kern, M. L. (2012). A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control mea-
sures. Journal of Research in Personality,45, 259–268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.004
Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale (Grit–S).
Journal of Personality Assessment,91, 166–174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290
Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Tsukayama, E. (2012). What No Child Left Behind leaves behind: The
roles of IQ and self-control in predicting standardized test scores and report card grades. Journal
of Educational Psychology,104, 439–451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026280
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and
passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,92, 1087–1101.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
14 T. TOERING AND G. JORDET
Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic
performance of adolescents. Psychological Science,16, 939–944. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9280.2005.01641.x
Englert, C., & Bertrams, A. (2012). Anxiety, ego depletion, and sports performance. Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology,34, 580–599.
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-R¨
omer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisi-
tion of expert performance. Psychological Review,100, 363–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-
295X.100.3.363
FIFA. (2007). FIFA big count 2006: 270 million people active in football.FIFA
Communications Division, Information Services (31-05-2007). Retrieved from
http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/bcoffsurv/bigcount.statspackage 7024.pdf.
Forde, M. (2010). Foreword. In M. Nesti (Ed.), Psychology in football: Working with elite and professional
players (pp. ix–x). London, UK: Routledge.
Frankena, K., & Graat, E. A. M. (1997). Multivariate analysis: Logistic regression. In J. P. T. M.
Noordhuizen, K. Frankena, C. M. van der Hoofd, & E. A. M. Graat (Eds.), Application of quantitative
methods in veterinary epidemiology (pp. 135–169). Wageningen, the Netherlands: Wageningen Pers.
Furley, P., Bertrams, A., Englert, C., & Delphia A. (2013). Ego depletion, attentional con-
trol, and decision making in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise,14, 900–904.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.08.006
Gagn´
e, F. (2004). Transforming gifts into talents: The DMGT as a developmental theory. High Ability
Studies,15, 119–147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1359813042000314682
Gould, D., Moffett, K., & Diefenbach, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their de-
velopment in olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,14, 172–204.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200290103482
Gustafsson, H., Hassm`
en, H., Kentt¨
a, G., & Johansson, M. (2008). A qualitative analysis
of burnout in elite Swedish athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise,9, 800–816.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.11.004
Hagger, M. S., Wood, C. W., Stiff, C. & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D (2010). Self-regulation and the self-control
in exercise. The strength: Energy model. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology,
3, 62–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17509840903322815
Haugaasen, M., & Jordet, G. (2012). Developing football expertise: A football-specific re-
search review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology,5, 177–201.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.677951
Haugaasen, M., Toering, T., & Jordet, G. (2014). From childhood to senior professional football: A multi-
level approach to elite youth football players’ engagement in football-specific activities. Psychology
of Sport and Exercise,15, 336–344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.02.007
Hofer, M., Kuhnle, C., Kilian, B., & Fries, S. (2012). Cognitive ability and personality variables as
predictors of school grades and test scores in adolescents. Learning and Instruction,22, 368–375.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.02.003
Hofmann, W., Baumeister, R. F., F ¨
orster, G., & Vohs, K. D. (2012). Everyday temptations: An experience
sampling study of desire, conflict, and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
102, 1318–1335. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026545
Holt, N. L., & Dunn, J. G. H. (2004). Toward a grounded theory of the psychosocial competencies and
environmental conditions associated with soccer success. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,16,
199–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200490437949
Holt, N. L., & Mitchell, T. (2006). Talent development in English professional soccer. International
Journal of Sport Psychology,37, 77–98.
Honken, N. B., & Ralston, P. A. S. (2013). High-achieving high school students and not so high-achieving
college students: A look at lack of self-control, academic ability, and performance in college. Journal
of Advanced Academics,24, 108–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1932202X13482466
Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. (1989). Applied logistic regression. New York, NY: Wiley and Sons.
Jordet, G. (2009a).When superstars flop: Public status and “choking under pressure” in in-
ternational soccer penalty shootouts. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,21, 125–130.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200902777263
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
SELF-CONTROL IN PROFESSIONAL SOCCER PLAYERS 15
Jordet, G. (2009b). Why do English players fail in soccer penalty shootouts? A study of team
status, self-regulation, and choking under pressure. Journal of Sports Sciences,27, 97–106.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410802509144
Jordet, G. (in press). Psychology and the development of elite soccer performance. In T. Strudwick (Ed.),
Soccer science. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
J¨
oreskog, K. G. & S¨
orbom, D. (2007). LISREL 8.80. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software
International.
MacNamara, A., Button, A., & Collins, D. (2010). The role of psychological characteristics in facilitating
the pathway to elite performance part 2: Examining environmental and stage-related differences in
skills and behaviors. The Sport Psychologist,24, 74–96.
Maloney, P. W., Grawitch, M. J., & Barber, L. K. (2012). The multi-factor structure of the brief self-
control scale: Discriminant validity of restraint and impulsivity. Journal of Research in Personality,
46, 111–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.10.001
Maughan, R. J. (2006). Alcohol and football. Journal of Sports Sciences,24, 741–748.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410500482933
Mischel, H. N., & Mischel, W. (1983). The development of children’s knowledge of self-control strategies.
Child Development,54, 603–619. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1130047
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Peake, P. (1988). The nature of adolescent competencies predicted by
preschool delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,54, 687–696.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.687
Oliver, E. J., Hardy, J., & Markland, D. (2010). Identifying important practice behaviors for the develop-
ment of high-level youth athletes: Exploring the perspectives of elite coaches. Psychology of Sport
and Exercise,11, 433–443. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.05.004
Phillips, E., Davids, K., Renshaw, I., & Pontus, M. (2010). Expert performance in sport and the dy-
namics of talent development. Sports Medicine,40, 271–283. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11319430-
000000000-00000
Ramdass, D., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Developing self-regulation skills: The impor-
tant role of homework. Journal of Advanced Academics,22, 194–218. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1177/1932202X1102200202
Schmeichel, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2004). Self-regulatory strength. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs
(Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 84–98). New York,
NY: Guilford Press.
Seifert, L., Button, C., & Davis, K. (2013). Key properties of expert movement systems in sport: An
ecological dynamics perspective. Sports Medicine,43, 167–178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40279-
012-0011-z
Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., & Peake, P. (1990). Predicting adolescent cognitive and self-regulatory com-
petencies from preschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnostic conditions. Developmental
Psychology,26, 978–986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.978
Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., Cumming, S. P., & Grossbard, J. R. (2006). Measurement of multidimensional
sport performance anxiety in children and adults: The sport anxiety scale-2. Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology,28, 479–501.
Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment,
less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality,72, 271–324.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x
Toering, T., Jordet, G., & Ripegutu, A. (2013). Effective learning among elite football players: The
development of a football-specific self-regulated learning questionnaire. Journal of Sports Sciences,
31, 1412–1420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2013.792949
Toering, T. T., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., Jordet, G., & Visscher, C. (2009). Self-regulation and perfor-
mance level of elite and non-elite youth soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences,27, 1509–1517.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640410903369919
Vaeyens, R., Lenoir, M., Williams, A. M., & Philippaerts, R. M. (2008). Talent identification and
development programmes in sport: Current models and future directions. Sports Medicine,38,
703–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200838090-00001
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
16 T. TOERING AND G. JORDET
Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2011). Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory and applications
(2nd ed., pp. 64–82). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Williams, P. G., Suchy, Y., & Rau, H. K. B. S. (2009). Individual differences in executive
functioning: Implications for stress regulation. Annals of Behavioral Medicine,37, 126–140.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12160-009-9100-0
Wolfe, R. N., & Johnson, S. D. (1995). Personality as a predictor of college performance. Educational
& Psychological Measurement,55, 177–185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013164495055002002
Downloaded by [Tynke Toering] at 03:42 10 May 2015
