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The new public service? Empirical research on job choice motivation in the nonprofit sector
Abstract
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors influencing the decision of managers to work in the nonprofit sector and how these choices are shaped by intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. Additionally, this research examines the impact of job choice motivation on social, community and professional outcomes and the unique characteristics of managers in the nonprofit sector.
Design/methodology/approach
– This research employed data from the National Administrative Studies Project (NASP-III) survey, which measured the mid- and upper-level managers working in nonprofit organizations in Illinois and Georgia. The survey measured the manager’s perceptions of various organizational issues, including work motivation, mentoring and communication, career histories, hiring practices, and organizational cultures and structures. The data were then analyzed using a hierarchical regression model.
Findings
– The findings of this research support the idea that intrinsic motivation is an important aspect of job choice motivation for individuals in the nonprofit workforce. In addition, the findings suggest other characteristics, including policies that enhance work life balance (WLB), advancement, and job security, are important to understand the job choice motivations of nonprofit managers. This research also found not all types of nonprofit agencies attract similarly motivated individuals, or lead to equivalent community outcomes.
Research limitations/implications
– The organizations represented in the NASP III sample included more membership and professional associations than the overall nonprofit sector. This over representation partially limits the generalizability of these findings but it also allows the research to more thoroughly understand this unique subset of organizations that serve predominantly the narrow interests of their members.
Practical implications
– This research highlights the advantage nonprofit employers have over other organizations in terms of using intrinsic motivations to attract employees. However, the findings also suggest nonprofit organizations need to focus on human resource (HR) strategies including policies that enhance WLB, advancement, and job security to compete with other employers for talent. Finally, the research also suggests the need to tailor HR strategies to groups of nonprofit employees based upon important employee characteristics such as gender, job type, and prior career experience.
Originality/value
– This study extends a well-developed body of knowledge on motivations and selection of career paths to individuals working in the nonprofit sector. It also suggests variations among employees and organizations matter in terms of the type of individuals attracted to particular career path in nonprofits. Additionally, this research suggests future research needs to include more nuanced examinations of the differences which exist among organizations in the nonprofit sector rather than simply focussing upon similarities across the most prevalent types of nonprofit organizations.
... Research in social and organizational psychology looks somewhat beyond the individual to the environment or culture of the job itself. The P-E fit model focuses on perceived "meaning" in work, attributing job choice to matching or "congruence" of values between the individual job-seeker and the job (Word and Park 2015). This is echoed in research from social and cultural psychology which points to the importance of a cultural match between people and settings (Stephens et al. 2014). ...
... As argued by Duffy, Diemer, and Jadidian (2012), this assumption does not hold for students from financially marginalized backgrounds for whom liquidity constraints, that is, the financial resources available to meet current needs, are a "first order" concern (Coffman et al. 2019). Even approaches to job choice that focus on the fit between personal interests and job or workplace characteristics (Word and Park 2015) presume that job applicants are free from concerns about basic financial needs such that they can prioritize congruence in values or interests as a criterion for their first job. This matters, as "elite" jobs, while often featuring opportunities for meaningful work and long-term career advancement, are also often characterized by an initial period of financial precarity (e.g., through an unpaid internship, see Friedman and Laurison 2019;Wright and Mulvey 2021). ...
... Here the large main effect for meaningful work may indicate that the strong wording of the meaning variable did not provide adequately realistic choices (e.g., jobs that are neither clearly meaningful nor clearly meaningless). Nevertheless, the clear importance of descriptions implying meaningful work lends some support to accounts focusing on the role of values and value congruence in job selection (Word and Park 2015). ...
Despite education's potential to reshape societal inequalities, recent gains in broadening university access across the socioeconomic spectrum have not translated into parallel gains in the transition from school to work. This work applies a socioecological approach to understanding this pattern, considering the role of job factors and individual financial background in shaping undergraduate student job choices and perceived career prospects. In two discrete choice experiments (n = 800) UK undergraduate students chose between pairs of job descriptions varying primarily along two dimensions: immediate versus delayed benefits (e.g., starting salary vs. salary progression), and concrete versus abstract benefits (e.g., salary vs. values fit). The findings suggest that career choice may be shaped by socioeconomic constraints above and beyond individual preferences for meaningful work, while the relationship between financial strain and career pessimism is mediated by inequalities in perceived control over life outcomes and personal connections to the job.
... Gender socialization theory suggests that women are conditioned through a lifetime of socialization starting from childhood (Riccucci, 2018) and continuing through higher education and professional social norms (Bright, 2016) geared toward altruism, empathy, compassion and care (Dehart-Davis, Marlowe and Pandey, 2006;Riccucci, 2018). Research on nonprofit employees has shown higher commitment to intrinsic motivations and connection to organizational mission, as seen within public service motivation theory (Word and Park, 2015). Additionally, intrinsic rewards such as greater flexibility for work-life balance (Word and Park, 2015) and family friendly policies are seen as positive enticements for employment in the nonprofit sector, both of which have been identified as key issues for women in the workplace (Hamidullah and Riccucci, 2017;Thomas et al., 2018). ...
... Research on nonprofit employees has shown higher commitment to intrinsic motivations and connection to organizational mission, as seen within public service motivation theory (Word and Park, 2015). Additionally, intrinsic rewards such as greater flexibility for work-life balance (Word and Park, 2015) and family friendly policies are seen as positive enticements for employment in the nonprofit sector, both of which have been identified as key issues for women in the workplace (Hamidullah and Riccucci, 2017;Thomas et al., 2018). Women have, out of necessity, learned to "lead in place," using opportunities in a variety of positions below senior administrative roles in response to power deficits and opportunities for delivering lead- (Hilton and O'Leary, 2018). ...
... Women gravitate to jobs where remote work is available (Montenovo et al., 2020). These issues take on an added importance for any workplace where women make up such a large proportion, and most particularly for a sector where public service motivation, mission-focus and intrinsic motivations play such a huge role in attracting employees (Word and Park, 2015). Work-life balance and family responsibilities are also a key concern for nonprofits trying to deal with the impacts of COVID-19 in terms of staffing and the potential necessity for extensions on work-from-home or other creative structural alternatives based on disruptions in childcare and school availability (National Council of Nonprofits, 2020). ...
... The prominent role of public service motivation (PSM) is one of the intrinsic factors prompting individuals to opt for careers in the GNS (Ritz et al., 2016). Individuals with a higher level of PSM place more emphasis on intrinsic work satisfaction, which they derive from making a contribution to society; this is in contrast to those preferring to work in business sectors, who are predominantly motived by extrinsic satisfaction (Word & Park, 2015). ...
... We adopted nine dummy independent variables to reflect the personal preferences (e.g., enjoyment of intellectual challenges) and social and personal concerns (e.g., political landscape) of the PhD students during their doctorate. They were respectively derived from two questions in the questionnaire, based on motivators and concerns reported in the literature to influence the choice of PhD students between academic and non-academic careers (e.g., Word & Park, 2015). The control variables mostly referred to personal attributes, educational paths, satisfaction with a key output to ensure competitiveness in academic recruitment (i.e., publications; see Waaijer et al., 2018), and the contextual environment. ...
... Finally, doctoral students who are more passionate about political and social issues seem to be uniquely interested in careers in the nonprofit sector, perhaps because they are also individuals who want to have a more hands-on approach to solving problems. This finding is consistent with that of Word and Park (2015), who found that NPO employees tend to have strong public service motivation, including concerns about the interests of political entities, as their personality type matches NPOs' priorities to supplement government services (Young, 2000). ...
There is a growing need to support diversified career pathways for doctoral students. However, research on the determinants of doctoral students’ preferences to pursue future careers outside academia is still limited, or indeed is absent when careers in the government and nonprofit sectors (GNS) are considered. Using data from the 2019 Nature PhD Students Survey, this paper explores factors that influence PhD students’ preferences for GNS career pathways. The results show that the personal attributes, motivations, and concerns of students considering careers outside academia are generally similar, notwithstanding their career preference by sector of activity. However, the results also suggest that doctoral students who lean towards GNS careers have different personal attributes, motivations, and concerns than those wanting to work in the business sector. Specifically, compared with those preferring employment in the business sector, doctoral students who are concerned about the political landscape and care less about the uncertainty of career prospects are more inclined to work in the nonprofit sector. Compared with those preferring employment in the business sector, those who enjoy creativity and the academic environment tend to prefer employment in the government sector. Older and female doctoral students are also more likely to consider GNS career pathways.
... Gender socialization theory suggests that women are conditioned through a lifetime of socialization starting from childhood (Riccucci, 2018) and continuing through higher education and professional social norms (Bright, 2016) geared toward altruism, empathy, compassion and care (Dehart-Davis, Marlowe and Pandey, 2006;Riccucci, 2018). Research on nonprofit employees has shown higher commitment to intrinsic motivations and connection to organizational mission, as seen within public service motivation theory (Word and Park, 2015). Additionally, intrinsic rewards such as greater flexibility for work-life balance (Word and Park, 2015) and family friendly policies are seen as positive enticements for employment in the nonprofit sector, both of which have been identified as key issues for women in the workplace (Hamidullah and Riccucci, 2017;Thomas et al., 2018). ...
... Research on nonprofit employees has shown higher commitment to intrinsic motivations and connection to organizational mission, as seen within public service motivation theory (Word and Park, 2015). Additionally, intrinsic rewards such as greater flexibility for work-life balance (Word and Park, 2015) and family friendly policies are seen as positive enticements for employment in the nonprofit sector, both of which have been identified as key issues for women in the workplace (Hamidullah and Riccucci, 2017;Thomas et al., 2018). Women have, out of necessity, learned to "lead in place," using opportunities in a variety of positions below senior administrative roles in response to power deficits and opportunities for delivering lead- (Hilton and O'Leary, 2018). ...
... Women gravitate to jobs where remote work is available (Montenovo et al., 2020). These issues take on an added importance for any workplace where women make up such a large proportion, and most particularly for a sector where public service motivation, mission-focus and intrinsic motivations play such a huge role in attracting employees (Word and Park, 2015). Work-life balance and family responsibilities are also a key concern for nonprofits trying to deal with the impacts of COVID-19 in terms of staffing and the potential necessity for extensions on work-from-home or other creative structural alternatives based on disruptions in childcare and school availability (National Council of Nonprofits, 2020). ...
The nonprofit sector has a rich history in the public sector arena, one that has often alternated between partnership and opposition. This chapter explores the role of women and gender within the nonprofit sector through a historical, present-day, and future lens. The chapter begins by summarizing and analyzing the contributions of women and gender in civil society voluntary outlets through the evolution of the modern day nonprofit sector. The chapter then moves to examine the current status for women in nonprofit administration and leadership. The discussion concludes with a focus on five pressing challenges that impact evolving workplace dynamics related to gender and the changing needs of the nonprofit sector. The implications reflect broader discussions of social equity, ethics, and diversity inclusion and representation – which are also intertwined with equitable service provision and mission fulfillment.
... To help researchers study job embeddedness, Nicholas et al. (2016) suggested three kinds of attachments or dimensions that might entice an individual to remain in an organization or community: fits, links and sacrifice. Various researchers used these dimensions in their research (Chhabra, 2015;Schmitt et al., 2015;Word and Park, 2015). Word and Park (2015) noted that organizational and personal job fit remain essential to a company's success. ...
... Various researchers used these dimensions in their research (Chhabra, 2015;Schmitt et al., 2015;Word and Park, 2015). Word and Park (2015) noted that organizational and personal job fit remain essential to a company's success. These scholars defined person-job fit as when the individual is right and suitable for the job based on personal values and abilities (Word and Park, 2015). ...
... Word and Park (2015) noted that organizational and personal job fit remain essential to a company's success. These scholars defined person-job fit as when the individual is right and suitable for the job based on personal values and abilities (Word and Park, 2015). Chhabra (2015) suggested that personal job fit enhances a worker's socialization, satisfaction and commitment in a job. ...
... Differences between sectors that shape work motivation While several studies confirmed that intrinsic motivation indeed differs among public and nonprofit employees affecting their job choice decisions and job satisfaction levels (Borzaga & Tortia, 2006;Word & Park, 2015), relatively less attention has been paid to the reasons why such differences occur. This article contributes to the literature by providing further insights on that. ...
... The purposeful sampling strategy was used to select the participating organizations in Hrodna Voblast, which is one of the six regions of Belarus. It answers the call of Word and Park (2015) to include more nuanced examinations of the motivational differences within the nonprofit sector itself, as their observations confirmed that not all types of nonprofits attract similarly motivated individuals (Word & Park, 2015). Thus, the intention of the present study was to compare organizations that provide similar services to similar populations, and the random sampling procedures could not have been applied. ...
... The purposeful sampling strategy was used to select the participating organizations in Hrodna Voblast, which is one of the six regions of Belarus. It answers the call of Word and Park (2015) to include more nuanced examinations of the motivational differences within the nonprofit sector itself, as their observations confirmed that not all types of nonprofits attract similarly motivated individuals (Word & Park, 2015). Thus, the intention of the present study was to compare organizations that provide similar services to similar populations, and the random sampling procedures could not have been applied. ...
The study adds to the understanding of the motivational differences between two pro-social sectors – public and nonprofit. The study analyzes employees’ responses collected in organizations that provide similar services (N = 371) and reveals that despite the relative novelty of the nonprofit sector in the studied country and associated unfavorable work conditions, the nonprofit employees on average remain more public service motivated than their public sector counterparts. The findings add to the previously supported theoretical propositions by suggesting that for the case of public service motivation, the sectoral motivational differences might be a stronger determinant than the administrative context of a state. Despite existing complications at work, nonprofit sector employees remain highly devoted to the cause. In addition, the study reveals several significant associations of public service motivation with the urban location of an organization, labor union membership, and professional experience abroad.
... To help researchers study job embeddedness, Nicholas et al. (2016) suggested three kinds of attachments or dimensions that might entice an individual to remain in an organization or community: fits, links and sacrifice. Various researchers used these dimensions in their research (Chhabra, 2015;Schmitt et al., 2015;Word and Park, 2015). Word and Park (2015) noted that organizational and personal job fit remain essential to a company's success. ...
... Various researchers used these dimensions in their research (Chhabra, 2015;Schmitt et al., 2015;Word and Park, 2015). Word and Park (2015) noted that organizational and personal job fit remain essential to a company's success. These scholars defined person-job fit as when the individual is right and suitable for the job based on personal values and abilities (Word and Park, 2015). ...
... Word and Park (2015) noted that organizational and personal job fit remain essential to a company's success. These scholars defined person-job fit as when the individual is right and suitable for the job based on personal values and abilities (Word and Park, 2015). Chhabra (2015) suggested that personal job fit enhances a worker's socialization, satisfaction and commitment in a job. ...
Purpose
Employee turnover expenses can cost businesses more than 100 per cent of a single employee’s annual wages and negatively affection an organization’s production and profits. High employee turnover also could affect community tax collections, social programs and physical and mental health issues. Therefore, understanding contributors to higher employee turnover remains essential for organizational managers from both a corporate and societal standpoint. This paper aims to provide an analysis of how job satisfaction and job embeddedness could predict employee turnover intent.
Design/methodology/approach
A randomly selected survey which consisted of Andrews and Withey’s (1976) job satisfaction questionnaire, a global job embeddedness scale (Crossley et al., 2007) and a three-item turnover intent questionnaire derived from a survey created by Mobley et al. (1978) using a Likert-type measurement to survey randomly selected individuals used within manufacturing plants located in the Southeastern USA.
Findings
The results of the multiple regression analysis showed a significant relationship between job satisfaction, job embeddedness and turnover intent; and that satisfied and committed employees are less likely to plan to leave their employment.
Originality/value
Limited current information is available on how job satisfaction and job embeddedness predict turnover intentions in US Southeast manufacturing. This study includes information that shows the importance of job satisfaction and job embeddedness on retaining employees in this region and industry. Given the importance of employee retention on corporate productivity, morale and profits along with the ability to improve the organization’s positive contribution to society, it is important for managers to understand these factors and their effect on employee turnover intent.
... An attractive mission to ensure the public interest and provide eff ective and effi cient public service has become an important motivator for contemporary public organizations (Wright and Pandey, 2011). When the prior values of employees overlap with the public interest and public service, there is more active participation in the objective and mission of the organization; this, in turn, aff ects individual and organizational performance (Word and Park, 2015). ...
... In this context, MV is considered an important motivator in organizations (Wright, 2007; Wright and Pandey, 2011) and is oft en associated with public service motivation. In general, individuals whose primary value orientations are prosocial and align with altruistic values are more willing to serve in public service organizations, while those who work in these organizations are more willing to serve the mission and vision of the organization (Rainey and Steinbauer, 1999;Word and Park, 2015). It is also known that leaders in organizations have a signifi cant infl uence on the internalization of mission (Caillier, 2016), which contributes to the motivation of public service by increasing mission valence in employees (Wright et al., 2012). ...
Public service motivation and mission valence are two significant and up-to-date approaches to explaining the motivation of public employees. This study aims to demonstrate the role of ethical climate in both the relationship between public service motivation and mission valence and the motivation of public service employees by adding ethical climate. The research was carried out in public universities operating in Turkey. Data was collected from a total of 1415 participants consisting of academicians, administrative personnel, and administrators with an online questionnaire form. The data obtained was evaluated with the structural equation model in three different groups for academicians, administrative personnel, and administrators. Our findings primarily confirmed the positively significant relationship between mission valence and public service motivation previously demonstrated in the literature. Secondly, it was understood that mission valence affected ethical climate. Furthermore, the findings revealed that ethical climate for all three groups had a strong mediation effect between public service motivation and mission valence. In other words, ethical climate in organizations contributes to the internalization of the organization’s mission and the development of prosocial behavior.
... Rose (2013) made the same observation with graduates since the reason for preferring employment by the government was job security rather than one's contribution to a cause. Studies of job switchers likewise demonstrated that employees moving from public to non-profit employment were less driven by security (Word & Park, 2015), while those moving from for-profit to public employment seemed to be looking for an increased job stability (Su & Bozeman, 2009). Therefore, employees in the public sector tend to be, relatively speaking, more security oriented. ...
... However, we unexpectedly found that if graduates adhered to the challenge career anchor, a perceived competent and reputed public sector will lower their pursuit intentions for that sector. Yet, a perceived competent public sector with a high reputation will more attract job seekers who prefer a secure career as well as job seekers who aim for a little-challenging career, thereby endorsing prior results (Rose, 2013;Su & Bozeman, 2009;Word & Park, 2015). The fact that a reduced challenge preference enhances the predicted choice for a public job might be related to the limited competition that many people (and job seekers) assume with respect to the public sector (Osborne & Murray, 2000), often bureaucratically regulated through formal rules and procedures (Bullock et al., 2015). ...
We expand on Cable and Turban's employer knowledge model to investigate how sector attractiveness, that is, image and reputation, predicts management graduates' sector-specific pursuit intentions, moderated by career anchors. The non-profit sector has the warmest image, followed by the public sector, while the latter is perceived as the least competent and shows the weakest reputation. Each sector's competence image (but not its warmth image) and reputation significantly predict sector-specific pursuit intentions. The security, service, and challenge anchors confirmed their unique positive moderating impact, respectively for the public, non-profit, and for-profit sectors, although the challenge anchor reduced the public sector's attractiveness. This study accentuates the importance of matching sector features with personal characteristics for understanding sector attractiveness to job seekers. Consequently, we offer new insights concerning sector-related recruitment practices and sector branding.
... There are several studies dealing with the relationship between public service motivation and mission (Rainey and Steinbauer, 1999;Word and Park, 2015;Wright et al., 2011), mobbing and motivation (Antep et al., 2012;Pelit and Pelit, 2014;Pranjić et al., 2006). However, in this study, we tried to find answers to these two questions: "Is there a relationship between public service motivation, mobbing, and internalization of the mission? ...
... In public service motivation theory, it is accepted that mission is an essential motivator in public organizations. In this case, which is conceptualized as mission valence, it is accepted that the more the mission is compatible with the values and principles of the employee, in other words, the more interesting, attractive, and valuable the mission is for the employee, not only the motivation of the individual but also the job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and performance will increase (Rainey and Steinbauer, 1999;Word and Park, 2015;Wright et al., 2011). Studies also support this situation (Caillier, 2016;Carpenter and Gong, 2016;Pandey et al., 2008;Wright, 2007). ...
This study aims to reveal the relationship between public service motivation and mobbing levels of public employees and the level of internalization of the mission. For this purpose, data were collected from 461 academics from different titles working in public universities operating in Türkiye. The obtained data were first subjected to Pearson correlation analysis and then hierarchical regression analysis. According to the correlation analysis findings, there is a statistically significant relationship between public service motivation and the internalization of the mission in the positive direction and between mobbing and the internalization of the mission in the adverse order. In the first model of the hierarchical regression analysis, it was observed that there was a positive significant relationship between the dimensions of public service motivation and the internalization of the mission. In the second model, mobbing dimensions were added to the analysis. According to the analysis results, the dimensions of attacks on self-expression and communication and attacks on professional status negatively predict the internalization of the mission. As a result, there is a statistically significant relationship between public service motivation, mobbing, and internalization of the mission. However, the public service motivations of academics who are mobbed for self-expression and communication, and professional status are negatively affected, and this may cause a decrease in the level of internalization of the mission.
... Rose (2013) made the same observation with graduates since the reason for preferring employment by the government was job security rather than one's contribution to a cause. Studies of job switchers likewise demonstrated that employees moving from public to non-profit employment were less driven by security (Word & Park, 2015), while those moving from for-profit to public employment seemed to be looking for an increased job stability (Su & Bozeman, 2009). Therefore, employees in the public sector tend to be, relatively speaking, more security oriented. ...
... However, we unexpectedly found that if graduates adhered to the challenge career anchor, a perceived competent and reputed public sector will lower their pursuit intentions for that sector. Yet, a perceived competent public sector with a high reputation will more attract job seekers who prefer a secure career as well as job seekers who aim for a little-challenging career, thereby endorsing prior results (Rose, 2013;Su & Bozeman, 2009;Word & Park, 2015). The fact that a reduced challenge preference enhances the predicted choice for a public job might be related to the limited competition that many people (and job seekers) assume with respect to the public sector (Osborne & Murray, 2000), often bureaucratically regulated through formal rules and procedures (Bullock et al., 2015). ...
We expand on Cable and Turban’s employer knowledge model to investigate how sector attractiveness, that is, image and reputation, predicts management graduates’ sector-specific pursuit intentions, moderated by career anchors. The non-profit sector has the warmest image, followed by the public sector, while the latter is perceived as the least competent and shows the weakest reputation. Each sector’s competence image (but not its warmth image) and reputation significantly predict sector-specific pursuit intentions. The security, service, and challenge anchors confirmed their unique positive moderating impact, respectively for the public, non-profit, and for-profit sectors, although the challenge anchor reduced the public sector’s attractiveness. This study accentuates the importance of matching sector features with personal characteristics for understanding sector attractiveness to job seekers. Consequently, we offer new insights concerning sector-related recruitment practices and sector branding.
... The resource orientation builds on the strong alignment of values and mission with the unique needs and expectations of nonprofit employees. Studies reveal that resourceoriented NPOs start from the intrinsic motivation of their human capital that is closely aligned with the mission of the organization (Parente, 2012;Piatak, 2016;Word & Park, 2015), and that "a well-established and defined culture of intrinsic rewards matters in selecting, hiring, and retaining highly qualified employees in nonprofits" (Word & Park, 2015, p. 105). Employee involvement and commitment are high and, for example, not undermined by lower salaries compared with the for-profit sector (Martin-Perez & Martin-Cruz, 2015;Ohana & Meyer, 2016;Parente, 2012). ...
... A key topic in research on HR outcomes is the importance of HR practices in supporting commitment and intrinsic motivation by providing strong bonds between employees and the organization's mission, values, and goals (Juaneda-Ayensa et al., 2017;Parente, 2012;S. M. Park & Kim, 2016;Word & Park, 2015). The antecedents of organizational commitment include perceptions of psychological contract fulfillment, procedural justice (participation in decision-making), fairness of rewards, alongside the dominant role of intrinsic rewards (Martin-Perez & Martin-Cruz, 2015;McDermott et al., 2013;Ohana et al., 2013;Ohana & Meyer, 2016). ...
A decade after key theoretical developments in strategic human resource management (SHRM) in nonprofit organizations (NPOs), we still lack a comprehensive understanding of the disparate strands of empirical evidence. Furthermore, this growing field requires integration and synthesis of new themes and conceptual developments. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of SHRM studies in NPOs published between 2008 and 2017. Our review of 74 articles synthesizes a fragmented body of research and maps out the relationships into a more integrated whole. By mapping the research landscape, we provide insights into the tensions NPOs face between external pressures and values, highlighting the underexplored role of managerial discretion in shaping NPOs’ differing responses. Our review expands the resource orientation to include a social capital dimension and identifies new empirical manifestations of human resource management (HRM) types. We offer avenues for research on content, process, outcomes of SHRM, and discuss how the interplay across key themes can inform the development of the field.
... L. Perry, Hondeghem, & Wise, 2010;Ritz, Brewer, & Neumann, 2016). Individuals with high levels of PSM are said to value intrinsic work satisfactions (e.g., job fulfillment) over extrinsic ones (e.g., financial rewards) when choosing public and nonprofit over private sector careers (Buelens & Van den Broeck, 2007;Georgellis, Iossa, & Tabvuma, 2011;Word & Park, 2015). In the United States, the public and nonprofit sectors generally pay less than the private sector for comparable jobs, and individuals are willing to forgo higher salaries in exchange for greater intrinsic satisfaction derived from making a contribution to society (King & Lewis, 2017;Moynihan & Pandey, 2007;Park & Word, 2012). ...
... In the United States, the public and nonprofit sectors generally pay less than the private sector for comparable jobs, and individuals are willing to forgo higher salaries in exchange for greater intrinsic satisfaction derived from making a contribution to society (King & Lewis, 2017;Moynihan & Pandey, 2007;Park & Word, 2012). The motivation to serve the public has, thus far, aided public and nonprofit employers to attract qualified candidates to their workforce (Choi, 2016;Dur & Zoutenbier, 2014;Kjeldsen & Jacobsen, 2013;Word & Park, 2015). ...
The public and nonprofit sectors generally pay less than the private sector, and individuals are willing to forgo higher salaries in exchange for greater intrinsic satisfaction derived from making a contribution to society. However, personal financial considerations, such as education debt, may discourage individuals from pursuing careers in lower paying sectors even if they are predisposed to public service motivation (PSM). We surveyed a sample of graduating students to investigate if (a) education debt discourages students from pursuing lower paying public or nonprofit careers and (b) whether PSM overrides the considerations students might make about entering lower paying sectors as their education debt rises. First, we find that education debt has a marginal effect on initially selecting private over public and nonprofit careers. Rising education debt may discourage students from public sector careers after controlling for PSM. We also find that rising education debt may discourage students from nonprofit careers even with high levels of PSM. The present study enhances our understanding of how financial considerations, in the form of education debt, may influence a student's initial choice in pursuing public, private, and nonprofit careers.
... L. Perry, Hondeghem, & Wise, 2010;Ritz, Brewer, & Neumann, 2016). Individuals with high levels of PSM are said to value intrinsic work satisfactions (e.g., job fulfillment) over extrinsic ones (e.g., financial rewards) when choosing public and nonprofit over private sector careers (Buelens & Van den Broeck, 2007;Georgellis, Iossa, & Tabvuma, 2011;Word & Park, 2015). In the United States, the public and nonprofit sectors generally pay less than the private sector for comparable jobs, and individuals are willing to forgo higher salaries in exchange for greater intrinsic satisfaction derived from making a contribution to society (King & Lewis, 2017;Moynihan & Pandey, 2007;Park & Word, 2012). ...
... In the United States, the public and nonprofit sectors generally pay less than the private sector for comparable jobs, and individuals are willing to forgo higher salaries in exchange for greater intrinsic satisfaction derived from making a contribution to society (King & Lewis, 2017;Moynihan & Pandey, 2007;Park & Word, 2012). The motivation to serve the public has, thus far, aided public and nonprofit employers to attract qualified candidates to their workforce (Choi, 2016;Dur & Zoutenbier, 2014;Kjeldsen & Jacobsen, 2013;Word & Park, 2015). ...
... Job security is a salient determinant of organizational attractiveness and applicants' job choices (e.g., Lievens, 2007;Oh & Myeong, 2021;Word & Park, 2015). Individuals tend to prefer employment in organizations perceived to be competent and having the qualities of security and reliability (Wilhelmy et al., 2019). ...
... The level of public satisfaction with public services is a critical indicator of transformation success (Word & Park, 2015). Public satisfaction not only reflects the effectiveness of services but also determines the level of public support for the government and related institutions. ...
This research discusses the public service transformation efforts undertaken by the Ambon Government, focusing on innovative strategies aimed at achieving transparency and improving public satisfaction. Using a qualitative approach and case study method, this research explores various aspects of the government's initiatives to innovate public services, involving in-depth interviews, participatory observation, and document analysis to reveal the complexity of the innovative strategies implemented. The results reveal a paradigm shift in service delivery, characterized by the integration of advanced technology, smart governance principles, and citizen-oriented practices. The emphasis on openness is reflected in the utilization of information and communication technologies to disseminate real-time information, policy updates, and detailed procedures. Digital platforms, including online portals and smart apps, significantly improve accessibility, empower citizens with diverse information, and shape a culture of openness. In addition, the government's commitment to citizen participation is emphasized through its involvement in the decision-making process. Participatory forums and feedback mechanisms have facilitated active engagement, ensuring that people's voices contribute to policy formulation and service improvement. The research reflects on how this inclusive approach has positively impacted citizen satisfaction and trust in the government, leading to 34 awards in public service innovation throughout 2023.
... NPOs are increasingly professionalized (Word & Park, 2015). The professionalization of human resources, giving preponderance to paid employees over the alternative of volunteer personnel, is observed both in decision-making and organizational and administrative management of the entity, as well as in the provision of its services and activities (Hwang & Powell, 2009 Furthermore, according to Frumkin (2002: 151) "commercialization may lead to profound cultural changes in the workforce of the nonprofit and voluntary sector, as a new generation of leaders enters these increasingly business-like organizations" (Suárez, 2010: 2). ...
Co-creation has emerged as an outstanding issue in today’s society. Mainly, research efforts have been conducted in business literature (particularly, following the service-dominant logic approach). However, there is a lack of theoretical and empirical studies that analyze value co-creation from the non-profit’s point of view; and, in particular, the strategy of value co-creation in collaborative relationships between non-profit organizations and companies is an under-researched topic. From the theory of psychological contracts, relational norms are considered a mechanism that promotes co-creation processes. Furthermore, the non-profit organizations have been increasingly becoming more business-like (through market orientation, venture philanthropy, corporate governance structure, entrepreneurial behavior, and professionalization) to improve the impact achieved with the development of their activities. Combining a thorough literature revision and a quantitative-based research with 205 nonprofits, The study attempts to identify to what extent the establishment of relational norms between NPOs and companies in their co-creation relationships is really conditioned by the business-like factors of the NPOs. Several implications are derived for non-profit managers, which will help them implement effective management strategies in their relationships with companies.
... Donations decline as a result of nonprofit executives' attention being diverted from supporting the organization's objective to hiring new staff (Bratt, 2017). By putting staff retention techniques into practice, NPOs may develop a successful culture of accomplishment that improves operations and performance (Word & Park, 2015). Based on the examined research, it would be worthwhile to investigate the effect of leadership (transactional and transformational) on Yemen's humanitarian sector's workforce motivation. ...
Leadership and motivation have been thoroughly researched; however, the knowledge of how humanitarian organizations’ employees in Yemen perceive leadership role in enhancing motivation is lacking. Such knowledge is critical because humanitarian organizations in Yemen are expanding their services and putting increased demands on their employees. This study aimed at gaining in-depth knowledge on how employees in humanitarian organizations in Yemen perceive the role of leadership in motivating these employees via investigating how leadership (transformational and transactional) could influence employees' motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) in humanitarian organizations in Yemen. The quantitative approach was followed through distributing 361 questionnaires, yielding a 39.9% response rate. The study findings indicated that there is a positive significant relationship between leadership (transformational and transactional) and motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic). Moreover, there is a significant positive impact of transformational and transactional leadership styles on motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic). This study recommends decision makers at humanitarian organizations in Yemen pay more attention to leadership styles in order to enhance employees’ motivation which will have positive consequences for the employees and the organization. Employees will be more motivated if the leadership styles are practiced properly, and consequently the organizational goals will be achieved effectively.
Keywords: Leadership, Motivation, Employees, Humanitarian Organizations, Yemen.
... However, the question is whether this positive relationship between PSM and self-selection also holds for private sector and nonprofit organizations. Research by Word and Carpenter (2013), Word and Park (2015) supports such attraction effects in the nonprofit sector. Although sectoral boundaries are increasingly becoming blurred (Denis et al., 2015), the Continental-European tradition of PA still exhibits strong legal separation between the sectors and sectoral affiliation relates to well-known distinct elements of employment conditions, such as potential job content, salary levels, and the prospect of tenure (Kuhlmann & Wollmann, 2019;Painter & Peters, 2010). ...
A commonly held assumption is that public service motivation (PSM) positively affects individuals' attraction to government, but there are also private and nonprofit organizations that are beneficial to the common good. Therefore, the goal of this study is to shed light on an understudied topic in Public Administration, namely, how the public value of public, private, and nonprofit organizations affects their attractiveness to citizens and how PSM moderates this relationship. We find that employer attractiveness is strongly influenced by organizations' public value regardless sectoral affiliation. This attribution of public value interacts with citizens' PSM. For high-PSM individuals, the relationship between public value and attractiveness is stronger than for low-PSM individuals. Furthermore, high PSM exercises an asymmetric effect, punishing organizations with low public value more strongly in the private sector. These results highlight important implications for HR practitioners in all three sectors seeking to attract and retain highly motivated employees.
... 91-92). Building on the findings that intrinsic motivation of nonprofit employees differs from that of the public sector employees (e.g., Chen, 2012;Chen & Bozeman, 2013;Park & Word, 2012;Word & Park, 2015), some studies proved that PSM, as a form of intrinsic motivation, is not an exception (Rose, 2013;Word & Carpenter, 2013). ...
New findings on public service motivation in the public sector often contradict the previous ones. Such deviations are regularly explained by the uniqueness of the institutional settings of the sample. Yet, only few studies have compared PSM across different institutional environments; even less is known about nonprofit employees. We can only speculate that their institutional antecedents of PSM resemble their public counterparts because of the public benefit orientation of their work. Utilizing a Most Similar Systems Design method to test the institutional propositions on a sample of public and nonprofit employees from two different institutional environments, the present study confirms that (a) PSM variation of public employees across different countries can be explained by a state‐level institutional variation, and (b) for PSM of nonprofit employees, the institutional environment of a country may be irrelevant. The results confirm earlier propositions of the sectoral differences of PSM and urge us to revisit the generalizability of the previous findings of PSM relationships because they can be limited by the similarity of the observed systems.
... In line with previous findings, he takes the view that high data's recruitment sources have a huge constructive effect on the potential candidates. In this context, the following factors influencing the choice of employer are most frequently mentioned: H21 employees' responsibilities (IER), H22 salary and benefits (ISB), H23 training opportunities (ITO), H24 security of employment (ISE), H25 working atmosphere (IWA), H26 work-life balance (IWLB), and H27 career opportunities (ICO)(Chitu et al., 2014;Word et al., 2015). ...
Recruitment as a Human Resource Management function is seen as the factor influencing the development of a competitive advantage. Merely a moment in the online environment can determine whether a potential job candidate responds to a job offer, and thus factors influencing the candidate’s attention also influence the employer’s competitiveness. The paper aims to determine factors that affect job pursuit intentions (JPI) in the job listing websites environment based on the evaluation of a particular job offer that has attracted the respondent. Data was collected from a randomly selected sample of 412 Czech (CR) and Slovak Republic (SR) university students (effective response rate 29.11 percent). Multiple linear regression was used to determine independent variables to help explain the response. Two models were constructed: the first model contained all suspected variables (explaining the variance of 34.59 percent); the second model also contained their second-degree combinations (explaining the variance of 40.23 percent). The results showed that informativeness about salary and benefits (ISB), employer attractiveness (EA), informativeness about employee responsibilities (IER), as well as informativeness about work-life balance (IWLB) significantly affected job pursuit intentions (JPI) in both models. The second model revealed that the attractiveness of content (CA) also contributes to explaining variance by this factor’s affecting of the attractiveness of the employer (EA). The study extends the research into job pursuit intention into the online environment, with empirical validation of the models showing the mechanisms and conditions through which the selected variables affect job pursuit intention. The conclusion also offers suggestions for future work that can identify and more deeply describe factors which attract job candidates.
... The key market issues that drove the need for NME programs included insufficient government oversight, increasing number of nonprofits, increasing assets held by nonprofits, increasing public scrutiny, and the need for accountability (Bies & Blackwood, 2007). Altruistic values and motivations of the workforce also influenced a response to train nonprofit leaders (Word & Park, 2015). The first conference dedicated to discussing NME was held in San Francisco in 1986, and while the next conference was not held for another 10 years, similar conferences are now held at least every other year (Ashcraft, 2015b). ...
Given the growth of nonprofit management education (NME), there is a need to assess the fulfillment of undergraduate NME programs in comparison to NACC Curricular Guidelines and, further, to compare curriculum to views of former graduates and current nonprofit leaders. This study meets that objective through a multimethod case study of the undergraduate NME program at Arizona State University. Results indicate that former students highly valued leadership skills including ethics and values; leadership and management; finance and fundraising; managing staff and volunteers; and assessment, evaluation, and decision making. Similarly, nonprofit managers reported that areas specific to their roles in management were most important, including human resources management, financial management, assessment and evaluation for decision making, and management theory. A comparison to course syllabi reveals potential gaps in curriculum. Results also lead to practical recommendations including expansion of NACC Undergraduate Curricular Guidelines, increased use of case studies, and integrated curriculum.Subscribe to JNEL
... The choice of organisations from public and non-profit sectors in England was based on the principle that organisations coming from such environments are likely to render what was being studied is "transparently observable" (Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 537). This is because the value of such organisations lies in achievement of social purposes for which no revenue stream is readily apparent (Word and Sung, 2015), whereas their organisational members perceive careers as vehicles for social change (Drucker, 2006 are also characterised by collectivistic culture based on the tenets of altruism as opposed to individualistic cultures emphasising individual gains (Lemmon and Wayne, 2015). While at face value the explored organisations came from similar backgrounds, actually each of these cases was placed in unique contexts which revealed in-depth contextual information regarding the researched phenomenon. ...
Purpose – Good soldiers are people who engage in citizenship behaviours “to do good” instead of “to look good”. The purpose of this article is to explore the motivations behind and the specific characteristics of behaviours of the good soldiers in the context of work using social exchange theory (SET) as a theoretical framework.
Design/methodology/approach – 47 dyadic interviews with 94 individuals from three organisations where good soldiers are most likely to be observed were conducted.
Findings – Data analysis revealed that good soldiers are driven by concern for others and generalised reciprocity, but not expectations of self-benefits. Their actions were further found to be discretionary, reactive and proactive, and associated with different levels of self-sacrifice.
Practical implications – The findings of this study point human resources (HR) practitioners’ attention towards qualitatively unique acts of good soldiers. An assumption is made that awareness of such behaviours can help organisations to stimulate individual self-motivation, so that the quality of helping behaviours could be improved.
Originality/value - Arguing for a fundamental rethink of the psychological foundations underpinning helpful behaviours, this paper departs from predominantly individualistic view on work motivation and reinforces the other-oriented, altruistic dimension of SET. In doing so, it addresses the lack of conceptual and theoretical clarity on differently motivated helping and extends the existing limited research evidence in this area. It further addresses a need for a comprehensive understanding of other-oriented behaviours and accounts for vital - yet neglected – features of such acts.
... We include both types of articles within this theme. Papers in this vein include Laurett and Ferrerira (2018) who conduct a systematic review of strategic management in NPOs and find an increase of SHRM as one of several manifestations of NPO strategic management, Selden and Sowa (2015) who link the use of HPWPs to lower voluntary turnover in human services NPOs in eight US states, and Word and Park (2015) who find that HR policies aimed at enhancing work-life balance, organizational advancement, and job security act as important job choice factors for prospective NPO employees. In the next major section of this paper we will highlight an innovative article by Kellner and colleagues (2017) that discusses the tension that SHRM might impose on nonprofit organizations and describes how an Australian Catholic hospital successfully implemented a "modified" HPWS for the nonprofit sector that was tempered by a "values-orientation." ...
Purpose
This paper systematically reviews the past four years of research on human resource management (HRM) in nonprofit organizations (NPOs) to better understand: (1) recent theoretical and empirical developments and where scholarship in the field is headed (i.e. trends); (2) what topics and findings are especially important to understanding how the thought and practice of nonprofit HRM differs from that in public and for-profit organizations (i.e. insights); and (3) what gaps exist in current knowledge and scholarship and some real-world, practice-driven developments in people management that illuminate promising future research directions (i.e. opportunities).
Design/methodology/approach
Sixty-seven peer-reviewed journal articles covering the period 2015–2018 were identified using a university library database search, as well as by-hand searches through every issue of 22 nonprofit and 36 human resources-related journals during the four-year period.
Findings
The findings highlight strong continued interest by scholars in a wide range of nonprofit HRM issues, coverage of these issues by a worldwide network of researchers who bring global perspectives and contexts to the study of nonprofit HRM, and rich theoretical and methodological diversity. Yet, compared with the universe of possible human resource topics and several leading-edge developments in organizations and societies that might affect the way people are managed in nonprofits, the paper uncovers gaps in the most recent knowledge base.
Originality/value
The paper creates a compilation of the most recent nonprofit human resource research to be used as a tool for scholars, students, and practitioners for many years to come.
... Researchers have long been grappling with the conditions under which employees become internally and externally motivated to perform their tasks effectively (e.g. Camilleri, 2007;Hackman and Oldham, 1976;Manolopoulos, 2007;Word and Park, 2015). As we explain how several characteristics linked to strategic leaders may impact on employee motivation, we will attempt to further our understanding of motivation itself, mainly with regard to how it may be externally influenced. ...
Purpose
Building on Upper Echelons Theory and prior research on strategic leadership, the purpose of this paper is to examine the possible effect on employee motivation of two sets of characteristics related to leaders: demographic (gender and age); and professional development (tenure, prior career experience in the organization and training).
Design/methodology/approach
The empirical analysis is based on data from a survey of Spanish educational organizations (secondary schools). The hypotheses are tested using hierarchical multiple regression analysis estimations.
Findings
The results reveal that the characteristics linked to a leader’s professional development have a significant impact on employee (teacher) motivation. Specifically, a long tenure in office has a negative effect, while prior career experience in an organization and continuous training have a positive impact. However, none of the leader’s demographic characteristics considered in the study has a significant impact on teacher motivation.
Practical implications
Several lines of managerial and educational policy action are suggested for improving employee (teacher) motivation, especially in the specific case of the schools considered here.
Originality/value
This study is one of the first attempts to explore what impact certain leaders’ characteristics have on employee motivation.
... Consequently, following Willems (2014), we argue that future research should (1) make a stronger distinction between antecedents and effects of being a manager in the nonprofit, for-profit, and the public sector, and (2) acknowledge the relatedness of crucial job-related variables such as performance pay, work satisfaction, job flexibility, job security, and promotion opportunities in order to avoid over-interpretation of seemingly distinct effects. In addition, future research may also (1) relax the risk-neutrality assumption (Buurman et al., 2012), (2) consider heterogeneity in other work-related dimensions (Word and Park, 2015), or (3) investigate selfselection into non-managerial job positions (Mosca et al., 2007). ...
This paper presents a microeconomic model of self-selection into nonprofit management. First, we extend previous models by assuming that individuals are heterogeneous in multiple dimensions besides intrinsic motivation, including managerial ability, self-image concerns, and laziness at work. Second, we consider the public sector as an alternative to nonprofit sector employment, and assume that nonprofit, for-profit, and public sectors differ in the perceived level of red tape, and the potential levels of fixed pay and variable pay. We show that self-selection into nonprofit management is a complex process that depends on multiple factors, and formulate conditions that need to be fulfilled in order to have self-selection of heterogeneous individuals into nonprofit management. From this finding we derive a number of important avenues for future research.
... Some work has begun in this area, for example, Word and Carpenter (2013) introduce a modified version of Perry's (1996) PSM Scale as a model for nonprofit service motivation (their model excluding attraction to policy making) and find that intrinsic motivation is key to nonprofit employee job selection, as well as race, attraction to mission, depth of involvement in sector, and state location. In addition, Word and Park (2015) explore the application of PSM in the nonprofit sector and find that while intrinsic motivation is a factor in job choice, additional factors including work-life balance, advancement, and job security are also important. However, because all members in this study were nested within the same organization, this study cannot speak to whether organizational characteristics might moderate the observed relationships. ...
Public management scholars have suggested that employee motivation can be accentuated by organizational cultures and contexts. One of the most researched topics in this regard is the concept of public service motivation (PSM). Research shows that PSM works to direct applicants toward public service careers and, once hired, can be linked to motivated activity within public-sector organizations. Similarly, like PSM, a sense of community (SOC) and a sense of community responsibility (SOC-R) have also been posited to act as powerful predictors of employee well-being and engagement. The present study demonstrates that SOC-R is a more powerful predictor of employee engagement compared with PSM and SOC. Concurrently, SOC more strongly predicts employee well-being compared with PSM and SOC-R. The findings bring additional light and clarification to the predictive power of PSM on employee perceptions and behavior, and they demonstrate that community experiences have utility in public service settings.
... Is it simply a matter of having the right resources and connections? Or, as shown to be the case with nonprofit employees (Word and Park, 2015), do intrinsic motives also play an important role for board members? We believe that a better understanding of these factors could improve the ability of nonprofits to recruit new board members, especially among the baby boomer cohort. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to better understand the conditions associated with serving on boards by investigating the factors that distinguish older volunteers who serve on nonprofit boards from those who only volunteer programmatically.
Design/methodology/approach
Surveys of 354 residents of Southeastern North Carolina over age 50. Measures include education, wealth, retirement status, public service motivation (PSM), patterns of residential mobility, secular and religious organization meeting attendance, and volunteer activity in the past year. Data were analyzed using a Heckman probit selection model.
Findings
Respondents who have higher levels of education, are retired, or have lived in the community for longer periods are more likely to report board volunteering, but are not any more likely to volunteer programmatically. Those with higher levels of PSM are more likely to report general volunteering, but are not any more likely to volunteer on boards. Two measures reveal divergent findings based on type of volunteering: moving frequently in one’s lifetime and attending weekly religious services are associated with a greater likelihood of programmatic volunteering but a reduced likelihood of serving as a board member.
Research limitations/implications
Limitations include self-reported, cross-sectional data, and a geographically restricted American sample that is older, more educated, and more likely to own a second home than average.
Practical implications
In order to better address board member recruitment, nonprofits should consider extending opportunities through strategies targeting retired community newcomers.
Originality/value
This study contributes an analysis of PSM among nonprofit board members, and identifies factors that distinguish programmatic and board volunteers, in order to better understand the conditions associated with board service.
While public sector employees differ from private sector employees in important aspects, limited knowledge exists regarding what accounts for these differences. This study focuses on employee absenteeism, examining variations across public, nonprofit, and for-profit sectors. We argue that the differences are shaped by both sectoral conditions and employees’ selection into sectors. Using data from the U.S. Current Population Survey between 1994 and 2019, we find that absenteeism is the highest among public sector employees, followed by nonprofit and for-profit sector employees. By tracking individuals’ absenteeism after sector switching, we reveal that entering the for-profit sector is associated with decreased absenteeism, and employees with low absenteeism propensities are equally likely to enter and leave public and nonprofit sectors. These findings indicate that public and nonprofit sector managers could effectively reduce absenteeism by retaining low-absenteeism employees.
Research has shown that nonprofits led by people of color (POC) tend to have more diverse staff compared to White-led organizations, yet it remains unclear whether leaders of color inherently attract racially diverse talent. Using an online experiment, this study investigates the impact of the racial/ethnic composition of nonprofit leadership on job-seeking behaviors. While participants consistently view POC-led nonprofits as more committed to diversity, this positive perception does not influence their job choices. When given a choice, White individuals tend to prefer working for White-led nonprofits, whereas people of color show no strong preference between POC-led and White-led nonprofits. The results shed light on the complexities of racial representation in talent acquisition, offering important insights into the broader discourse on nonprofit diversity and the persistent barriers POC-led organizations face in achieving diverse staffing.
Recruiting talented employees is challenging for nonprofit organizations. This study examines the effects of two possible human resource recruitment practices—offering new ways of working and leadership development opportunities—on the intention of talent to apply for a position at a nonprofit organization. Building on the self‐determination theory, the authors conducted an online survey experiment ( n = 389) with aspiring employees in Germany. The results show that, of the offered practices, only “new ways of working” significantly increase individuals' intention to apply. Regarding work sector preferences, nonprofits are in a war for talent, as only 13.6% prefer the nonprofit sector, with most participants (47.8%) preferring to find a job with a for‐profit company or in the public sector (38.6%). As a key nonprofit management implication, recruiters should develop and implement new ways of working to attract talented employees to the nonprofit sector.
The job seeker value proposition (JSVP) can be defined as a set of benefits or values a firm promises its job seekers to deliver once they join it, signifying an indicator of its employer brand as well as focusing on job seeker attraction because it carries some information that helps the decision-making process of the prospective employees. In this concern, the job choice theory interprets the actual factors of a job seeker's decision-making process, and therefore, it could be effectively used in conceptualising the JSVP. However, it is claimed that, in most cases, the job choice theory is not considered the basis for developing the construct of the JSVP. Therefore, taking the job choice theory into consideration, this paper aims to develop a framework for conceptualising the JSVP from a new perspective. Thus, through a systematic literature review, eight factors that explain the conceptual domain of the JSVP are discovered and, on the basis of them, eight propositions are made in developing a measurement scale for the JSVP. This study discusses the theoretical and practical implications of the proposed factor-based structure for the JSVP. Subsequently, the limitations in the present research are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research concerning JSVP constructs.
Abstract
Although motivation and productivity have been thoroughly researched, the knowledge of how humanitarian organizations’ employees in Yemen perceive motivation roles in enhancing their productivity is lacking. Such knowledge is critical because humanitarian organizations in Yemen are expanding their services and putting increased demands on their employees. This study aimed at gaining in-depth knowledge on how employees in humanitarian organizations in Yemen perceive the role of motivation in enhancing productivity via investigating how motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) could influence employees' productivity in humanitarian organizations in Yemen. The quantitative approach was followed through distributing 361 questionnaires, yielding a 39.9% response rate. The study findings indicated that there is a positive significant relationship between motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and employees’ productivity. Moreover, there is a significant positive impact of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) on employees’ productivity. This study recommends decision makers at humanitarian organizations in Yemen to pay more attention to motivation in order to enhance employees’ productivity which will have positive consequences for the employees and the organization. Employees will be more productive if they are well-motivated; and if this motivation is practiced properly, the organizational goals in turn will be achieved effectively.
Keywords: Motivation, Productivity, Humanitarian Organizations, Employees, Yemen.
Although leadership and productivity have been thoroughly researched, the knowledge of how humanitarian organizations’ employees in Yemen perceive leadership role in enhancing their productivity is lacking. Such knowledge is critical because humanitarian organizations in Yemen are expanding their services and putting increased demands on their employees. This study aimed at gaining in-depth knowledge on how employees in humanitarian organizations in Yemen perceive the role of leadership in enhancing productivity via investigating how leadership (transformational and transactional) could influence employees' productivity in humanitarian organizations in Yemen. The quantitative approach was followed through distributing 361 questionnaires, yielding a 39.9% response rate. The study findings indicated that there is a positive significant relationship between leadership (transformational and transactional) and employees’ productivity. Moreover, there is a significant positive impact of transformational and transactional leadership styles on employees’ productivity. This study recommends decision makers at humanitarian organizations in Yemen to pay more attention to leadership styles in order to enhance employees’ productivity which will have positive consequences for the employees and the organization. Employees will be more productive if the leadership styles are practiced properly, and the organizational goals in turn will be achieved effectively and efficiently.
Keywords: Leadership, Productivity, Transformational, transactional, Humanitarian Organizations, Yemen.
Although leadership, motivation, and productivity have been thoroughly researched, the knowledge of how humanitarian organizations’ employees in Yemen perceive leadership as well as motivation roles in enhancing their productivity is lacking. Such knowledge is critical because humanitarian organizations in Yemen are expanding their services and putting increased demands on their employees. This study aimed at gaining in-depth knowledge on how employees in humanitarian organizations in Yemen perceive the role of leadership as well as motivation in enhancing productivity via investigating how leadership (transformational and transactional) could influence employees' productivity with and without the mediating role of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) in humanitarian organizations in Yemen. The quantitative approach was followed through distributing 361 questionnaires, yielding a 39.9% response rate. The study findings indicated that there is a positive significant relationship between leadership (transformational and transactional), motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic), and employees’ productivity. Moreover, there is a significant positive impact of transformational and transactional leadership styles on motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) as well as employees’ productivity. Besides, there is a significant positive impact of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) on employees’ productivity. Additionally, motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) significantly mediates the relationship between leadership styles and employees’ productivity. This study recommends decision makers at humanitarian organizations in Yemen to pay more attention to leadership styles and motivation in order to enhance employees’ productivity which will have positive consequences for the employees and the organization. Employees will be more productive if they are well-motivated; and if the leadership styles are practiced properly, the organizational goals in turn will be achieved effectively.
Keywords: Leadership, Motivation, Productivity, Humanitarian Organizations, Yemen
Purpose: This study aimed to identify the relationship between servant leadership and job
embeddedness, by applying it to workers in the public cadre at Mansoura University.
Design/methodology/approach: A framework has been designed for the study that shows
the relationships and influences between the variables of the study, and a set of hypotheses
emerged from this framework that were tested on a sample of (379) employees of the
public cadre at Mansoura University, using various statistical tools to analyze and process
data.
Findings: The study concluded that there is a significant statistically significant
correlation between servant leadership and job embeddedness. The study also found a
significant effect of servant leadership dimensions on job embeddedness dimensions.
After verifying the study's hypotheses, a set of results and recommendations were reached
that define the practical and theoretical frameworks for the decision maker at Mansoura
University.
Keywords: servant leadership - job embeddedness.
While entrepreneurship is a pervasive cultural concept, it is not universally applicable. Drawing on a year-long study with nonprofit workers, this piece articulates a frame for understanding technical and professional communication work within nonprofits rooted in comradeship, which privileges community needs, everyday people, listening, and solidarity across stakeholder groups. Such a frame offers a more nuanced understanding of how accountability frames the work of nonprofit employees and other stakeholders dedicated to social justice.
This paper analyzes qualitative interview data with a sample of 41 executive directors of human services nonprofits to discover why people become executive directors, what career paths they follow, and how well these career paths prepare them for the job. All became executive directors because they wanted to help others. Less important motivations included influencing how programs operate, wanting to be successful, and wanting a higher salary. The paper proposes a new typology of career paths: founders who started their own nonprofit, fillers from the board or a volunteer position, planners who actively pursued an executive position for years, and risers who worked their way up through the ranks and found that executive director was the next step. Most considered themselves well prepared at the time they took on the position, and there was little difference among the four types of career paths in the level of perceived preparedness. The findings suggest that nonprofit organizations should pay more attention to training leaders who rise up through the ranks, and that management education programs can assist in this mid‐career training. Future research should expand the examination of career paths and preparedness to a large and nationally representative survey.
Knowledge sharing behavior (KSB) plays a key role in gaining and sustaining competitive advantage and organizational success. However, scholars have paid less attention to the issue of knowledge sharing in the context of higher education institutions (HEIs). Although considerable evidence exists indicating that HRM practices affect employees’ KSB, there is still a lack of understanding of how and whether these practices promote KSB within organizations. Thus, the present study aimed at filling the gaps by examining the relationship between HRM practices (selective staffing, extensive training, job security, promotion, performance appraisal, autonomous job design, and participation) and KSB in the HEIs of Bangladesh. Based on the self-determination theory, this study also examined public service motivation (PSM) as a mediating mechanism in that relationship. This study employed a cross-sectional research design in which a questionnaire survey was used for collecting data from the full-time faculty members serving in the selected 16 private universities in
Bangladesh. Using a systematic sampling method, a total of 359 useable questionnaires were received with a response rate of 55.23%. The partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to test the hypothesized relationship. The study revealed that four HRM practices (selective staffing, extensive training, autonomous job design, and participation) have significant positive relationships with KSB, whereas the other three HRM practices (job security, promotion and performance appraisal) are not significantly associated with KSB. Moreover, PSM mediates the relationship between five HRM practices (extensive training, job security, performance appraisal, autonomous job design, and participation) and KSB. However, the mediating effects of PSM between the remaining two HRM practices (selective staffing and promotion) and KSB are found to be insignificant. Based on the empirical findings, practitioners and policy makers should pay more attention to integrating HRM practices and PSM to foster knowledge sharing behavior at HEIs.
This paper explores the strategies that staff at two refugee-serving organizations found helpful in mitigating their increased distress from negative political rhetoric aimed at their clients. Results point to the importance of organizational acknowledgment of the distress. Additionally, staff perceived that intentionally focused organizational interventions can mitigate the emotional impacts of negative rhetoric. Finally, strategies employees used to lessen their distress and regain a sense of efficacy included recommitment to the mission, advocacy for refugees among family and friends, strong reliance on religious faith in coping, and an avoidance of the rhetoric by decreasing engagement with news and social media.
To date, much research has been done on the association between Human resource management practices and its outcomes; less consideration has been focused on the association between HRM practices and its affect on motivation of employees to produce valuable outcomes. This article presents a narrative systematic Literature review accumulating the affect of HRM practices on employee motivation in public organizations. The findings based on the 72 articles support a significant relationship of the practices with employee motivation either intrinsically or extrinsically. Moreover, the results suggested that appropriate implementation of HR practices motivate the employees to produce dynamic outcome like job satisfaction, retention, performance, commitment and OCB. This systematic literature review emerges by reviewing 72 research articles from time period 1990 to 2016 based on specific protocols and inclusion/exclusion criteria. In this review various demographic characteristics have been investigated for analysis including most frequently used research design and strategy, patterns of study context, time period, types of respondents and underpinning theories. Further, detailed analysis has been performed to explore the influence of HR practices on motivation also identifying the outcomes of this motivation in public sector organizations. In the end a model was created for illustrative presentation of the relationship between HR practices, motivation and its outcomes. This narrative systematic literature review establishes the broad vision to the scholars for further investigation in the field of HR Management.
Key words: Human resource practices, motivation, public sector motivation, public sector.
While sector distinction debates often reemerge during periods of cultural and institutional upheaval, none have considered an identity-orientation perspective. Identity orientation is a natural domain in which to address these debates as it considers the individualistic, relational and collectivistic foundations of organizations. This study explores whether organizational members across sectors view their organization’s identity orientation differently. Findings suggest that member perceptions of identity orientation are significantly different across sectors and align with traditional sector values and motivations. However, no one sector can be defined solely as individualistic, relational or collectivistic. These findings are discussed and future research paths laid out.
Although considerable research has developed exploring effective management of nonprofit boards of directors, there is limited understanding of the motivations of nonprofit board members to serve on boards. Using a sample of nearly 700 nonprofit board members, this study examines antecedent conditions and dimensions of public service motivation (PSM) as they apply to nonprofit board members and the differences in levels of PSM between board members who have worked primarily in the nonprofit, public, or private sectors. Board members with primary employment in the public sector show the highest levels of PSM. This study illustrates that nonprofit board members who work in the private sector exhibit fewer values associated with public service motivation. Other variables that predict public service motivation among board members include gender, level of education, and formal volunteering activity, among several others.
This study examines the relationship between public service motivation (i.e., intrinsically and voluntarily driven attitudes and dispositions), strategic human resource management, and person–environment fit in Korean nonprofit organizations in order to determine the ways by which both the motivation of employees and the performance of these organizations can be enhanced. This was done using data from a survey on Korean nonprofit organizations employees conducted in 2013. The results show a direct, positive, and significant association between strategic human resource management and person–environment fit, a direct and positive association between person–environment fit and the affective and normative nonprofit public service motivation aspects of nonprofit public service motivation, and a mediating role of person–environment fit in the relationship between strategic human resource management and affective and normative nonprofit public service motivation.
This paper seeks to make the case that social work students would benefit from thinking beyond the binary of statutory sector vs voluntary sector when thinking about their future career. It argues instead that they should think in terms of their own philosophical worldview, their own preferences in terms of the mechanics of day-to-day practice, and the reasons for those preferences. Drawing on reflection literature, Johns’ Model of Reflection (2017) and an element of Motivational Interviewing, and informed by a value pluralist perspective, the paper sets out a reflective process for social work students to use. The process supports students firstly to explore their own core values and worldview, then to consider their feelings about more practical aspects of the social work role, and finally to find the connections and possible dissonances between the two. It is hoped that the article and the reflective process here advanced can contribute to students being able to plan for their professional futures in a way that does not depend principally on having to choose between statutory or voluntary sector practice, but on a much wider array of factors and values.
As the consequences of the raise in the roles that nonprofit organizations play in providing public services, there is a need to generate solutions for the financial scandals involving nonprofit organizations that have ensued. Nonprofit organizations receive government funding as “third-party agents” of the government to deliver the meaningful outcomes required on performance measures. Many nonprofit organizations utilize performance appraisal systems to improve their accountability and demonstrate organizational trustworthiness. This study employs confirmatory factor analysis and hierarchical multiple regression to examine data from the 2013 Korean Nonprofit Sector Survey. The results are as follows: (a) The current human resources and organizational monitoring systems in Korea play the most significant role in increasing employees’ acceptance of performance appraisal systems (APAS); (b) Korean nonprofit organizations’ new public management (NPM) culture is positively associated with APAS; and (c) the type of organizational culture (NPM or Confucian) moderates the relationship between performance monitoring systems (PMS) and APAS among nonprofit organization employees.
Purpose: this paper aims to discuss about the implementation of motivational factors on public and private sectors to find the influence of motivation factors on basis of qualification, work experience, gender and to find out the difference between motivation level of public sector employees and private sector employees. Design/methodology/approach – The paper approaches the issue through self constructed questionnaire regarding motivation. The questionnaire consisting 30 statements depending upon motivation tools such as career development & basic facilities, supportive organization culture and working environment, involvement in job and organization, compensation and other benefits, appreciation and recognition, flexible working conditions. The research is based on sample size of 111 employees of Jind district. Findings – The results reveal that the motivation that employees of private service sector think there is good career development programs and facilities provided by organization in spite of public sector. There is more supportive organization culture and working environment in public sector. Employees of public sectors are more involved in job and organization. Employees of private sector get more appreciation and recognition for their work in comparison with public sector. Working conditions are more flexible in private organization.
Research comparing public and private organizations and examining the publicness of organizations represents a substantial and growing body of empirical evidence, relevant to many international issues in political economy and organization theory such as the privatization of public services. This article assesses several major streams in this research over the last two decades, which in some ways refute widely held a priori assumptions about similarities and differences between public and private organizations but which in some ways support such assumptions. The review covers research on goal complexity and ambiguity, organizational structure, personnel and purchasing processes, and work-related attitudes and values. The research results converge in important ways, but they also present anomalies. For example, in spite of virtually universal agreement among scholars that public organizations have more goal complexity and ambiguity, public managers do not differ from business managers in response to survey questions about such matters. Public managers do not differ from business managers on perceptions about organizational formalization, in spite of a chorus of assertions that government agencies have more red tape and rules than private firms have. Public managers do, however, show very sharp differences in response to questions about constraints under personnel and purchasing rules. The article concludes with an assessment of the credibility of these streams of research through consideration of alternative plausible hypotheses.
Employer marketing in public administration will become one of the most important functions in the light of shrinking labor supply due to future demographic change. For a successful development of human resource selection and marketing measures, public administration needs to know more about its perception as an attractive employer and what implications employer attractiveness has for the behavioral trends of potential employees. Using data from a sample of university students, this study tests a theoretical framework of employer attractiveness. Against the background of person–organization fit theory, the results show significant differences between the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic work motives. Overall, the results support the hypothesized relationship between public service motivation and attractiveness of public sector organizations and its impact on behavioral trends like intention to apply for a job or to recommend an employer.
Research in the for-profit and public sectors has long sought to understand the factors affecting employee motivation but little is known concerning motivation of the nonprofit workforce. It has been suggested that nonprofit employees are an integral part of the new public service and are in many ways motivated to serve similar to public employees. To test this notion, this research presents an adapted version of Perry’s Public Service Motivation (PSM) Scale to examine motivation of nonprofit sector employees and empirically measures the level of service motivation of the nonprofit employees surveyed. The findings suggest that the modified version of Perry’s PSM Scale provides a good empirical model of nonprofit service motivation (NPSM). This provides support for the idea that nonprofit employees are largely attracted to their jobs because of the intrinsic rewards involved. In addition, the level of NPSM was found to be affected by attraction to mission, race, depth of involvement in the nonprofit sector and state context.
Recent research has demonstrated that public service motivation (PSM) is positively associated with the compatibility that public employees have to public organizations. However, the person–work environment (PE Fit) research also highlights the importance of compatibility not only between individuals and organizations (PO Fit) but also between individuals and jobs (PJ Fit). Hence, there is a need for research that investigates the level of the government work environment that PSM contributes to the most. Subsequently, this study sought to shed some light on the relationship that PSM has to PO Fit and PJ Fit. Using a sample of 205 randomly selected employees drawn from three public organizations in the States of Oregon, Indiana, and Kentucky, PSM was found to be a significantly better predictor of PO Fit, than PJ Fit. The implications of this finding for public administration research and practice are discussed.
This research draws upon a survey of nonprofit and state government managers to examine the role service motivation plays in both sectors. The research addresses three main research questions: 1) What are the main motivational dimensions and constructs of managers in the public and nonprofit sectors? 2) How are these different types of work motivations related to each other? and 3) What differences exist between these sectors in terms of level of intrinsic and extrinsic work motivation? Our findings suggest there are four different motivational constructs and in many ways public and nonprofit managers are similar in terms of the importance of intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation. While the mean level of extrinsic motivation in the public sector is statistically higher than in the nonprofit sector, certain types of extrinsic motivation such as advancement motivation and WLB motivation are highly correlated with intrinsic motivation in both the public and nonprofit sectors. Finally, directions for future research and practical implications are also discussed.
Several studies over the past two decades have presented varying degrees of evidence that an increased motive to serve the public good is prevalent in the public sector workforce. A widely accepted and measurable construct for public service motivation could have ramifications for public personnel managers in a number of key areas. This paper reviews the current literature on public service motivation (PSM) theory and examines how this desire to make a difference might e harnessed as a motivational force for human resource managers. The prevalence of PSM in the nonprofit sector is also explored as a means of broadening the current public-private dichotomy.
The public administration literature has long emphasized the distinctive character of motives associated with public institutions.
The recent development of a public service motivation (PSM) construct and an instrument to measure it opens the way for systematic
empirical research. This study investigates the relationship of PSM to five sets of correlates: parental socialization, religious
socialization, professional identification, political ideology, and individual demographic characteristics. The results generally
confirm the hypotheses, but several anomalies were identified. The findings suggest that research using the PSM construct
can be fruitful for understanding motivation. Among the directions for further research are studies of the influences of educational
and bureaucratic socialization on PSM and the affects of PSM on individual and organizational behavior.
Despite debate about distinctions among employment in the government, nonprofit, and business sectors, little research exists on the likelihood of, or barriers to, movement across sector boundaries. The authors propose and test models explaining individuals' current sector of employment-business, government, or nonprofit-and their sector-shifting behavior. They use survey data from 688 alumni of four schools: two offering MBAs and two offering MPAs. Study results indicate that most respondents have a favored sector when they graduate and remain within that sector for their employment. Results also indicate that this sector preference is influenced by perceived competence in the sectors and individuals' career values. This study shows that sector shifting is tied to sector desires and the strength of protean career orientation. The results are used to address existing claims about careers and to build understanding of influences on perceived sector competence and desires. The discussion informs employers and educators.
More than a decade ago, Perry and Wise popularized the concept of public service motivation. Yet today, still little is known about public employees with high levels of public service motivation. This study sought to fill this gap in the literature by investigating the relationship that exists between public service motivation and the personal characteristics, management level, and monetary preferences of public employees. The findings reveal that public service motivation is significantly related to the gender, education level, management level, and monetary preferences of public employees. The implications of this study and areas of future research are discussed.
Job involvement is a principal factor in the lives of most people; employees in the workplace are mentally and emotionally influenced by their degree of involvement in work. Using the data from the National Administrative Studies Project III, this study empirically compares the level of job involvement between managers in the public and nonprofit sectors and explores different aspects including demographic, managerial, and institutional factors that contribute to the apparent differences. The results of the study indicate that the mean level of nonprofit managers' job involvement is significantly greater than for public managers. Each sector had specific variables that significantly and uniquely contributed to job involvement. Overall, the results suggest a need to more fully investigate the various mechanisms and functions of situational and organizational contexts, organizational norms, and culture that were associated with job involvement regardless of sector. Implications and limitations of this research are also discussed.
We evaluated the impact of human resource (HR) managers' capabili- ties on HR management effectiveness and the latter's impact on corpo- rate financial performance. For 293 U.S. firms, effectiveness was asso- ciated with capabilities and attributes of HR staff. We also found rela- tionships between HR management effectiveness and productivity, cash flow, and market value. Findings were consistent across market and accounting measures of performance and with corrections for biases.
Nonprofit organizations have a long-standing tradition of advocacy on behalf of their clients, particularly those that comprise underrepresented groups. However, much less is known about the roles these institutions play in empowering citizens to become active participants in the political process. This research note examines the efforts of nonprofit organizations to facili- tate voting and contacting of public officials by their clientele. Results from this analysis suggest that social-service nonprofits located in urban areas are significantly more likely to encourage both voting and contacting. Findings also suggest that government funding has a positive and consistent effect on nonprofits' efforts to promote both of these forms of participation.
This paper examines the career consequences for public managers of having had full-time private sector work experience. We find positive career outcomes for public managers with private sector experience: Individuals with such experience are more likely to have been recently promoted relative to peers and to supervise somewhat greater number of employees, especially if their most recent job was in the private sector. While experience in the private sector enhances such career outcomes, the length of such experience diminishes them. The authors conclude by identifying three career scenarios emerging from the models and discussing the managerial and theoretical implications of “sector-switching careers.”
This article presents improvements for the dimension of ‘Attraction to Public Policy-making’ within the Public Service Motivation measurement scale. The literature concerning the theory behind this and a large number of empirical studies point out the shortcomings of this dimension with regard to both the contents and the methodology employed. This article deals in depth with the aspect of ‘Attraction to Public Policy-making’ and, in contrast to the work carried out to date, tackles the open questions using a qualitative research strategy. The analysis of 21 partially structured interviews, which were conducted with administrative employees at the local government level, demonstrates that, while the empirical findings confirm the contents of the original dimension, the items selected for this in previous research are insufficient and can lead to measurement problems. This article suggests specific items for validation and improved measurement to be applied in future research.
A framework for understanding the etiology of organizational behavior is presented. The framework is based on theory and research from interactional psychology, vocational psychology, I/O psychology, and organizational theory. The framework proposes that organizations are functions of the kinds of people they contain and, further, that the people there are functions of an attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) cycle. The ASA cycle is proposed as an alternative model for understanding organizations and the causes of the structures, processes, and technology of organizations. First, the ASA framework is developed through a series of propositions. Then some implications of the model are outlined, including (1) the difficulty of bringing about change in organizations, (2) the utility of personality and interest measures for understanding organizational behavior, (3) the genesis of organizational climate and culture, (4) the importance of recruitment, and (5) the need for person-based theories of leadership and job attitudes. It is concluded that contemporary I/O psychology is overly dominated by situationist theories of the behavior of organizations and the people in them.
Motivation in Public Management: The Call of Public Service joins a long-standing debate about what drives the behavior of government employees and others who are engaged in the public's business. For many centuries, public service was considered a noble calling and, more recently, a profession. During the latter part of the 20th century, however, many scholars called into question both the reality and desirability of a public service ethic. This book draws upon a substantial and growing body of evidence from across disciplines in the social, behavioral, and natural sciences. It asks and answers key questions about the extent to which behavior is fundamentally self- or other-regarding. To paraphrase James Madison, 'public servants are not angels,' but neither are they self-aggrandizing opportunists. The evidence presented in this volume offers a compelling case that motivation theory should be grounded not only in rational choice models, but altruistic and prosocial perspectives as well. In addition to reviewing evidence from many disciplines, the volume extensively reviews research in public management conducted under the rubric of 'public service motivation'. The volume is a comprehensive guide to history, methodology, empirical research, and institutional and managerial implications of research on public service motivation. As the contributors illustrate, the implications transcend particular sectors or countries.
Motivation in Public Management: The Call of Public Service joins a long-standing debate about what drives the behavior of government employees and others who are engaged in the public's business. For many centuries, public service was considered a noble calling and, more recently, a profession. During the latter part of the 20th century, however, many scholars called into question both the reality and desirability of a public service ethic. This book draws upon a substantial and growing body of evidence from across disciplines in the social, behavioral, and natural sciences. It asks and answers key questions about the extent to which behavior is fundamentally self- or other-regarding. To paraphrase James Madison, 'public servants are not angels,' but neither are they self-aggrandizing opportunists. The evidence presented in this volume offers a compelling case that motivation theory should be grounded not only in rational choice models, but altruistic and prosocial perspectives as well. In addition to reviewing evidence from many disciplines, the volume extensively reviews research in public management conducted under the rubric of 'public service motivation'. The volume is a comprehensive guide to history, methodology, empirical research, and institutional and managerial implications of research on public service motivation. As the contributors illustrate, the implications transcend particular sectors or countries.
Nonprofit organizations are playing an increasingly important role in delivering basic government services. Yet they are discouraged by federal law from participating in legislative lobbying efforts —even on issues that affect their clients directly. Without the involvement of nonprofits in the governmental process, the vulnerable populations they serve are left without effective representation in the political system. A Voice for Nonprofits analyzes the effect of government restrictions on the participation of nonprofits in the policymaking process and suggests ways to address the problems. The relationship between nonprofits and the government is ideal in many respects, according to Jeffrey M. Berry and David F. Arons. By underwriting operating budgets and subcontracting the administration of programs to nonprofits, governments at all levels are able to take advantage of nonprofits' dedication, imagination, and private fund-raising skills. However, as nonprofits assume greater responsibility for delivering services traditionally provided by government, that responsibility is not matched by a congruous increase in policy influence. Berry and Arons believe the lobbying restrictions should be eased so that nonprofits may become more involved in public policymaking. Their recommendations are designed to ensure that nonprofit organizations —and the constituencies they serve —are effectively represented in the American political system.
Aspects of organizational context that have been held to be relevant to organizational structure were examined. Seven primary concepts of organizational context, viz.: origin and history, ownership and control, size, charter, technology, location and dependence on other organizations, were analyzed and operationally defined scales constructed. These were used as independent variables in a multivariate regression analysis to predict three underlying dimensions of organization structure previously established. The size of the correlations obtained on a sample of 46 organizations in the English Midlands (0.75 with structuring of activities using size and technology as predictors; 0.75 with concentration of authority using dependence and location as predictors; 0.57 with line control of workflow, using the operating variability scale of charter as a predictor) indicates that these aspects of context are salient for structure. The framework of contextual and structural variables is seen as making possible processual studies on a much more rigorous comparative basis than before.
Our meta-analysis (this issue) clarified when rewards undermine, leave unchanged, and enhance intrinsic motivation and pointed out flaws in Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) meta-analysis. Cameron’s (2001) commentary did not reveal any problems with our meta-analysis, nor did it defend the validity of Cameron and Pierce’s. Instead, Cameron referred to a fourth meta-analysis by her group; little detail was presented about the new meta-analysis, but it appears to have the same types of errors as the first three. Cameron also presented a new theoretical account of reward effects—the fourth by her group, which sequentially abandoned the previous ones as they were found wanting. Cameron concluded again that there is no reason to avoid using performance-contingent rewards in educational settings, yet her application of the research results to education lacks ecological validity.
Human resource management (HRM) plays an important role in providing better management for nonprofit organizations (NPOs). Yet little is known about what influences their human resource practices. After discussing how the strategic and human-resource-based theoretical approaches are appropriate for analyzing HRM in NPOs, the authors explore the current nonprofit literature to identify the specific characteristics of strategic orientations and human resources in NPOs. As a result, the authors propose an analytical framework that is differentiated into four HRM types. This framework enables a better understanding of the relationship between the specific characteristics of NPOs and the architecture of HRM.
Despite the fact that gouernment in the United States relies more heavily on nonprofit organizations than on its own instrumentalities to deliver government- funded human services, and that nonprofits receive more of their income from government than from any other single source, the phenomenon of government- nonprofit partnership has been largely overlooked both in analyses of the welfare state and in research on the voluntary sector. This article argues that this neglect of government-nonprofit ties is less the product of a lack of research than of important weaknesses in theory. Both the theory of the welfare state and the theory of the voluntary sector, moreover, are deficient. To overcome these weaknesses, the article advances an alternative theoretical formulation that replaces the prevailing con ception of the welfare state with the concept of "third-party government," and replaces the current "market failure-government failure" theory of the voluntary sector with a theory built around the concept of "voluntary failure" instead. Viewed through these alternative conceptual lenses, the phenomenon of government-non profit partnership comes into far better view and becomes far more understandable. Against the backdrop of this alternative theory, the article then identifies a number of principles that should guide government-nonprofit relations in the years ahead.
Using a sample of 101 heterosexual, coresidential couples, the author evaluates four housework theories: gender ideology, relative resources, time availability, and doing gender. Unlike some tests of these theories, the author operationalizes gender ideology as an identity, and the author tests the models on the traditionally feminine chores as well as the traditionally masculine and gender-neutral chores. Using the new operationalization, the author finds that gender ideology is related to the allocation of feminine tasks but generally unrelated to the division of nonfemininechores. Wives’ and husbands’time availability also helps explain the division of feminine and, to a lesser extent, gender-neutral chores. Some socioeconomic resources are related to the allocation of each housework category although absolute and relative resources often have contrasting effects when controlling for both. Regardless of gender ideology, time availability, or resources, however, wives do a significantly greater share of their family’s total and feminine housework, and husbands do a significantly greater share of their family’s masculine chores.
Public service motivation (PSM) is a prominent concept within current Public Administration, as it refers to the drive for public interested and altruistic behaviour. Although substantial empirical research on its nature and its impact is available, little is known on the origins of PSM. Led by cues provided by previous empirical research, this article seeks to develop a general theory of PSM, encompassing both causes and consequences of PSM. Based on an interdisciplinary approach, elements of institutional theory and motivational psychology are fused together, blending into an operational theory of PSM.
Nonprofit managers often report difficulties in hiring and retaining top-quality professional staff members. The goals of this study were to assess the seriousness of the problems and to identify some best practices that can be used by nonprofit managers. The study focused on small and mid-sized nonprofits in the human service and community development fields in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Although the problems identified were not of crisis proportion, organizations faced particular difficulties in hiring and retaining staff members in information technology and development. Use of contemporary recruitment techniques, including the Internet, was surprisingly limited, but some organizations had creative approaches to retaining valued employees.
Nonprofit agencies use approximately six million volunteers to deliver services. As public service increasingly relies on their work, the question of how to reduce turnover and increase retention among volunteers merits attention. This article reports an empirical analysis of turnover and retention using Herzberg's two-factor theory. The findings suggest two factors that reduce turnover: both preservice and in-service training and assigning challenging tasks.
Critics of New Public Management argue that differences between public and private organizations are so great that business practices should not be transferred to the public sector. In this paper the theoretical arguments on the differences between private firms and public agencies are reviewed, and 13 hypotheses are identified on the impact of publicness on organizational environments, goals, structures and managerial values. Evidence from 34 empirical studies of differences between public agencies and private firms is critically evaluated. Only three of the publicness hypotheses are supported by a majority of the empirical studies: public organizations are more bureaucratic, and public managers are less materialistic and have weaker organizational commitment than their private sector counterparts. However, most of the statistical evidence is derived from studies that use narrow measures of publicness and fail to control for other relevant explanatory variables. Whether the existing evidence understates or overstates the distinctiveness of public agencies is therefore unclear. A research agenda and methods are identified for better comparisons of management in public and private organizations.
Research generally indicates that public employees “talk the talk,” but do they also “walk the walk” of the public service
motive (PSM)? Are public service employees more likely than others to engage in public service activities? The behavioral
implications of PSM are addressed by studying the involvement in charitable activities of public, nonprofit, and private workers.
Using data from the 2002 General Social Survey, multivariate logistic regression models are estimated to examine self-reported
gifts of time, blood, and money to charitable organizations. It is found that government employees are more likely to volunteer
for charity and to donate blood than for-profit employees are. Additionally, nonprofit workers are also more likely than their
for-profit counterparts to volunteer. However, no difference is found among public service and private employees in terms
of individual philanthropy. These findings generally lend support for the hypothesis that PSM is more prominent in public
service than in private organizations, especially as it pertains to government personnel.
This study focused on the issue of CEO tenure in three non-profit community-based organizations – each with an at least 25-year long CEO tenure – located in two US northeastern urban centers. Using a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview, we investigated reasons for the CEOs’ extraordinarily long tenures in office: the CEOs themselves, their organizations, and the environments in which they operated. The following were among the data findings re the CEOs: they were founders of their organization; were power brokers within the political community; managed their staff and boards of directors; possessed a vision and continued to initiate new projects; exhibited a passion for work; and had a succession plan. Some issues for future research are presented.
Purpose
– This paper aims to examine the practice of human resource management (HRM) in voluntary sector organisations providing substance misuse treatment services and to compare these findings with similar organisations in the public sector.
Design/methodology/approach
– HRM practices are examined using a survey of voluntary and public sector drug and alcohol treatment provider organisations. The survey data are supported with a number of case studies and qualitative interviews with the HR managers of such organisations.
Findings
– The data show that in many areas practice is broadly similar in the voluntary and public sectors. However, there are also a number of important differences, influenced by both their relative financial positions and the value‐led nature of the voluntary sector.
Originality/value
– Recent estimates suggest that over half a million people are in paid employment in the UK voluntary sector; however, relatively little is known about HRM within this sector. This paper provides a valuable insight into HRM within this sector and highlights the similarities and differences between this and the public sector.
Interest in and research on nonprofit organizations and sectors have developed rapidly in recent years. Much of this work by sociologists has focussed on particular subsectors rather than on nonprofits as a class. This review attempts to extract from a large and varied literature a distinctively sociological perspective on nonprofits, which it contrasts to influential work in economics. Two questions—“Why (and where) are there nonprofit organizations” and “What difference does nonprofitness make?”—are addressed at the levels of organization, industry, and firm. Three central conclusions, each with research implications, emerge from this review: (a) The origins and behavior nonprofit organizations reflect institutional factors and state policies as well as the social-choice processes and utility functions emphasized by economists. (b) Understandingth e origins of nonprofit sectors and behavioral differences between nonprofits and for-profit or government organizations requires an industry-level ecological ...
The decline in public confidence in American institutions has taken a particularly heavy toll on the civil service. In calling for a recommitment of Americans to the values associated with public service, political leaders assume that such motives can be translated into effective and efficient bureaucratic behavior. Evidence regarding the strength of public service motives, however, is limited. This article reviews different theories for public service motivation and identifies a typology of motives associated with public service that includes rational, norm-based, and affective motives. Three propositions are put forward that describe the behavioral implications of public service motivation. The authors conclude that past research offers, at best, a poor understanding of the way to stimulate individual behavior in public organizations, and they call for more empirical research and theory development pertaining to the motivational bases of public service.
Because pay expectations play a role in the persistent gender pay gap, we surveyed 435 undergraduate students to examine the impacts of gender, job intentions, and self-views on the pay expectations of pre-career women and men. Our findings showed a gender gap in which women expected to be paid less than men expected to be paid at the beginning and at the peak of their careers. Findings also showed a gap in job intentions such that women and men who intended to hold female-dominated jobs expected to be paid less than those pursuing male-dominated jobs at both time periods. Further exploration showed that job intentions fully mediated the link between gender and entry-level pay expectations but did not mediate the link between gender and peak-career pay expectancies. After controlling for the gender type of the intended job, self-esteem did not moderate the relationship between gender and pay expectations at either career point, but self-efficacy did at both points. Increased self-efficacy raised the entry-level pay expectations of women and reduced the peak-career pay expectations of men. Our results highlight the importance of encouraging cross-stereotypic job pursuits for both women and men and indicate the importance of self-efficacy in curbing the gap in pay expectations.
We consider the effect of performance on the compensation of nonprofit executives. Performance is measured as the ratio of revenue from a particular activity (such as fundraising or program services) to the expenditures associated with those services, exclusive of managerial compensation. This is consistent with previous works, which use measures of size, spending, or budget percentages as measures of performance. We also consider whether the compensation received by the executives enhances their performance. The empirical results support the hypothesis that compensation and performance are simultaneously determined.