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HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY ARTICLE
published: 04 February 2015
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00073
Understanding individual resilience in the workplace:
the international collaboration of workforce resilience
model
Clare S. Rees1*, Lauren J. Breen1,Lynette Cusack2and Desley Hegney3
1School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
2School of Nursing, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
3School of Nursing and Midwifery, The University of Southern Queensland, QLD, Australia
Edited by:
Anat Drach-Zahavy, University of
Haifa, Israel
Reviewed by:
Daniela Villani, Catholic University
of Sacred Heart, Italy
Deborah Phillips, Harvard
University, USA
*Correspondence:
Clare S. Rees, School of Psychology
and Speech Pathology, Faculty of
Health Sciences, Curtin University,
GPO Box U1987d, Perth, WA 6845,
Australia
e-mail: c.rees@curtin.edu.au
When not managed effectively, high levels of workplace stress can lead to several negative
personal and performance outcomes. Some professional groups work in highly stressful
settings and are therefore particularly at risk of conditions such as anxiety, depression,
secondary traumatic stress, and burnout. However, some individuals are less affected
by workplace stress and the associated negative outcomes. Such individuals have been
described as “resilient.” A number of studies have found relationships between levels
of individual resilience and specific negative outcomes such as burnout and compassion
fatigue. However, because psychological resilience is a multi-dimensional construct it is
necessary to more clearly delineate it from other related and overlapping constructs. The
creation of a testable theoretical model of individual workforce resilience, which includes
both stable traits (e.g., neuroticism) as well as more malleable intrapersonal factors (e.g.,
coping style), enables information to be derived that can eventually inform interventions
aimed at enhancing individual resilience in the workplace. The purpose of this paper is to
introduce a new theoretical model of individual workforce resilience that includes several
intrapersonal constructs known to be central in the appraisal of and response to stressors
and that also overlap with the construct of psychological resilience. We propose a model
in which psychological resilience is hypothesized to mediate the relationship between
neuroticism, mindfulness, self-efficacy, coping, and psychological adjustment.
Keywords: resilience, workplace, health professionals, burnout, professional, theoretical model, stress disorders,
post-traumatic
INTRODUCTION
Occupational stress is a universal phenomenon that is associated
with several deleterious consequences such as negative physical
and mental health outcomes (Kakiashvili et al., 2013) and a
number of negative organizational outcomes such as impaired
work performance and high turnover (Bridger et al., 2013).
Health professionals are one occupational group who appear to
be particularly vulnerable to the experience of high levels of
workplace stress (Santos et al., 2010). The experience of occupa-
tional stress has been consistently linked to negative individual
outcomes such as high rates of depression and anxiety, burnout,
secondary traumatic stress, and compassion fatigue (Figley, 2002;
Bride et al., 2007) as well as a number of negative patient and
organizational outcomes such as reduced work performance and
comprised patient care (Tan et al., 2014). Understanding the fac-
tors that impact upon employee workplace stress is essential in the
subsequent development of initiatives that may positively impact
upon levels of stress and thus reduce the associated negative
outcomes.
Some research has focused on context-specific occupational
stress, such as for professionals working in “high-death” contexts
such as cancer support and palliative care. Systematic reviews have
highlighted a high prevalence of burnout in professionals working
in cancer services (Trufelli et al., 2008; Pereira et al., 2011) and in-
depth qualitative interviews highlighted the emotional demands
of working in cancer and palliative care services and the need
for the inculcation of self-care into practice (Breen et al., 2014).
Another focus of the literature has been role-specific such as the
occupational stress experienced by nurses (Drury et al., 2014;
Hegney et al., 2014), oncologists (Granek et al., 2012a,b) psychol-
ogists (D’Souza et al., 2011), and school counselors (Butler and
Constantine, 2005).
It is important to clarify some of the constructs that are often
used interchangeably within the occupational stress literature.
As a starting point the term “stress” needs to be clarified. It
is important to note that stress responses exist on a contin-
uum from mild and short-lived experiences through to more
severe and enduring stress. Occupational stress occurs primar-
ily in response to how an individual appraises an occupational
stressor (Ashkanasy et al., 2004) and there are individual differ-
ences in how people engage in this process of appraisal (Finlay-
Jones, 2014). High work-related stress can lead to impaired work
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Rees et al. Psychological resilience in the workplace
performance, potentially compromising client care (Barnett et al.,
2007) and chronic stress may impair attention (Skosnik et al.,
2000) and decision-making skills (Starcke and Brand, 2012).
The term “psychological distress” refers to negative psychological
consequences such as symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression
(Finlay-Jones, 2014).
The experience of enduring and high levels of stress can
increase the likelihood of a person developing burnout, a syn-
drome first introduced by Pines and Maslach (1978) and consist-
ing of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and a sense of low
personal accomplishment. Burnout is associated with symptoms
of cognitive impairment, such as memory loss, concentration
difficulties, and problems solving complex tasks. Burnout has
also been associated with depersonalization and an inability to
work effectively (Stamm, 2010), increased absenteeism, reduced
productivity, and negative effects on the ability of the individual
to deliver safe care, compromising patient safety (Mealer et al.,
2012).
A related but slightly different construct is compassion fatigue,
a type of occupational burnout that has been found to be partic-
ularly associated with caregiver stress and thought to occur as a
result of providing ongoing empathy and compassion to others
but neglect of one’s own self-care (Figley, 1995). Similarly, vicari-
ous traumatization and secondary traumatic stress are considered
to be conditions that are brought on by working in settings where
exposure to traumatic events or situations is common (Canfield,
2005). On the flip side, researchers have also been interested
in studying the positive outcomes that may be associated with
occupational stress. For example, some individuals may find
stressors motivating and the experience may elicit feelings of
personal satisfaction and accomplishment (Finlay-Jones, 2014).
Given the clear relationship between the experience of occupa-
tional stress and various negative individual and organizational
outcomes, researchers have become increasingly interested in
exploring factors that might serve to either exacerbate or mitigate
the influence of stress on employees. One such construct that
has gained considerable research interest is that of psychological
resilience.
Psychological resilience has been defined as the ability of a
person to recover, re-bound, bounce-back, adjust or even thrive
following misfortune, change or adversity (Garcia-Dia et al.,
2013) and is widely acknowledged to be a complex, dynamic
and multi-dimensional phenomenon (Waugh and Koster, 2014).
Studies have now shown a link between psychological resilience
and various mental health outcomes such as burnout, secondary
traumatic stress, depression, and anxiety (Mak et al., 2011; Mealer
et al., 2012; McGarry et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2014). For example, a
study by Mealer et al. (2012) included 744 intensive care nurses
working in the United States and found that high resilience was
associated with a lower prevalence of burnout, symptoms of
anxiety and depression and symptoms of post-traumatic stress
disorder. Similarly, a study by McGarry et al. (2013) conducted in
Australia with health professionals working in a pediatric hospital,
found that high resilience was associated with lower prevalence
of burnout, symptoms of anxiety and depression and symptoms
of post-traumatic stress disorder and low psychological resilience
was associated with higher secondary traumatic stress.
As described, studies with various occupational groups have
found that an individual’s level of psychological resilience is
significantly related to mental health outcomes. Individuals who
score more highly on measures of individual resilience also score
more highly on measures of psychological well-functioning and
vice versa. Whilst this relationship is clear, what is less clear from
the extant literature is how individual resilience exerts its impact
on mental health outcomes. What is the relative importance of
psychological resilience in determining outcomes when consid-
ered alongside other salient individual psychological factors (e.g.,
self-efficacy)? The aim of developing the current model is to
advance understanding about the role of individual psychological
resilience and its impact on psychological adjustment. Whilst,
numerous studies have found relationships between psychological
resilience and various psychological outcomes, little is known
about how other individual psychological variables influence this
relationship. Therefore, the aim of developing the present model
is to study resilience and psychological adjustment from a more
inclusive perspective, where other key psychological variables can
be accounted for simultaneously when attempting to understand
the relationship between psychological resilience and psycho-
logical adjustment. Specifically, in this paper we propose that
psychological resilience mediates the relationship between several
key individual psychological variables and general psychological
adjustment.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE
Interest in the concept of psychological resilience has burgeoned
in the last decade with researchers across various discipline areas
(e.g., psychology, nursing, business) investigating the relationship
between an individual’s level of psychological resilience and var-
ious outcomes ranging from reported levels of stress, burnout,
compassion fatigue, and general indicators of well-being (Garcia-
Dia et al., 2013). Although a number of authors have proposed
that psychological resilience is a dynamic phenomena (Waugh
and Koster, 2014) and is influenced by many inter and intrap-
ersonal factors as well as environmental factors, another school
of thought regards psychological resilience as a more stable and
enduring personality trait that impacts upon an individuals self-
regulatory processes (Block and Block, 1980).
Despite some agreement as to the definition of psychological
resilience and clear findings that it is related strongly to a number
of important individual outcomes, it is surprising that there is
no leading, unified theoretical model of individual workforce
resilience that can be applied across disciplines and organizational
settings. Determining the relative importance of psychological
resilience in explaining mental health outcomes when other
key psychological variables are also examined, is a key step in
the development of interventions to improve the psychological
adjustment of employees working in high stress settings. Often
interventions tend to adopt an over-inclusive approach, whereby
several different strategies and techniques are included in the
one intervention in the hope that something will be effective.
We suggest that the most powerful interventions will need to be
drawn from theory and that the necessary groundwork needs to
occur before meaningful interventions can be devised.
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Rees et al. Psychological resilience in the workplace
Windle et al. (2011) reviewed over 270 published research
articles and evaluated the psychometric properties of several
published resilience measures. They noted that the majority
of the measures were not developed on the basis of a clear
theoretical model of psychological resilience. The authors con-
clude that psychological resilience is currently measured from
a multi-level perspective and measures include a variety of
components thought to constitute psychological resilience. Such
components include: optimism, self-esteem, personal compe-
tence, social competence, problem-solving skills, self-efficacy,
social resources, insight, independence, creativity, humor, control,
hardiness, family cohesion, spiritual influences, and initiative
(Windle et al., 2011). Clearly, a number of different components
have been proposed to be a part of the overall construct of
psychological resilience. Disentangling the relationship between
psychological resilience and related psychological variables and
mental health outcomes can be achieved by creating a testable
model.
THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL
In developing a testable, theory-driven model of individual work-
force resilience we have synthesized key psychological mod-
els as well as empirical results from previous studies to distil
what we consider to be the key psychological variables related
to individual workforce resilience. The psychological models
reviewed fall within an overarching biopsychosocial model of
emotional functioning (Melchert, 2011). This general model
presumes that an individual’s emotional health is determined
by a convergence of several factors. First, biology exerts a
strong influence upon an individual’s vulnerability to adverse
mental health outcomes. Individuals may inherit a generalized
biological vulnerability to emotional problems in the form of
heightened emotional reactivity, or a more specific genetic pre-
disposition to certain mental health problems such as bipolar
depression or anxiety. The psychosocial element of the model
proposes that biological predispositions then interact with an
individual’s particular set of environmental and social circum-
stances. For example, the type of parenting one receives, expo-
sure to traumatic life events, and socio-cultural factors combine
to determine an individual’s overall vulnerability to emotional
disorder.
The biopsychosocial model is an ideal framework with which
to consider psychological resilience because it rests on the notion
that clinical problems have multiple interacting causes and con-
tributing factors. We now turn to some specific psychological
constructs of particular relevance to understanding individual
resilience. Each of the constructs aligns with different aspects of
the biopsychosocial model. For example, neuroticism represents
an important biological vulnerability to emotional difficulties,
whereas mindfulness, self-efficacy, and coping are considered
psychosocial factors. It should be noted that whilst these con-
structs are conceptually distinct, they cannot be presumed to be
completely independent of one another. As previously explained,
the purpose of developing the current model is to begin to
account for areas of overlap in psychological constructs related
to psychological resilience and psychological adjustment. Each of
these constructs will now be discussed in detail.
NEUROTICISM
The study of normal emotional experience has shown that being
“highly strung” or “emotional” is strongly genetically determined
(Eaves and Eysenck, 1976) and related to a factor interchangeably
referred to as neuroticism, trait anxiety, negative affect or trait
negative affect. Neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience
enduring negative emotional states such as anxiety, guilt, anger
and depression more frequently, intensely, and readily, and for
a more enduring period of time. This dimension of personality
is considered an important biological vulnerability to the devel-
opment of emotional disorders in general. Similarly, Spielberger
(1972) developed a state-trait process model of anxiety in which
trait anxiety is considered a personality trait and different to the
more transient state-anxiety. Finally, Clark and Watson (1991)
developed a Tripartite Model of affect in which they concluded
that anxiety and depression share an underlying common com-
ponent characterized by generalized distress that they termed
“negative affect.” Negative Affect refers to the experience of non-
specific distress or unpleasant emotionality. Each of these related
constructs have consistently been shown to be reliably associated
with the development of emotional disorders (Barlow, 2002).
Empirical studies have consistently found a relationship
between high levels of Neuroticism or Negative Affect and nega-
tive mental health outcomes such as symptoms of anxiety, depres-
sion, and psychological disorders (Rees et al., 2014). A recent
study exploring the impact of this personality variable upon the
mental health outcomes of employed nurses found significant
relationships between trait negative affect and scores on depres-
sion, anxiety, stress, secondary traumatic stress, and burnout
(Drury et al., 2014). The significant influence of TNA or neuroti-
cism upon negative health outcomes has also been confirmed in
other studies (Cañadas-De la Fuente et al., 2015).
A number of studies have found that higher levels of neuroti-
cism are associated with lower levels of individual psychological
resilience (Bakker et al., 2006; Campbell-Sills et al., 2006; Lu
et al., 2014). A study by Lu et al. (2014) found that psychological
resilience was negatively correlated with neuroticism and that
resilience mediated the relationship between neuroticism and
negative affect.
MINDFULNESS
Dispositional mindfulness refers to a trait-like tendency to expe-
rience and express mindful qualities (e.g., non-judgment) and
behavioral qualities (e.g., acting with awareness rather than
automaticity). Low mindfulness is characterized by an inability
to attain a de-centered perspective on events and a tendency
to respond reactively and inflexibly to negative thoughts and
emotions (Teasdale, 1999). The benefits of cultivating a mind-
ful state have been recognized for some time in organizational
settings where it has been referred to as “collective mindful-
ness” (Weick et al., 1999). A number of studies have found
an association between the inability to detach from experience
(low mindfulness) and symptom severity of anxiety and mood
disorders (Fennell, 2004; Roemer et al., 2009; Arch and Craske,
2010). Garland (2007) and Garland et al. (2011) has posited
that a mindful state may facilitate disengagement from an initial
appraisal of a stressor into a metacognitive state whereby thoughts
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Rees et al. Psychological resilience in the workplace
about the stressor are appraised with greater perspective and less
habitual, emotion-laden responses. In this way, the individual
is able to de-center from an experience in a way that enables
a more balanced appraisal of events to occur. A recent study
by Viladarga et al. (2011) investigated the relationship between
level of mindfulness, workplace variables (e.g., workload, co-
worker support) and burnout among a sample of 699 addiction
counselors in the United States. They found that mindfulness
was the strongest predictor of burnout, over and above the
variance explained by workplace factors. Increasingly, studies
are proposing that mindfulness is an important characteristic
of a resilient individual. In a recent review of mindfulness and
individual resilience to trauma, Thompson et al. (2011) suggest
that a mindful and accepting orientation toward experience may
promote psychological resilience following trauma.
SELF-EFFICACY
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she can perform
a selected task (Bandura, 1977). Bandura proposed that self-
efficacy underpins whether an individual will engage an approach
to achieve the task and the effort expended in engaging in
the approach. Meta-analyses demonstrate a moderate correlation
between self-efficacy and workplace performance (Stajkovic and
Luthans, 1998; Judge et al., 2007). Employees who report higher
levels of perceived self-efficacy have been found to have lower
levels of anxiety, better coping skills and lower intentions of leav-
ing their workplace (Saks, 1994). Self-efficacy is highly correlated
with psychological resilience (Li and Nishikawa, 2012) with some
conceptualizing it as one of the major components (Rutter, 1987)
and referring to a resilient self-efficacy. Indeed, self-efficacy is
closely related to the concept of personal competence that makes
up one of the five sub-scales of the Connor-Davidson Resilience
Scale (CD-RISC).
COPING
Coping is a process of adjustment following an adverse event.
Typically, coping strategies are categorized as either problem-
focused, aimed at addressing the practicalities of a situation,
or emotion-focused, aimed at reducing the psychological and
emotional impact of a stressor (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984).
A study of 518 nurses working in Australia and New Zealand
showed that their use of problem-focused coping strategies was
associated with better mental health while the use of emotion-
focused strategies was associated with reduced mental health
(Chang et al., 2007). Others have posited coping to comprise
multi-dimensional strategies that may be active/adaptive, such as
planning, positive reframing of stressors, and engaging profes-
sional help, or passive/maladaptive, such as venting, substance
use, and disengagement (Carver et al., 1989). In the workplace,
positive reframing and support seeking coping is associated with
greater job satisfaction and the use of avoidant coping with less
job satisfaction (Welbourne et al., 2007) and emotional support
is associated with workplace absenteeism (Karlsson et al., 2010).
Use of active coping has been found to be positively associated
with psychological resilience and a mediator of the relationship
between self-efficacy and individual resilience (Li and Nishikawa,
2012).
A MODEL OF INDIVIDUAL WORKFORCE RESILIENCE
As reviewed, psychological resilience is a centrally important
construct in understanding how individuals respond to workplace
stressors and appears to be a major determinant of whether or
not certain unfavorable outcomes such as burnout, compassion
fatigue, anxiety, or depression ensue. However, as has already
been discussed, psychological resilience is a multi-dimensional
construct and its relationship to other variables such as neu-
roticism, mindfulness, self-efficacy and coping in the context
of workplace stress is not clear. Figure 1 displays the proposed
model of individual workforce resilience. This model is pri-
marily concerned with the intrapersonal factors that converge
to explain individual psychological adjustment. An illustrative
example of how the components of the model interact will now be
provided.
The starting point for the model is the basic proposition that
an individual will at some point be exposed to workplace stres-
sors (either acute or chronic). As already reviewed, Neuroticism
exerts a significant influence on psychological well-being and
it is known from numerous studies that it is strongly related
to negative outcomes such as stress and burnout (Rees et al.,
2014). Individuals high on Neuroticism have a tendency to be
more emotionally reactive in general and our own research with
the nursing workforce has confirmed Neuroticism (trait negative
affect) to be the strongest predictor of stress, anxiety and depres-
sion after controlling for other workplace variables such as length
of employee experience and age (Hegney et al., 2014). Studies
have also shown that Neuroticism is negatively correlated with
psychological resilience. As neuroticism is a stable characteristic
that has a broad influence upon general psychological functioning
it is included in the current model as a moderator variable.
The next component of the model is mindfulness. Individuals
have varying degrees of psychological awareness or the ability to
be mindful. If a person is low on mindfulness it means that when
faced with a stressor they will be less likely to be able to detach
from what is happening and get distance from the situation, or
be able to reflect on what is happening. They are more likely to
become immersed in the situation and overwhelmed emotionally
FIGURE 1 | The ICWR-1 model of individual workforce resilience.
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Rees et al. Psychological resilience in the workplace
by it. Alternatively, those who are mindful can mentally step
back and think about what is going on and what can be done
about it.
The next component of the model is self-efficacy; whether or
not a person believes they can change a situation or do something
to cope with it. Self-efficacy is multi-determined in that it will
be impacted by a person’s past experiences, their spiritual beliefs,
their core beliefs and so forth. The key reason for including self-
efficacy in the model is that it logically impacts on the way a
person will attempt to manage a stressor and is thus intrinsically
linked to the next part of the model; coping. For example, if
a person does not believe that they can do anything to alter
a stressful situation (low-self-efficacy) they will be more likely
to engage in passive coping such as avoidance and substance
use. Alternatively, if a person believes that there is something
they can do about a current stressor they will be more likely to
engage in effective active coping strategies, such as seeking social
support, problem-solving, and the use of cognitive-reappraisal.
This type of coping is associated with better outcomes in the face
of a stressor. The final part of the model is Psychological Adjust-
ment and represents the main outcomes or dependent variables
in the model. Psychological adjustment may be determined by
measuring symptoms of stress, depression, anxiety, burnout, and
compassion fatigue.
In order to test the proposed model we offer the following
hypotheses. First, we predict a significant negative relationship
between neuroticism and psychological adjustment; a signifi-
cant positive relationship between mindfulness and psycholog-
ical adjustment, self-efficacy and psychological adjustment and
coping and psychological adjustment. The central hypothesis that
underpins the model is that each of these direct relationships
will be mediated by psychological resilience. Furthermore, it is
hypothesized that neuroticism will act as a key moderator vari-
able, influencing the mediational properties of resilience upon
psychological adjustment for each of the predictor variables
(mindfulness, self-efficacy, coping).
As resilience is the central construct of interest in the model
some options as to how to best measure the construct will now
be considered. We propose that the construct of psychological
resilience is best captured by a measure that includes both aspects
of trait-resilience as well as the more dynamic and the more
permutable aspects of psychological resilience. In a recent review
of 15 different self-report measures of resilience, Windle et al.
(2011) identified three measures (CD-RISC; Resilience Scale for
Adults, RSA; Brief Resilience Scale) that scored the most highly in
terms of psychometric qualities such as internal consistency and
construct validity. The CD-RISC is the most widely used measure
of resilience and has been translated into several languages and
validated in many different countries including China, South
Africa, Iran, USA, Australia, and Brazil. It consists of five factors
(personal competence, acceptance of change and secure relation-
ships, control, spiritual influences). The scale was developed to
capture a blend of trait-aspects of resilience (such as hardiness)
as well as other aspects of resilience such as self-confidence,
possessing social problem solving skills and the role of faith and
spirituality (Connor and Davidson, 2003). We suggest that the
CD-RISC represents a sound measure of resilience that is suitable
for large-scale surveys not only due to its good psychometric
properties but also because it is a relatively brief measure.
Whilst the proposed model does not claim to capture every
salient aspect of determining individual workforce resilience, we
believe it represents an initial testable model that includes the
“big-players” in terms of predicting psychological adjustment and
thus understanding the role of resilience in this relationship. It
should be acknowledged that this preliminary model may not
account for the true complexity of the relationship between each
of the included variables. Whilst we have included neuroticism
as the key moderator in the model it is possible that some of the
other variables will also have a moderating effect on resilience and
psychological adjustment. We regard this model as an important
starting point and believe it will further evolve following initial
testing, with new pathways being proposed as data is gathered and
analyzed. It is possible that some of the hypothesized relationships
represented in the model will not be supported. After rigorous
testing utilizing the best available measures, it may be the case that
some variables are dropped from the model with new ones added.
However, inclusion of new variables should also be justified theo-
retically. We also suggest that initial tests of the model are carried
out with large samples, across different occupational groups.
CONCLUSION
Workplace stress has serious implications for the quality of an
employee’s work and their general psychological functioning.
Research investigating the relationship between psychological
resilience and workforce outcomes has consistently shown psy-
chological resilience to be strongly related to levels of psycho-
logical distress. However to date, the research lacks a model
of individual workforce resilience that enables direct testing of
the relationship between similar constructs such as self-efficacy
that overlap with psychological resilience. The central premise
of this model is that previously observed relationships between
variables reported in the literature, such as coping and psycholog-
ical adjustment, will be explained by resilience. If psychological
resilience is found to mediate the relationships among variables,
it will provide important evidence for specifically targeting indi-
vidual resilience in an effort to promote healthy psychological
adjustment for employees in high stress work settings. It is very
clear that there is a need for such interventions; particularly for
certain occupational groups such as those working in palliative
care settings where rates of compassion fatigue and burnout are
high.
We are currently testing this model as part of our Interna-
tional Collaboration on Workforce Resilience - 1 (ICWR-1). This
international collaboration of researchers is currently involved in
collecting data from large numbers of nurses working in various
settings in Australia, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Canada. Our ini-
tial testing of this model will take place with the nursing workforce
but we expect to extend this testing to other occupational groups
in the near future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The International Collaboration Workforce Resilience - 1
(ICWR-1) team: Australia: Mark Craigie, Janie Brown, Rebecca
Osseiran-Moisson, Susan Slatyer (Curtin University), Lesley
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Rees et al. Psychological resilience in the workplace
Siegloff (Flinders University), Allison Williams (Monash
University), Karen Francis (Charles Sturt University); Singapore:
Ang Shin Yuh, Chua Tse Lert, Tracy Ayre (Singapore General
Hospital) Emily Ang, Violeta Lopez (National University Hospital
Singapore and National University Singapore); Hong Kong: Aggi
Tiwari (Hong Kong University), Kin Cheung, Shirley Ching, Mak
Shuk Yan, Polly Chan, Yobie Lam, Alex Molasiotis (Hong Kong
Polytechnic University); Canada: David Hemsworth (Nipissing
University).
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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was con-
ducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Received: 29 September 2014; accepted: 13 January 2015; published online: 04
February 2015.
Citation: Rees CS, Breen LJ, Cusack L and Hegney D (2015) Understanding individual
resilience in the workplace: the international collaboration of workforce resilience
model. Front. Psychol. 6:73. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00073
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