ArticlePDF Available

Insects to feed the world

February 2015
Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1(1):3-5

DOI:10.3920/JIFF2015.x002

License
CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

Authors:

Arnold Van Huis

Wageningen University & Research

Marcel Dicke

Wageningen University & Research

Joop J A van Loon

Wageningen University & Research

The conference Insects to feed the world, that took place from 14 to 17 May 2014 in the Netherlands, acted as the impetus to the launching of this new journal. The contribution of four keynote speakers of the conference are published in this first issue of Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. More keynote speaker papers will be published in subsequent issues. The conference was organised by Wageningen University in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The fact that 450 people from 45 countries attended the conference showed the worldwide interest to explore insects as an alternative source of proteins and other nutrients.

Content uploaded by Marcel Dicke

Content may be subject to copyright.

Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 2015; 1(1): 3-5 WageningenAcademic

Publishers

ISSN 2352-4588 online, DOI 10.3920/JIFF2015.x002 3

The growing world population with increasingly demanding

consumers will result in a growth in the demand for meat

with 75% by 2050 compared to 2005/2007 demands

(Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012). With livestock

production already accounting for 70% of all agricultural

land (Steinfeld et al., 2006), we need new strategies

for food production. Suggested solutions are reducing

meat consumption, increasing the efficiency of the food

chain from ‘field to fork’, or changing diets towards food

commodities requiring less land. Developing insects for feed

and food is considered a viable strategy that can potentially

contribute to global food security.

The increased demand for meat will mainly come from

emerging economies, where entomophagy is already

practised, and promotion of insect consumption to

supplement local diets seems a logical choice. Currently

in these countries edible insects are harvested from nature,

and sometimes from agricultural crops where they occur

as pests. However, in natural ecosystems overharvesting

of species and habitat degradation have been reported,

threatening natural resources (Ramos-Elorduy, 2006). In

such cases developing sustainable harvesting practices is

required (Gondo et al., 2010). We have limited knowledge

to which extent insects are used as food and feed because

harvesting, marketing and consumption do not appear

in national statistics. Moreover, there is a risk that the

cultural and ecological knowledge of entomophagy may get

lost as in a globalising world new western dietary patterns

are adopted. Promoting insects as food and feed requires

semi-cultivation and farming of insects as food and feed to

become a priority. In this issue, Costa-Neto (2015) gives an

overview of anthropo-entomophagy in Latin America, while

Yen (2015) presents perspectives and future directions for

insects as food and feed in the Asia-Pacific region.

Insects being farmed as mini-livestock result in lower

emissions of greenhouse gases and ammonia than the

production of conventional production animals (Oonincx

et al., 2010). A life cycle analysis has only been conducted

for mealworms, but it shows that less land area is required

compared to conventional livestock (Oonincx and De Boer,

2012). Another environmental benefit is the high feed

conversion efficiency (the amount of feed needed to produce

one kg of edible body weight) found for insects, probably

due to their poikilothermic physiology. Nevertheless,

additional life cycle assessments are required to further

confirm the sustainability of rearing edible insects. This

should then be compared to the traditional systems for the

production of protein for food (meat and fish), or for rearing

insects as animal feed protein supplements as compared

with the currently used ingredients such as coarse grains,

fish or soybean meals.

With respect to nutritional value, it is difficult to generalise

across the 2,000 insect species being consumed worldwide.

However, compared to beef, pork and chicken, insect

protein content is generally similar and insects contain

more polyunsaturated fatty acids, and have higher contents

of minerals such as iron and zinc (Rumpold and Schlüter,

2013).

Insects as food and feed can only make a significant

difference if they are mass-produced. This is done already

in Thailand where 20,000 domestic cricket farms produce

an average of 7,500 metric tons of insects a year for home

Insects to feed the world

A. van Huis*, M. Dicke and J.J.A. van Loon

Wageningen University, Laboratory of Entomology, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands;

arnold.vanhuis@wur.nl

EDITORIAL

The conference Insects to feed the world, that took place from 14 to 17 May 2014 in the Netherlands, acted as the

impetus to the launching of this new journal. The contribution of four keynote speakers of the conference are

published in this first issue of Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. More keynote speaker papers will be published

in subsequent issues. The conference was organised by Wageningen University in collaboration with the Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The fact that 450 people from 45 countries attended the

conference showed the worldwide interest to explore insects as an alternative source of proteins and other nutrients.

A. van Huis et al.

4 Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1(1)

consumption and for the market (Hanboonsong et al.,

2013). In this issue, Durst and Hanboonsong (2015) discuss

small-scale production of edible insects in Thailand and

the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. However, when

insects are considered as feed for the production of pigs,

chicken and fish, a reliable supply of large volumes of high

and stable quality is required. This can only be achieved

in large automated rearing facilities, with optimised and

synchronised production processes.

As the predictions are that availability of soy- and fishmeal

will become limited, costs will increase, and insect meals

may become an interesting alternative. They have a crude

protein content of 42-63% with high essential amino acid

contents and protein digestibility, while the palatability

of these alternate feeds to animals is good (Makkar et al.,

2014). Insect meals can replace 25-100% of soy- or fishmeal

depending on the animal species. Some insect species

which are considered as feed such as the black soldier fly

Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) and the domestic

house fly Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) can be

reared on low-value organic by-products. This is interesting

considering that 1.3 billion tons organic by-products are

produced globally on an annual basis (FAO, 2011) which

is valued at US$ 750 billion (The Economist, 2014). In

particular when organic side streams are considered as

feed, the diet provided should be certified for safety with

respect to chemical and microbiological contaminants.

Insects as feedstock is in its infancy and more studies are

required on using insect larvae as an ingredient in the diets

of livestock and fish species.

Pathogens are a major concern of insect producers who

at times experience that whole colonies are wiped out.

We know a lot about entomopathogens for controlling

insect pests but very little about pathogens that occur

when rearing insects on a massive scale. One example is

the densovirus which causes problems in cricket rearings

in Europe and the USA (Szelei et al., 2011). Therefore,

also insects obviously need to be reared under hygienic

conditions, and similarly to common food products proper

heat treatment or storage conditions are required (Klunder

et al., 2012). In the next issue of Journal of Insects as Food

and Feed, Eilenberg et al. (in press) will discuss the problems

of diseases of insects when produced as food and feed.

The industry of insects as food and feed is a developing

new sector in the agricultural and food industry. However,

worldwide standards for the production and trade of

insects and insect products in food and feed are currently

absent. A legal framework needs to govern production,

processing, sales and consumption of insects. There are

few documented instances of food safety problems with

insects; however, this is an aspect vital for acceptance and

large-scale implementation. In this issue, Charlton et al.

(2015) explore the chemical safety of fly larvae as a source

of protein for animal feed. Consumer safety is a major

concern and risks can be allergic, microbial, parasitic and

chemical (Belluco et al., 2013; Van der Spiegel et al., 2013).

Concerning allergies, people allergic to house dust mites

and crustaceans may react to food containing insects, such

as the yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptea:

Tenebrionidae) (Verhoeckx et al., 2014). Recent evidence

suggests that insects and crustaceans (like shrimps), long

considered widely separated branches of the arthropod

family tree, actually are taxonomically closely related

(Pennisi, 2015).

Making insects tasty and attractive is one of the major

challenges of promoting entomophagy, particularly in the

Western world. The acceptance of food depends not only

on a rational dimension such as palatability, nutritional

and environmental benefits, but it has emotional and

cultural dimensions as well (Looy et al., 2014). Peoples’ food

preferences are influenced by cultural history, experience,

and adaptation, but entomophagy in the Western world is,

according to Kofi Annan, also a matter of education (Van

Huis et al., 2014).

As the conference concluded (http://www.fao.org/forestry/

edibleinsects/86385/en):

Major areas now requiring urgent attention are:

(1) further improving and focussing awareness,

legislation and regulations to govern food and feed

safety, trade and marketing procedures, labelling

and control measures of insects and their food/feed

products; (2) protocols on farming (more) insect

species; (3) protection of wild gathered insect species

with their corresponding traditional knowledge and

diets involved; and (4) improving communication,

outreach strategies and messaging to the public at

large (i.e. the ultimate ‘consumers’ of insects-based

products in the food/feed chain) on the potential,

opportunities and acceptability of insects to

contribute to a more sustainable and socially more

equitable global food security.

This issue presents some of the information related to

the conference Insect to feed the world. This is not an end

point but rather a beginning of a scientific approach to

support the development of entomophagy through insect

farming. The contributions in this and subsequent issues

provide valuable insights that will help developing insects

as a contribution to the challenge that mankind faces in

feeding the rapidly growing world population.

Insects to feed the world

Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1(1) 5

References

Alexandratos, N. and Bruinsma, J., 2012 World agriculture towards

2030/2050: the 2012 revision. Global Perspective Studies Team, ESA

Working Paper no. 12-03, Agricultural Development Economics

Division. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,

Rome, Italy.

Belluco, S., Losasso, C., Maggioletti, M., Alonzi, C.C., Paoletti, M.G.

and Ricci, A., 2013. Edible insects in a food safety and nutritional

perspective: a critical review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food

Science and Food Safety 12: 296-313.

Charlton, A.J., Dickinson, M., Wakefield, M.E., Fitches, E., Kenis, M.,

Han, R., Zhu, F., Kone, N., Grant, M., Devic, E., Bruggeman, G.,

Prior, R. and Smith, R., 2015. Exploring the chemical safety of fly

larvae as a source of protein for animal feed. Journal of Insects as

Food and Feed 1: 7-16.

Costa-Neto, E.M., 2015. Anthropo-entomophagy in Latin America: an

overview of the importance of edible insects to local communities.

Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1: 17-23.

Durst, P.B. and Hanboonsong, Y., 2015. Small-scale production of

edible insects for enhanced food security and rural livelihoods:

experience from Thailand and Lao People’s Democratic Republic.

Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 1: 25-31.

Eilenberg, J., Vlak, J.M., Nielsen-LeRoux, C., Cappellozza, S. and

Jensen, A.B. (in press). Diseases in insects produced for food and

feed. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/

JIFF2014.0022.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

(2011) Global food losses and food waste – extent, causes and

prevention. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Gondo, T., Frost, P., Kozanayi, W., Stack, J. and Mushongahand,

M., 2010. Linking knowledge and practice: assessing options for

sustainable use of mopane worms (Imbasia belina) in southern

Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 12:

281-305.

Hanboonsong, Y., Jamjanya, T. and Durst, P.B., 2013. Six-legged

livestock: edible insect farming, collection and marketing in

Thailand. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,

Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.

Klunder, H.C., Wolkers-Rooijackers, J., Korpela, J.M. and Nout, M.J.R.,

2012. Microbiological aspects of processing and storage of edible

insects. Food Control 26: 628-631.

Looy, H., Dunkel, F.V. and Wood, J.R., 2014. How then shall we eat?

Insect-eating attitudes and sustainable foodways. Agriculture and

Human Values 31: 131-141.

Makkar, H.P.S., Tran, G., Heuzé, V. and Ankers, P., 2014. State-of-

the-art on use of insects as animal feed. Animal Feed Science and

Technology 197: 1-33.

Oonincx, D.G.A.B. and De Boer, I.J.M., 2012 Environmental impact of

the production of mealworms as a protein source for humans – a

life cycle assessment. PLoS ONE 7: e51145.

Oonincx D.G.A.B., Van Itterbeeck, J, Heetkamp, M.J.W., Van den

Brand, H., Van Loon, J.J.A. and Van Huis, A., 2010. An exploration

on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species

suitable for animal or human consumption. PLoS ONE 5: e14445.

Pennisi, E., 2015. All in the (bigger) family. Science 347: 220-221.

Ramos-Elorduy, J., 2006. Threatened edible insects in Hidalgo, Mexico

and some measures to preserve them. Journal of Ethnobiology and

Ethnomedicine 2: 1-10.

Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K., 2013. Potential and challenges

of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production.

Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 17: 1-11.

Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M. and

De Haan, C. (eds.), 2006. Livestock’s long shadow. Environmental

issues and options. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations, Rome, Italy, 319 pp.

Szelei, J., Woodring, J., Goettel, M.S., Duke, G., Jousset, F.X., Liu, K.Y.,

Zadori, Z., Li, Y., Styer, E., Boucias, D.G., Kleespies, R.G., Bergoin,

M. and Tijssen, P., 2011. Susceptibility of North-American and

European crickets to Acheta domesticus densovirus (AdDNV)

and associated epizootics. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 106:

394-399.

The Economist, 2014. Food loss and its intersection with food security.

Global food security index 2014: an annual measure of the state

of global food security. The Economist Intelligence Unit, London,

UK. Available at: http://www.economist.com.

Van der Spiegel, M., Noordam, M.Y. and Van der Fels-Klerx, H.J.,

2013. Safety of novel protein sources (insects, microalgae, seaweed,

duckweed, and rapeseed) and legislative aspects for their application

in food and feed production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food

Science and Food Safety 12: 662-678.

Van Huis, A ., Van Gurp, H. and Dicke, M., 2014. The insect cookbook

– food for a sustainable planet. Columbia University Press, New

York, NY, USA.

Verhoeckx, K.C.M., Van Broekhoven, S., Den Hartog-Jager, C.F.,

Gaspari, M., De Jong, G.A.H., Wichers, H.J., Van Hoffen, E.,

Houben, G.F. and Knulst, A.C., 2014. House dust mite (Der p 10)

and crustacean allergic patients may react to food containing Yellow

mealworm proteins. Food and Chemical Toxicology 65: 364-373.

Yen, A.L., 2015. Insects as food and feed in the Asia Pacific region:

current perspectives and future directions. Journal of Insects as

Food and Feed 1: 33-55.

Enhancing Wheat Storage Efficiency: A Microcontroller-Based Environment Control System for Silo

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2025

Agricultural activities are incomplete without the proper wheat storage, and maintaining optimal storage conditions requires an effective management system. This study presents a control system designed to improve the storage conditions of wheat using an Arduino UNO, a DHT22 sensor, and a fan cooling system to manage the environment. The device continually monitors temperature and relative humidity, as well as giving a non-destructive evaluation of the moisture content of wheat kept in silos. During the study, the system confirmed its efficacy by effectively maintaining appropriate storage conditions, such as average temperature and humidity levels, which encourage safe wheat storage. The automatic fan system effectively regulates temperature fluctuations, providing ideal conditions. The study examined the system's capacity to control essential parameters such as moisture content and germination rate of preserved seeds.The results indicated that the temperature dropped by 1.25°C per minute when the fan was activated, with a threshold activation temperature of 30°C. The recorded temperature and humidity of the stored wheat were 34.76°C and 43.33%, respectively. The moisture content ranged from 15.26% to 11.73%, while the seed germination rate ranged from 94.27% to 75.66%. Compared to conventional storage methods, the system demonstrated superior performance in reducing moisture levels, stabilizing temperature fluctuations, and preserving wheat quality, ultimately lowering the risk of insect infestation and post-harvest losses. Although its success, issues of scalability, cost-effectiveness, and adaption to varied environmental circumstances were recognized. Future experimental research should concentrate on incorporating modern IoT technologies for real-time monitoring, enhancing energy efficiency, and evaluating the system in bigger storage facilities or with diverse crop varieties. Rectifying these deficiencies will augment the system's relevance and bolster rural food security and economic stability.

Determinants of Receptivity Towards Entomophagy among Young Adults

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2024

This research focuses on understanding the factors influencing the acceptance of entomophagy in Morelia, Michoacán. The study involves a survey aimed at two distinct groups of young adults aged 18 to 29 (control and experimental), a demographic known for being open to evolving food preferences. The results revealed interesting differences in preferences between individuals who have and have not tried insect-based foods. Surprisingly, the price did not emerge as a dominant influencing factor. The study suggests entomophagy can be a viable and accepted dietary option when relevant information is easily accessible, potentially reducing neophobia levels.

Utilising common bean and strawberry vegetative wastes in yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) substrates: effects of pre-treatment on growth and composition

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025

Integrating plant production with insect farming, termed "entomoponics," involves using plant waste as a substrate for insect rearing, while returning insect frass to fertilise the plants. In this study, vegetative wastes from strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa), and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), were incorporated into a wheat bran-based substrate for rearing the yellow mealworms (MW; Tenebrio molitor). The wastes were either autoclaved or autoclaved then fermented with the fungus Trichoderma reesei, and mixed in a 50:50 ratio with wheat bran. Replacing 50% of the wheat bran with autoclaved beans waste did not significantly affect MW yield, but the yield was reduced when beans wastes were fermented or left untreated. Incorporating beans waste, whether treated or untreated, increased the Ca, K, and Fe content in the MW. Incorporating strawberry vegetative waste into the substrate compensated the yield regardless of the pre-treatment, but enhanced Mn, Zn, and Fe levels in the produced MW. Plant flavonoids were reduced when the wastes were pre-treated and did not accumulate in the MW biomass. These findings provide insights into using plant vegetative wastes as a partial supplement in MW rearing substrates, and the potential effects on the growth and nutritional composition of the resulting MW biomass.

Testing an insect-plant circular system based on black soldier fly and duckweed

Article

Feb 2025

Optimizing the circularity of insect farming by reusing and repurposing its byproducts is a priority to reach global sustainable goals that benefit both nature and people. The frass of the black soldier fly (BSF) has been used as fertilizer for various crops, but its potential in promoting the growth of aquatic plants with high-protein content has not been investigated. Here, we assess the potential of using BSF frass to produce duckweed (Lemna minor, a fast-growing aquatic plant), and then use duckweed as a nutritional supplement for BSF larvae. First, we performed a set of laboratory experiments assessing duckweed growth under different concentrations of frass (with and without the presence of algae). Then, we quantified various life history traits (survival rate, larval growth rate, adult body mass and life span) of BSF across different treatments with increasing levels of duckweed supplementation (fresh and dry) in the standard BSF diet (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%). We found that the optimal concentration of frass that provided the fastest duckweed growth rates was between 4 and 6 g/L, exceeding that recorded for the traditional Hoagland’s E media. BSF larvae growing in a diet supplemented by fresh and especially dry duckweed did not improve growth rate, survival rate, body size, nor lifespan. Higher duckweed contents tended to reduce the performance of BSF. Our results suggest that BSF frass could be used as a cheap fertilizer to produce duckweed, but the latter is not an optimal supplement for BSF, and thus should be used for other applications.

Benefits, environmental risks and habitats of edible insects in Benin, West Africa

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2025
Int J Trop Insect Sci

In the Republic of Benin, entomophagy is practiced in some regions and contributes to the food security and poverty reduction. However, insect farming is poorly developed and wild capture remains the main source of edible insects. This capture practice can pose health and environmental risks and raises questions about the sustainable use of edible insects as a food source. Therefore, the objective of this study was to document farmers' perceptions and knowledge of the benefits and environmental risks associated with wild-caught edible insects in order to formulate recommendations for their conservation and sustainable use. Surveys were conducted with 225 farmers from 33 villages and belonging to 6 socio-linguistic groups were performed using rural appraisal tools. The surveyed participants listed 21 main species of edible insects with a diversity of species observed in the agro-ecological zones studied. The surveyed farmers also identified environmental risks, including, soil degradation, pollution by synthetic chemical pesticides, flooding and destruction of natural habitats, while endangered species and bioaccumulation of chemicals were the most important constraints of edible insects in the study zone. In terms of benefits, most farmers highlighted those edible insects reduce pollutant gas emissions by releasing less carbon dioxide than other livestock. Edible insects also support biodegradation activities, and the recycling of organic waste into biofertilizers. Farmers also mentioned that they conserve wild edible insect populations while preserving their regenerative capacity to avoid species overexploitation. Factors influencing the socio-environmental aspects of edible insect use need to be taken into account in strategies to encourage farmers to promote sustainable edible insect collection practices. These results contribute to decision-making on the environmental safety in terms of entomophagy in Benin.

Feeding behaviour of two buthid scorpions of the genus Androctonus Ehrenberg, 1828 from the central Sahara of Algeria (Scorpiones: Buthidae)

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2024

Scorpions are predatory arthropods known for their hunting prowess and adaptability in various environments, but studies on the food preference of many species remain rare. The aim of this paper is to study the intra- and inter-guild feeding behaviour and food preference of two of the most abundant buthid scorpions of the genus Androctonus Ehrenberg, 1828: A. amoreuxi (Audouin, 1825) and A. australis (Linnaeus, 1758), in the Algerian Sahara. Food preference was experimentally assessed using several locally widely available species: the larvae of Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus, 1758 (laboratory breeding), Pimelia angulata Fabricius, 1775, Gomphocerinae sp., Mantis religiosa (Linnaeus, 1758) and Periplaneta americana (Linnaeus, 1758). For each prey species, we calculated the prey acceptance time (PAT), number of stings (NS), voracity time (VT), and the rate of consumption (RC). Our results show that T. molitor was the most preferred prey species, though the fixation and attack time for the prey P. angulata was significantly longer compared to other species. Additionally, A. amoreuxi exhibited higher voracity, while A. australis displayed a shorter feeding duration. The prey species P. americana, Gomphocerinae sp. and M. religiosa were moderately appreciated by the two scorpions. Moreover, the intra-guild predation and cannibalism results show that A. amoreuxi was more aggressive, while A. australis was faster.

Teknologi dan manajemen pemberian pakan

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2025

Buku ini dirancang untuk memberikan wawasan yang mendalam mengenai pentingnya pakan berkualitas, teknik pemberian pakan yang efisien, serta inovasi dalam formulasi pakan yang mendukung keberlanjutan akuakultur.

Dietas alternativas sobre el rendimiento del crecimiento de larvas de peces Betta splendens y Pterophylum scalareAlternative diets on the growth performance of Betta splendens and Pterophylum scalare fish larvae

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024

La producción de peces ornamentales a partir de la acuicultura se ha convertido en un reto cuyo fin es lograr una mayor expansión en los mercados internacionales. Uno de los desafíos de esta actividad, es proporcionarles dietas que cumplan los requerimientos nutricionales para obtener animales coloridos y saludables y disminuir los costes de alimentación. En este sentido, el propósito de este estudio fue evaluar el rendimiento de larvas Betta splendens y Pterophyllum scalare alimentadas con cuatro dietas experimentales: 1) Copépodos Cyclopoida vs. Artemia monica; y 2) Alimento comercial vs. alimento a base de pupas del escarabajo Ulomoides dermestoides. Se emplearon 336 larvas/80L de B. splendens y 300 larvas /80L de P. scalare. Las larvas alimentadas con Artemia presentaron mejores pesos finales (p<0.05), sin diferencias significativas (p>0.05) en otros patrones zootécnicos entre tratamientos de ambos experimentos. Por su parte, las larvas de B. splendens alimentadas con una dieta comercial presentaron mejores resultados zootécnicos (p<0.05) en comparación con la dieta a base de pupas. El análisis confirma que las Artemias son el alimento más adecuado para el levante de las especies ornamentales estudiadas, en tanto que la dieta compuesta a base de pupas de escarabajo no muestra ser una opción como alimento alternativo sostenible.

The Importance of Orthoptera Insects in Agricultural Fields and Their Investigation As an Alternative Protein Source

Chapter

Jun 2024

The topics covered in our book include the relationship of wheat, which meets 21% of human protein needs, with environmental and abiotic factors; protein and quality characteristics in some annual plants belonging to different families; protein in corn and sorghum; grasshoppers as an alternative protein source; the unveiling of the potential in alternative protein sources; quinoa as an important protein source; alternative protein sources in fish farming; evaluation of artificial meat and other protein sources in addition to plant-based proteins; and solutions to the potential food shortage.

استفاده از لاروهای تنبریومولیتور و زوفوباس موریو در خوراک جوجه های گوشتی به عنوان یک فرصت کارآفرینی: مروری کوتاه

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jun 2024

Global Food Losses and Food Waste- Extent, Causes and Prevention

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2011

Small-scale production of edible insects for enhanced food security and rural livelihoods: Experience from Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2015

Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic have long and rich histories of human consumption of insects, which have provided important contributions to food security and nutrition over the centuries. In the past, most insects were collected for non-commercial home consumption, but insects are now increasingly sold in local markets and to dealers as a source of cash income. While traditional household consumption remains important in many areas of the two countries, consumption patterns are evolving, with increased demand for insects as snacks and in urban areas. Production patterns are also evolving to include not only traditional harvesting of insects from wild habitats, but also semi-domestication and insect farming. Marketing practices are increasingly reflecting changing consumer preferences and demands and the growing population of urban consumers. Production, processing, and marketing of edible insects is providing important income, employment and livelihood opportunities across Thailand and Lao PDR, with new niche markets offering growing opportunities for entrepreneurs.

Insects as food and feed in the Asia Pacific region: current perspectives and future directions

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2015

Alan Yen

Western cultures currently struggle to have insects accepted as a human food. This barrier is not as high in many parts of the Asia Pacific region because entomophagy is (or was until recent times) a part of their accepted diets. The region is comprised of many different cultural groups and the degree to which they embraced entomophagy has been determined by dietary needs, cultural considerations, and the availability of insects. While entomophagy has decreased in westernised societies, the demand for edible insects has increased in parts of Asia in association with rising standards of living. An assessment of the use of insects as food and feed in the Asia Pacific region is provided and important knowledge gaps are identified. Edible insects are sourced by three main strategies: wild harvesting, semi-domestication of insects in the wild, and farming. Semi-domestication and farming have the potential to provide a more sustainable food supply, but globally 92% of species are wild harvested. The harvested insects come from all trophic levels, although most of the terrestrial edible insect species are herbivores and most species of edible aquatic species are predators. The increased demand for edible insects puts pressure on the source populations because new technologies are now used to harvest insects more efficiently and to store them safely for longer periods, facilitating the harvesting of greater amounts of insects. This, in combination with either loss of natural habitats or changes to the environment, puts even more pressure on insect populations. The over harvesting of edible insects from different trophic levels could have long term adverse implications for ecosystem processes in Asia Pacific and other regions.

Diseases in insects produced for food and feed

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2015

Increased production of insects on a large scale for food and feed will likely lead to many novel challenges, including problems with diseases. We provide an overview of important groups of insect pathogens, which can cause disease in insects produced for food and feed. Main characteristics of each pathogen group (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists and nematodes) are described and illustrated, with a selection of examples from the most commonly produced insect species for food and feed. Honeybee and silkworm are mostly produced for other reasons than as human food, yet we can still use them as examples to learn about emergence of new diseases in production insects. Results from a 2014 survey about insect diseases in current insect production systems are presented for the first time. Finally, we give some recommendations for the prevention and control of insect diseases.

Exploring the chemical safety of fly larvae as a source of protein for animal feed

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2015

There is an urgent need to increase the supply of sustainable protein for use in animal feed and the use of insect protein provides a potential alternative to protein crops and fishmeal. For example, fly larvae are highly compatible with use in animal feed containing much digestible protein with levels of key amino acids that are comparable with those found in high value alternatives such as soybean. However, the safety of protein from insects and subsequently the meat and fish from animals fed on such a diet requires further assessment. Here we present safety data from the larvae of the four fly species that have perhaps the greatest economic relevance in relation to their use as animal feed being: house fly (Musca domestica), blue bottle (Calliphora vomitoria), blow fly (Chrysomya spp.) and black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Diverse rearing methods were used to produce larvae fed on a range of waste substrates and in four geographically dispersed locations being; UK, China, Mali and Ghana. Chemical safety data were collected by a fully accredited laboratory in the UK. The levels of the main subclasses of chemical contaminants considered for animal feed were determined, being; veterinary medicines, pesticides, heavy metals, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, polyaromatic hydrocarbons and mycotoxins. The larvae analysed generally possessed levels of chemical contaminants which were below recommended maximum concentrations suggested by bodies such as the European Commission, the World Health Organisation and Codex. However, the toxic heavy metal cadmium was found to be of concern in three of the M. domestica samples analysed.

Linking knowledge and practice: assessing options for sustainable use of Mopane worms (Imbasia belina) in southern Zimbabwe

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2010

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the role of mopane worm utilization in the livelihoods of rural poor people, and in the potential for expanding returns. Unfortunately the resulting increase in the commercialization of the resource has led to its over exploitation. The paper assesses options for sustainable use of the mopane worm. Empirical data has been drawn from research carried out between April and July 2002 in several communities in Southern Zimbabwe where households harvest mopane worms. The data collection exercise utilized formal questionnaires and Participatory Learning Approaches. The sustainable use of mopane worms requires approaches that strive to strike a balance between conservation and improvements in the well being of the resource users. Such approaches should be grounded in knowledge gained from local experiences with local communities taking the pivotal stage. Options for enhancing livelihoods from mopane worms are varied. These include strategies associated with improving product quality, fetching better markets and delaying the supply of the stock to the market. Sustainability can be achieved by promoting best practices that strive to maintain sufficient number of fifth-instar mopane worms, safeguard the host tree against exploitation and to preserve the pupae.

State-of-the-art on use of insects as animal feed

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2014
ANIM FEED SCI TECH

A 60-70% increase in consumption of animal products is expected by 2050. This increase in the consumption will demand enormous resources, the feed being the most challenging because of the limited availability of natural resources, ongoing climatic changes and food-feed-fuel competition. The costs of conventional feed resources such as soymeal and fishmeal are very high and moreover their availability in the future will be limited. Insect rearing could be a part of the solutions. Although some studies have been conducted on evaluation of insects, insect larvae or insect meals as an ingredient in the diets of some animal species, this field is in infancy. Here we collate, synthesize and discuss the available information on five major insect species studied with respect to evaluation of their products as animal feed. The nutritional quality of black soldier fly larvae, the house fly maggots, mealworm, locusts-grasshoppers-crickets, and silkworm meal and their use as a replacement of soymeal and fishmeal in the diets of poultry, pigs, fish species and ruminants are discussed. The crude protein contents of these alternate resources are high: 42 to 63% and so are the lipid contents (up to 36% oil), which could possibly be extracted and used for various applications including biodiesel production. Unsaturated fatty acid concentrations are high in housefly maggot meal, mealworm and house cricket (60-70%), while their concentrations in black soldier fly larvae are lowest (19-37%). The studies have confirmed that palatability of these alternate feeds to animals is good and they can replace 25 to 100% of soymeal or fishmeal depending on the animal species. Except silkworm meal other insect meals are deficient in methionine and lysine and their supplementation in the diet can enhance both the performance of the animals and the soymeal and fishmeal replacement rates. Most insect meals are deficient in Ca and its supplementation in the diet is also required, especially for growing animals and laying hens. The levels of Ca and fatty acids in insect meals can be enhanced by manipulation of the substrate on which insects are reared. The paper also presents future areas of research. The information synthesized is expected to open new avenues for a large scale use of insect products as animal feed.

Anthropo-entomophagy in Latin America: An overview of the importance of edible insects to local communities

Article

Jan 2015

Eraldo Medeiros Costa-Neto

Anthropo-entomophagy has evolved in many ways, from the point of view of collection, marketing and consumption, and for the insects’ organoleptic qualities. Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico due to their sociocultural origin, stand out as the Latin American countries that have the habit of consuming insects by presenting both a biological and an ethnic diversity. Edible species are eaten both as immature (eggs, larvae, pupae, and nymphs) and in some cases as adults. They are ingested whole or in parts, as well as in the products they produce, such as honey, propolis, pollen, and wax. Many insect species are consumed not only as food but also as medicine, and this provides a relevant contribution to the phenomenon of zootherapy, as well as opening new prospects for the economic and cultural valorisation of animals usually regarded as useless. The ingestion of a variety of edible species contributes to the nutritional health of indigenous, traditional peoples, as well as those individua...

Evolution. All in the (bigger) family

Article

Jan 2015

Elizabeth Pennisi

A decade of genetic data and other evidence has persuaded most researchers that insects and crustaceans, long considered widely separated branches of the arthropod family, actually belong together. The new arthropod tree puts hexapods—six-limbed creatures that include insects, springtails, and silverfish—as closer kin to crabs, lobster, shrimp, and crayfish than those "standard" crustaceans are to others such as seed shrimp. Traditionally, insect and crustacean scientists have taken different approaches, even when they have studied similar problems. Now they are exploring the consequences of the new family tree, and last week at a special symposium of the annual meeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology, researchers reported new parallels between these two very successful groups of animals and new insights about what it took for an ancient crustacean to give rise to insects.

Safety of Novel Protein Sources (Insects, Microalgae, Seaweed, Duckweed, and Rapeseed) and Legislative Aspects for Their Application in Food and Feed Production

Article

Nov 2013
COMPR REV FOOD SCI F

Novel protein sources (like insects, algae, duckweed, and rapeseed) are expected to enter the European feed and food market as replacers for animal-derived proteins. However, food safety aspects of these novel protein sources are not well-known. The aim of this article is to review the state of the art on the safety of major novel protein sources for feed and food production, in particular insects, algae (microalgae and seaweed), duckweed, and rapeseed. Potential hazards for these protein sources are described and EU legislative requirements as regard to food and feed safety are explained. Potential hazards may include a range of contaminants, like heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, as well as pathogens. Some safety aspects of novel protein sources are intrinsic to the product, but many potential hazards can also be due to production methods and processing conditions. These aspects should be considered in advance during product development. European law is unclear on several issues regarding the use of novel protein sources in food and feed products. For food product applications, the most important question for food producers is whether or not the product is considered a novel food. One of the major unclarities for feed applications is whether or not products with insects are considered animal-derived products or not. Due to the unclarities in European law, it is not always clear which Regulation and maximum levels for contaminants apply. For market introduction, European legislation should be adjusted and clarified.