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Article
Sustainable diets: The interaction between food
industry, nutrition, health and the environment
Ayten Aylin Alsaffar
Abstract
Everyday great amounts of food are produced, processed, transported by the food industry and consumed
by us and these activities have direct impact on our health and the environment. The current food system has
started causing strain on the Earth’s natural resources and that is why sustainable food production systems
are needed. This review article discusses the need for sustainable diets by exploring the interactions between
the food industry, nutrition, health and the environment, which are strongly interconnected. The most
common environmental issues in the food industry are related to food processing loss, food wastage and
packaging; energy efficiency; transportation of foods; water consumption and waste management. Among
the foods produced and processed, meat and meat products have the greatest environmental impact fol-
lowed by the dairy products. Our eating patterns impact the environment, but the environment can impact
dietary choices as well. The foods and drinks we consume may also affect our health. A healthy and sus-
tainable diet would minimise the consumption of energy-dense and highly processed and packaged foods,
include less animal-derived foods and more plant-based foods and encourage people not to exceed the
recommended daily energy intake. Sustainable diets contribute to food and nutrition security, have low
environmental impacts and promote healthy life for present and future generations. There is an urgent
need to develop and promote strategies for sustainable diets; and governments, United Nations agencies,
civil society, research organisations and the food industry should work together in achieving this.
Keywords
Sustainability, food industry, environment, nutrition, health
Date received: 30 May 2014; revised: 21 December 2014; accepted: 12 January 2015
INTRODUCTION
A total of 842 million people in 2011–2013, or around
one in eight people in the world, were estimated to be
suffering from chronic hunger, not getting enough food
regularly to conduct an active life (FAO - IFAD and
WFP, 2013). On the contrary, it is an established fact
that the earth has the capacity to feed the entire global
population of seven billion people (World Food
Programme, 2014). However, with the estimate of the
world’s population reaching to nine billion by 2050,
providing our growing planet with safe, sufficient and
nutritious food supply is expected to become a chal-
lenge for the food industry.
The problem of hunger and increasing population
put on one side, the present food system produces
items containing excess amounts of fat and sugar pro-
moting overweight and obesity. Worldwide consump-
tion of processed foods, that usually have low nutrient
density, gives rise to both micronutrient and fibre defi-
ciencies (Monteiro, 2009). As a combined effect of mass
Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, School of Applied
Sciences, Ozyegin University, Cekmekoy, Istanbul, Turkey
Corresponding author:
Ayten Aylin Alsaffar, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts,
School of Applied Sciences, Ozyegin University, Alemdag,
Cekmekoy, Istanbul 34794, Turkey.
Email: aylin.alsaffar@ozyegin.edu.tr
Food Science and Technology International 0(0) 1–10
!The Author(s) 2015 Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/1082013215572029
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production of such foods and consumers perplexed by
the variety of brands and products, the burden of nutri-
tion-related chronic diseases (such as cardiovascular
disease (CVD), cancer, diabetes and osteoporosis) and
obesity is increasing rapidly worldwide (World Health
Organization, 2008).
In addition to not being able to feed everyone on
earth and making some individuals susceptible to nutri-
tion-related chronic diseases, the present food system
also places strain on the earth’s natural resources such
as water, fossil fuels and other important commodities
(Institute of Medicine of the National Academies,
2014). Problems associated with the current food
system such as climate change, environmental degrad-
ation, loss of biodiversity and pollution are forcing all
nations to create a more sustainable food system
(Dixon and Isaacs, 2013; Food and Agriculture
Organization, 2012; Reisch et al., 2013). Food proces-
sors and manufacturers have a critical role in the supply
chain with regard to designing products that are inte-
grated into sustainable diets (Martindale et al., 2014).
How can we move towards a more resource efficient
and sustainable food system? Recent research indicate
that public interest in sustainability has increased and
consumer attitudes are mainly positive, but this does
not seem to suffice.
The terms sustainability and sustainable develop-
ment were first coined by the Brundtland Commission
(formally the World Commission on Environment and
Development of the United Nations) in 1983. The
Brundtland Commission defined ‘‘Sustainable
Development’’ as the ‘development which meets the
needs of current generations without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs’ (World Commission on Environment and
Development, 1987).
Starting from early 1980s, the notion of ‘‘sustainable
diets’’ was proposed, with dietary recommendations
which would result in healthier environments as well
as healthier consumers (Gussow, 1999; Gussow and
Clancy, 1986). ‘‘Sustainable diets’’ are defined as
‘those diets with low environmental impacts which con-
tribute to food and nutrition security and to healthy life
for present and future generations’. Sustainable diets
are protective and respectful of biodiversity and ecosys-
tems, culturally acceptable, accessible, economically
fair and affordable, nutritionally adequate, safe and
healthy while optimising natural and human resources
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, 2012). Figure 1 represents the key components
of a sustainable diet.
The environment is just one of the components of
the sustainability concept. There are economical and
social aspects of sustainable development but these
are not within the scope of this review. This review
article discusses the need for sustainable diets by
exploring the interactions between the food industry,
nutrition, health and the environment, which are
strongly interconnected.
FOOD INDUSTRY AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
The food that we produce and consume has a signifi-
cant impact on the environment through greenhouse
gas emissions (gases that absorb the outgoing heat
from the Earth’s surface and cause the warming of
the surface of the Earth and the lower atmosphere),
the use of land and water sources, pollution and the
impact of chemical products such as herbicides and
pesticides (European Commission Environment,
2014). In a study that aimed at identifying those prod-
ucts that have the greatest environmental impact
throughout their life-cycle, food and drink category
was found to cause 20–30% of the various environmen-
tal impacts of total consumption, and this increases to
more than 50% for eutrophication (a process whereby
water bodies such as lakes and estuaries receive excess
nutrients that stimulate excessive plant growth, which
reduces dissolved oxygen in the water). This includes
the full food production and distribution chain ‘from
farm to fork’ (European Commission Joint Research
Centre, 2006).
Food processing industry is diverse and extensive,
involving small scale, low-technology, localised oper-
ations relying on short supply lines to large, high-tech-
nology operations with complex, interconnected lines
between suppliers and subsidiaries around the world
(Sibbel, 2014). The most common environmental
issues in the food industry are related to food process-
ing loss, food wastage and packaging; energy
Well-being,
health
Cultural
heritage,
skills
Equity,
fair trade
Eco-friendly,
local, seasonal
foods
Bidiversity,
environment,
climate
Sustainable
diets
Food and
nutrient needs,
Food security,
accessibility
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the key compo-
nents of a sustainable diet (Lairon, 2012).
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consumption; transportation of foods; water consump-
tion and waste management (Roy et al., 2014).
Food loss, food waste and packaging
Food losses refer to the decrease in edible food mass
throughout the part of the supply chain that specifically
leads to edible food for human consumption
(Gustavsson et al., 2011). Food is lost on farms,
during processing, distribution and storage, in retail
stores and food service operations and in households
for a variety of reasons at each stage (Gunders, 2012).
Food losses occurring at the end of the food chain
(retail and final consumption) are rather called ‘‘food
waste’’, which relates to retailers’ and consumers’
behaviour (Parfitt et al., 2010). The results of a recent
study suggest that roughly one-third of food produced
for human consumption is lost or wasted globally,
which amounts to about 1.3 billion tons per year
(Gustavsson et al., 2011). The reasons for such wastage
range from poor menu planning and a general lack of
food competence (i.e. knowledge of food freshness and
storability) to huge package sizes enabled by large
home-storage capacities and the attractiveness of quan-
tity discounts at points of purchase (Reisch et al., 2013).
Overconsumption also leads to wasting of food (Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
2012; Friel et al., 2014).
Packaging is part of the solution to combat food waste
because it prevents food from being damaged or spoiled,
both along the supply chain and at home, however, it can
also be a part of the problem of environmental pollution
(Siracusa et al., 2014). Current recovery rates for packa-
ging are also very low, with most packaging waste ending
up in a landfill (Ahmed and Alam, 2014).
Energy consumption
The food and drink processing industry is the fifth and
the fourth highest industrial energy users in the US and
UK, respectively (Carbon Trust, 2006; Wang, 2014).
More urbanisation and income lead to more con-
sumption of processed foods and thus increase the
energy consumption in the food industry (Iannetta
et al., 2012; Wang, 2014). On the other hand, more
industrialisation usually adopts more energy efficient
technologies in the food industry and thus reduces the
energy consumption (Wang, 2014). The energy cost in
the food industry ranks third among all input costs
behind raw materials and labour (US Environmental
Protection Agency, 2007). Two main types of energy,
namely fuels such as coal, natural coal and petroleum
oil and electricity, are used in food processing facilities
(US Environmental Protection Agency, 2007; Wang,
2014).
Because of the increasing energy prices and efforts
for reduction of CO
2
emission, it has become significant
to improve the energy efficiency and replace the existing
energy intensive unit operations with new energy effi-
cient processes (such as food irradiation, pulsed electric
field treatment, high pressure processing and micro-
wave sterilisation) (Hall and Howe, 2012; Ohlsson
and Bengtsson, 2002; Wang, 2014). The improved effi-
ciency of energy use and renewable energy sources will
be essential to meet the growing demand of energy for
sustainable food, feed and fibre production (Roy et al.,
2014).
Meat and dairy processing have been identified as
high energy consuming sectors (Foster et al., 2006).
Animal products require 4–40 times the energy to pro-
duce than they provide in nutrition when eaten, mainly
due to the crops they consume. If all of the crop pro-
duction currently allocated to animal feed were directly
consumed by humans, global food production would
increase by some two billion tons and food calories
would increase by 49% (Gunders, 2012).
Food transport
With modern diets and food consumption patterns
there is a trend to have greater flow of food commod-
ities over long distances and highly processed and pack-
aged foods that contribute to increased emissions of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) and non-renewable resources
depletion (Padilla et al., 2012). Over the past century,
human activities have released large amounts of carbon
dioxide and other GHGs (carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases) into the atmos-
phere (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2014).
Developed in the 1990s, the term ‘Food miles’
defined the distance the food travels from farm to
plate (Kemp et al., 2010) and implied that locally
grown and manufactured foods are more environmen-
tally sustainable than products that have to be shipped
from long distances. The concept of ‘Food miles’ has
been challenged because transport is only one of the
reasons of the carbon dioxide emissions from farm pro-
duce (others include deforestation, land clearing for
agriculture, management of agricultural soils, livestock,
rice production, and biomass burning) (Iannetta et al.,
2012; US Environmental Protection Agency, 2013).
Food miles are also regarded to be a poor indicator
of the environmental and ethical impacts of overall
food production (Coley et al., 2014; Edwards-Jones
et al., 2011; Kemp et al., 2010).
A more appropriate strategy to evaluate the envir-
onmental performance of food production systems will
be to implement life-cycle assessment (LCA) of the food
supply chain (Coley et al., 2014; Edwards-Jones et al.,
2011; Iannetta et al., 2012). LCA is an approach that
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has been developed to trace the resource requirements
and environmental impacts of a product or service
through its entire life cycle, from the extraction of
raw materials and their processing through manufac-
turing, transport, use and final disposal – an analysis
from cradle to grave (Hertwich et al., 2010; Iannetta
et al., 2012).
Although food miles has become a less accepted tool
to assess the impact of transportation on the environ-
ment, people should acknowledge that short-distance
purchases would limit transportation energy and con-
tribute to fair trade by direct sales from farmers to
consumers (Lairon, 2012). Moreover, local foods are
also associated with freshness, nutritional value and
taste (Edwards-Jones et al., 2011).
Water consumption
Fresh water is a vital irreplaceable resource for the food
processing industry, as it is a key processing element
and a major ingredient in food processing (Lee and
Okos, 2011; Olmez, 2014). The food processing indus-
try is one of the most water intensive industries coming
after the chemical and the refinery industries (Wang,
2014). Waste water generated by food processing
includes high biological oxygen demand (BOD) concen-
tration, high levels of dissolved and/or suspended
solids, nutrients, and minerals (Lee and Okos, 2011).
The current regulations permit the processors to
reuse or recycle water if the water does not pose a
risk for the product safety and the wholesomeness of
the product in its finished form (Council Directive 98/
83/EC, 1998). The enforcement of waste water dis-
charge regulations and escalating sewage surcharges
and energy costs have forced the food processing indus-
try to find cost-effective technologies for providing pre-
treatment or complete treatment of their waste waters
(Lee and Okos, 2011).
The dairy, meat and poultry and the fruit and vege-
table processing sectors are the major water-intensive
sectors within the food industry (Olmez, 2014).
Waste management
In addition to food waste and food loss, the food indus-
try generates a significant amount of solid and liquid
(organic and inorganic) waste from the production and
preparation of food (Roy et al., 2014). Large amounts
of solid food processing wastes are buried in landfills at
a cost while liquid food processing wastes are released
untreated into rivers, lakes and oceans and disposed of
in public sewer systems (Wang, 2014).
Food industry raw materials, surplus, by-products
and wastes/waste waters are mostly wasted and this
reduces the sustainability of the food industry
significantly (Rossi, 2012). Food processing wastes are
now also being converted into high value by-products
or used as raw material for food or feed industries after
biological treatment (Roy et al., 2014). There are 2116
biogas systems (also called as ‘‘anaerobic digester’’)
that are currently operational in the United States
(U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, & U.S. Department of Energy,
2014). Conversion of food processing wastes into
useful energy products such as bioethanol, biodiesel,
bio-oil, biogas, syngas, steam and electricity in a food
processing facility could result in significant savings for
the food manufacturing industry in terms of reducing
the amount of energy purchased and waste disposal
costs (Wang, 2014).
The commercial feasibility of anaerobic digestion
facilities depends on a number of factors (such as loca-
tion, specific technology, local energy market, etc.).
Overall return on investment is usually estimated to
be five to seven years, some feasibility studies forecast
a longer period (Renewable Waste Intelligence, 2014).
THE IMPACT OF THE CONSUMPTION
OF MEAT AND DAIRY PRODUCTS ON
THE ENVIRONMENT
Within the food and drink category, meat and meat
products (including meat, poultry, sausages or similar)
were found to have the greatest environmental impact
followed by the dairy products (European Commission
Joint Research Centre, 2006). Animal products, both
meat and dairy, in general require more resources and
cause higher emissions than plant-based alternatives
(Hertwich et al., 2010). A report published by the
World Bank claimed that the livestock industry world-
wide accounted for at least 51% of annual worldwide
GHG emissions, which were involved in clearing land
to graze livestock and grow feed, keeping livestock alive
and processing and transporting the end products
(Goodland and Anhang, 2009; Sustain, 2014).
Livestock (particularly ruminants such as cows and
sheep) also emit high levels of methane, a potent green-
house gas, from their digestive systems (Goodland and
Anhang, 2009).
Animals are really inefficient as ‘‘machines’’ which
convert vegetal proteins into animal proteins (Nutrition
Ecology International Center, nd). Large amounts of
animal feed need to be produced to make relatively
small amounts of meat – around 7 kg of grain for
1 kg of beef (unless the animals are pasture-fed); 4 kg
of grain for 1 kg of pork (unless they are fed on waste);
2 kg of grain for 1 kg of poultry (Sustain, 2014).
More than half of the world’s crops are used to feed
animals, not people (Hertwich et al., 2010). For
instance, today 97% of the soymeal and 40% of cereals
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produced worldwide are used for animal feed (Thomas,
2010).
The reduction of meat production and replacement
of the meat proteins with plant protein products would
constitute a giant step towards the goal of more sus-
tainable consumption (de Boer et al., 2006; United
Nations Environment Programme, 2010).
NUTRITION, HEALTH AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
The link between nutrition and environment is bidirec-
tional. Eating patterns impact the environment, but the
environment can also impact dietary choice (e.g. loss of
food biodiversity impacts the availability of micronu-
trients) (Institute of Medicine of the National
Academies, 2014; Remans et al., 2012). Burlingame
(2014) explained that preventing the loss of plant bio-
diversity is important not only from an environmental
perspective, but also because different varieties and cul-
tivars represent significant variation in nutritional
values of foods. This is important as lack of dietary
diversity is one of the main contributors of micronu-
trient deficiencies (Strang, 2009). More than two billion
people are reported to be suffering from one or more
micronutrient deficiencies (Thompson and Amoroso,
2011). The deficiencies of iron, folate, vitamin A, zinc
and iodine are of particular concern (Academy of
Nutrition and Dietetics, 2013). Increasing the availabil-
ity and consumption of a variety of micronutrient-rich
foods will not only have a positive effect on micronu-
trient status but also contribute to improved nutrition
in general (Thompson and Amoroso, 2011).
As suggested by Peters (2014), classifying situations,
or choices, as either ‘‘ethical synergies’’ or ‘‘ethical
dilemmas’’ is a helpful way to frame the weighing of
health versus environmental benefits. Ethical synergy
occurs when a dietary shift is positive for both health
and the environment. Eating more legumes is an exam-
ple of an ethical synergy; it would improve health and
reduce land use by reducing the reliance on meat as a
protein source. An ethical dilemma occurs when a diet-
ary shift is positive for human health but negative for
the environment, or vice versa. Increasing fish con-
sumption is an example of an ethical dilemma; it
would improve health but have a negative effect on
fish stocks.
Although nutritionists have been studying the con-
nection between dietary guidance and human health for
decades they are only just beginning to explore the con-
nection between dietary guidance and environmental
protection (Wilkins, 2014). Indeed, food-based dietary
guidelines and policies should give due consideration to
sustainability when setting goals aimed at healthy nutri-
tion (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2012).
There is growing evidence that it is possible to devise
diets that generate lower environmental impact and
also align with current nutritional guidelines (Garnett,
2014). Dietary guidelines are in the process of being
reframed in order to include the environmental impacts
of our dietary choices; the next Dietary Guidelines for
Americans is due to be published in 2015 (Nelson et al.,
2014).
The current Dietary Guidelines for Americans, pub-
lished in 2010, emphasise three major goals: 1) balan-
cing calories with physical activity to manage weight; 2)
consumption of more of certain foods and nutrients
such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fat-free and
low-fat dairy products and seafood; (3) consumption
of fewer foods with sodium (salt), saturated fats,
trans fats, cholesterol, added sugars and refined
grains. The guidelines also recommend focusing on
nutrient-dense foods in an attempt to encourage
people to build healthy eating patterns. The term
‘nutrient-dense’ indicates that the nutrients and other
beneficial substances in a food have not been diluted by
the addition of calories from solid fats, added sugars or
refined starches, or by the solid fats naturally present in
the food (U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2010).
Healthy and sustainable diet
Three guiding principles were proposed when develop-
ing a healthy and sustainable diet (Friel et al., 2014):
a. Reducing the consumption of discretionary food
choices (choices that are not essential part of our
dietary patterns), which are energy-dense and
highly processed and packaged, reduces both the
risk of dietary imbalances and the use of environ-
mental resources.
b. A diet comprising less animal- and more plant-
derived foods delivers both health and ecological
benefits.
c. Any food that is consumed above a person’s energy
requirement represents an unavoidable burden in
the form of GHG emissions, use of natural sources
and pressure on biodiversity.
Processed foods. Almost all foods and drinks are pro-
cessed in one way or another. The important point is the
extent to which the foods are processed. Foods can be
minimally processed (such as cleaning, refrigeration,
freezing, etc.), can be processed to be made into sub-
stances extracted from whole foods (such as oils, fats,
flours, starches and sugars) or can be ultra-processed
(such as breads, cookies, ice-creams, chocolates,
confectionary, etc.) (Monteiro, 2009). Highly-processed
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foods are generally energy-dense and nutrient poor but
because they are heavily advertised and marketed and
very profitable, they are overconsumed (Friel et al.,
2014; Monteiro, 2009).
Animal vs. plant foods. Studies show that excess meat
in general and preserved and processed foods in par-
ticular can add high amounts of fat, saturated fat, chol-
esterol and salt to the diet (Friends of the Earth, 2010).
The most important health impacts of excess fat and
sodium include increased risk of heart disease, stroke
and cancer, as well as an increased prevalence of obes-
ity and premature death (Thomas, 2010). As total food
consumption and the share of animal calories increase
with wealth, nutrition for rich countries tends to cause
higher environmental impacts than for poor countries
(United Nations Environment Programme, 2010). By
replacing livestock products with substitutes (such as
soy analogues and mycoproteins), consumers can take
a single powerful action to collectively mitigate most
GHGs worldwide, as substitutes are less expensive,
less wasteful, easier to cook and healthier than livestock
products (Goodland and Anhang, 2009).
Plant-derived foods include vegetables, fruits, grains
(especially whole grains), nuts and legumes and they are
an important part of healthy diet (U.S. Department of
Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2010). They are rich sources of a
number of nutrients that may have a beneficial effect
on health, for example carbohydrates, vitamin C,
folate, dietary fibre, b-carotene and vitamin K (Denny
and Buttriss, 2007). They also contain antioxidants and
phytochemicals (the bioactive non-nutrient plant com-
pounds that have biological activity in the body)
(Whitney and Rolfes, 2008). Diets rich in plant-derived
foods are generally associated with lower disease risks,
in particular lower rates of CVD and some cancers
(Denny and Buttriss, 2007). Eating a diet rich in plant
foods may also reduce risk for diabetes, hypertension
and obesity (Phillips, 2005). Because of this, dietary
guidelines recommend an increase in consumption of
plant foods, including wholegrain cereals, fruits and
vegetables (Food Standards Agency, 2006; National
Health and Medical Research Council, 2013; U.S.
Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2010).
Overconsumption. Not only the availability, but also
the portion size of high-calorie fast foods and snacks
has increased considerably over the past 30 years
(Piernas and Popkin, 2010). This is highly problematic,
as people tend to eat more food outside their homes
and coupled with lack of physical activity, the outcome
is the increasing rates of overweight and obesity.
Burlingame (2014) introduced the concept of
‘‘metabolic food waste’’ associated with consumption
in excess of requirements and manifested as overweight
and/or obesity.
Obesity is a public health challenge throughout the
world and at least 2.8 million adults die each year as a
result of being overweight or obese. In addition, 44% of
the diabetes burden, 23% of the ischaemic heart disease
burden and between 7% and 41% of certain cancer
burdens are attributable to overweight and obesity
(World Health Organization, 2011).
Example of a sustainable diet: The
Mediterranean diet
Being the diet of Crete in 1960s, the Mediterranean diet
is regarded as an example of a sustainable diet. This
diet pays respect to nutrition, biodiversity, local food
production, culture and sustainability (Bach-Faig et al.,
2011; Burlingame and Dernini, 2011; Padilla et al.,
2012). The Mediterranean diet is characterised by:
– an abundance of vegetables, legumes, fruits, nuts
and cereals;
– regular use of olive oil (monounsaturated fats);
– moderate amounts of fish and dairy products
(mostly yogurt or cheese);
– small amounts of red meat (low intake of saturated
fats); and
– moderate consumption of alcohol, usually in the
form of wine and consumed at meals (Harvard
School of Public Health, 2003; Iannetta et al.,
2012; Naska and Trichopoulou, 2014).
The Mediterranean diet was proven as good for
health, it has nutritional benefits, diversity, seasonality,
freshness, a variety of food practices and food prepar-
ation skills and a strong commitment to culture and
traditions (Gamboni et al., 2012). The diet is closer to
public health recommendations issued by the World
Health Organization and has a lower environmental
effect than Western diets (Padilla et al., 2012). A
global shift toward a Mediterranean-type or other
plant-based diet could be expected to have a more
favourable impact on the environment and on health
(Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition, 2013; Duchin,
2005).
Incorporating the environment into nutrition:
The Double Pyramid
Proposed by the Barilla Centre for Food & Nutrition in
June 2009, the Double Pyramid suggests a virtuous
model to promote sustainable food choices for health
and the environment (Figure 2) (Barilla Center for
Food and Nutrition, 2013).
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The model includes the well-known Food Pyramid,
which was created using the most current nutrition
research to represent a healthy, traditional
Mediterranean diet, and an inverted environmental
Food Pyramid. The latter shows the foods with higher
environmental impact at the top and those with reduced
impact at the bottom. From this ‘Double Pyramid’ it can
be seen that those foods with higher recommended con-
sumption levels are also those with lower environmental
impact (Ciati and Ruini, 2012).
CONCLUSION
There is enough food in the world today for everyone
to have the nourishment necessary for a healthy and
productive life. However, recent studies indicate that
around one in eight people in the world were estimated
to be suffering from chronic hunger.
The present food system does not generally fulfil
present and future human needs as it is not able to
feed everybody and it relies on high energy use from
non-renewable sources and chemicals and long distance
transport. It also generates both micronutrient and
fibre deficiencies and foods with high sugar and fat
content, promoting overweight and obesity. In add-
ition, highly processed and packaged foods increase
the use of environmental resources.
Sustainable diets contribute to food and nutrition
security, have low environmental impacts and promote
healthy life for present and future generations. A diet
comprising less animal and more plant-derived foods
delivers both health and ecological benefits. The
Mediterranean diet is an example of a sustainable
diet, due to the high intake of plant-derived foods
such as vegetables, fruits, nuts and cereals.
The demand for sustainable food is not strong
enough to drive the required transformation in the
food system. Business and governments should look
for ways to stimulate sustainable food production.
Promotion of sustainable foods is another issue that
should be considered and worked on. Attempts to
reduce food waste and losses is to follow. Most import-
antly, there is definitely a need for more public educa-
tion. Governments and health care systems should
encourage and facilitate sustainable diets and provide
guidance to individuals and communities.
We must understand that our eating and buying
habits have far-reaching consequences. Our choice of
food products influences not only our health but also
the climate, the environment and the problem of world
hunger. Therefore, every individual must eat with a
good conscience and support sustainable food and
water efforts locally and internationally.
DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING
INTEREST
There are no conflicts of interest to declare.
FUNDING
This work has not received any funding.
Low
Fats and oils
Sweets
Beef
Legumes
Poultry
Fish
Eggs
Cheese
Yogurt
Fruit and vegetables
HIGH
FOOD PYRAMID LOW
HIGH
ENVIRONMENTAL PYRAMID
Beef
Cheese
Fish
Fats and oils
Poultry
Legumes
Sweets
Yogurt
Eggs
Bread
Milk and dairy products
Pasta
Rice
Fruit and vegetables
Cereals (50% whole-grain)
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Cereals
(50% whole-grain),
Bread, Pasta, Rice
Milk and dairy products
RECOMMENDED CONSUMPTION
Figure 2. The Double Pyramid (Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition, 2013).
Alsaffar
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